Study of Moisture Transfer

during the Strand Sintering Process

F. PATISSON, J.P. BELLOT, and D. A B L I T Z E R
Moisture transfer during the strand sintering operation was studied both experimentally and
using a mathematical model. The drying of iron ore pellets was found to occur in two distinct
periods: one at a constant drying rate and the other at a decreasing drying rate, whereas the
drying of zinc ore pellets always occurs at a decreasing drying rate. Characteristic drying curves
were determined for both materials. The moisture transfer mechanisms during the sintering process were demonstrated in detail, including the recondensation of water in the cold layers of
the bed and the formation of an inert, overmoistened zone. The mathematical model presented
simulates all of these phenomena and is used to calculate the variables related to moisture transfer. The model is adaptable to other processes where a hot gas passes through a moist packed
bed.

I.

INTRODUCTION

A. The Strand Sintering Process

IN ironmaking

as well as in zinc metallurgy, the use of

a blast furnace requires presintering of the mixture of
ores to give them good mechanical (strength and permeability) and chemical (reducibility) properties. The
sintering operation is usually carried out on a moving
grate (Figure 1).
Pellets composed of ores, return sinter, fluxes, coke
(in the case of iron), and water are loaded on a moving
grate. After ignition under a hood, air blowing through
the bed maintains a strongly exothermal reaction (coke
combustion in the case of iron, sulfide roasting in the
case of zinc). The bed attains a temperature of approximately 1300 ~
which causes partial melting of the
charge and sintering of the pellets.
The iron ore sintering and zinc ore sinter-roasting
processes are fundamentally similar, differing only in the
details of gas flow direction, ignition process, fuel, pellet characteristics, and the chemical reactions involved.

B. Importance of Drying
The feed mixture to a sintering operation contains both
constitutive water (water chemically bound to the solids)
and free water. Constitutive water comes mainly from
ores and exists in low concentrations; its removal occurs
by dehydration reactions. Free water comes from ores,
fluxes, and mainly from water added to aid the pelletizing process. It represents 6 to 12 wt pct of the feed mixture for iron ore, and 4 to 6 wt pet for zinc ore. Free
water removal is an important step in the sintering operation because of the high thermal energy consumption
required for drying (up to 25 pet of the requirements for
iron ore sintering) and the reduced permeability of the

F. PATISSON, Research Scientist from Centre National de la

Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), J.P. BELLOT,Assistant Professor,
and D. ABLITZER, Professor, are with the Laboratoire de Science
et G6nie des Mat6daux M6talliques (LSG2M), Ecole des Mines, 54042
Nancy Cedex, France.
Manuscript submitted June 13, 1988.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

overmoistened (i.e., with excess water, after condensation) zone, which obstructs gas flow.
As shown in Figure 2, when the hot gases leave the
reaction zone and enter the moist zone, they dry the solids and become loaded with water vapor. But, as will
be shown, when these now very moist gases come in
contact with the colder charge in the deep layers of the
bed, water condenses on the solids. Therefore, the term
"moisture transfer" will be used to include both drying
and condensation.

C. Previous Descriptions
In the past, moisture transfer has been described in a
rather simplified manner in various mathematical models
of the sintering process. For drying, the simplest approach considers that it takes place entirely at a fixed
temperature of 100 ~
Other authors introduce a twostage drying model: first, drying occurs at a constant rate
and, after, at a rate that decreases linearly with the moisture content, t4-9] Yoshinaga and Kubo [1~ mention a threestage drying process but give a single equation where
the drying rate decreases continuously with decreasing
moisture content. Except for Cumming e t a l . , [11] w h o used
semiempirical results obtained for hematite p e l l e t s , [12] the
specific transport properties of the materials have not been
taken into account. Condensation has either been ignored [3-7,1~ or assumed to occur after the gas has become
bulk-saturated (when the dew-point temperature is equal
to the gas temperature), with the gas remaining saturated
during condensation. [L2] Toda and Kato ES] and Kasai
et al.[9] consider a condensation rate that depends on the
difference between the gas humidity and the saturation
humidity and an arbitrary constant. In the work of
Cumming et al.,tH] it is assumed that condensation occurs when the gas is saturated at a temperature midway
between that of the solids and the gases.
Few papers are specifically concerned with the study
of moisture transfer during the sintering operation. Korotic
and Puzanov E~3]first explained the mechanism of the formation of an overmoistened zone. Wajima et al. ~4] studied the influence of the amount of condensed water on
the permeability of the bed, both experimentally and using
VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990--37

II. E X P E R I M E N T A L S T U D Y
OF DRYING OF ORE PELLETS

Ores

Ftuxes

Ignition

Water

..

sinter

llll

11111

A. Description and Results

tAIAt&l&l/ l? /
G~ : 02" N2" C02" CO" H20" etc'

Roughing 1
oo,,no

Screening

Undersized Slnterto
slnter blostfurnece
Fig. 1 -

Sintenng machine (iron ore).

a model. Rankin and Roller [15] studied experimentally

the influence of condensation on bed permeability.

D. Outline
In order to optimize the iron ore sintering and zinc ore
sinter-roasting processes, a mathematical model of the
operation has been developed. The model, described in
p r e v i o u s a r t i c l e s , [16'17,18] permits calculation of the timedependent temperatures and compositions of the solids
and gases throughout the bed. In the present paper, the
study of moisture transfer during the strand sintering
process is fully discussed, giving particular attention to
describing, from a macroscopic viewpoint, the moisture
transfer phenomena during the drying of a packed bed
by hot gases, and from a microscopic viewpoint, the
moisture transport properties of the drying materials.
The mechanisms for moisture transfer in a packed bed,
including recondensation of water in the deep layers, are
described and explained. The model proposed is also applicable to other processes in which similar drying occurs. The model is validated by comparing its results
with measurements taken during predrying experiments
on a pilot pot.
The moisture transport properties of the drying materials have been studied experimentally to characterize
the behavior of iron and zinc ore pellets.

Gos

Temperoture of solids

$ ~ (]iF
or ~

The experimental work was carried out by thermogravimetry. The moistened pellets were placed in a wiremesh basket and then dried in a furnace by a forced flow
of hot gas. The weight loss was continuously recorded.
The operating conditions are given in Table I. When a
sample stopped losing weight, it was weighed, placed in
an oven at 150 ~ for several hours, and then weighed
again to determine its dry mass. Curves showing drying
rate vs moisture content are calculated from the weight
loss vs time information. Examples of these curves are
given in Figure 3.

B. Interpretation
These experiments clearly show that the drying process is divided into two characteristic periods, one at a
constant drying rate and one at a continuously decreasing
rate. This behavior, typical of porous materials, can be
explained as follows.
1. First period--constant drying rate
During this period, heat from the gases is fully utilized
to evaporate water on the surface of the solids. The system is in a state of dynamic equilibrium. The surface
temperature remains constant (i.e., at the wet-bulb temperature, Tw), and the surface is saturated with water.
The drying rate during this period can be calculated from
external heat or mass transfer balances.
2. Second period--decreasing drying rate
When the moisture content of the solids decreases, the
internal transport of water to the surface is not fast enough
to maintain saturation on the entire surface. The moisture content at this point is called the "critical moisture
content," Wcr. The drying rate begins to decrease, as the
internal resistance to moisture transfer becomes significant. Various shapes of the ends of the drying curves are
observed, depending on the material being dried.
The critical moisture content was found to be different
for iron ore (-~5 pct) than for zinc ore ( > 1 0 pct). For
iron ore pellets, several authors t4'6,81 have used a value
of 2 pct, without stating the origin of this value. I f the
Table I. Operating Conditions
for Thermogravimetry Experiments

:lntered zone

Composition of the Pellets

Iron Ore
Zinc Ore

Reocti0n zone

Mixture of Several Mixture of Blende

(St-Salvy) and
Rich Ores Used at
SOLLAC, Dunkirk
Galena (Tara)

t.)
t4-J

t,~

Fig. 2 - - F o u r zones of the bed (iron ore).

38--VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990

Dried

zone

Moist

zone

Gas mixture
Gas temperature
Superficial
velocity
Initial mass
Harmonic
diameter
Initial moisture
content

dry air
22 ~ to 100 ~

dry air
30 ~ to 90 ~

3.5 to 5.4 cm. s -~

about 1 g

7 cm. s -~
about 1 g

2.8 mm

5.0 mm

up to 12 pct

up to 12 pct

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

0.8

C. Characteristic Drying Curve

[]

Tg = 59"C

c r i t i c a l moisture

Tg = 99%

content locus

'~ 0.6

The drying curves obtained were normalized in the form

of a reduced drying rate, Rr, vs a reduced moisture content, W , as follows:

X
x

XiX
I

x
x

falling

':~ 0.2

Rr = R/RM

(drying rate/drying rate

during the first period)

rate

drying

constant rate
d ryi ng

/
l

(1) In the case of iron ore,

e-

x
x

0.4

O~

O 00

Wr = W/Wcr (equilibrium moisture

00o

content is zero)

O0 o

(2) In the case of zinc ore,

R~ = R/Rtr
2

10

Wr = (W-

Solid moisture content (%)

(a)

g0*C]

Tg

0.8

+
constant

rat~

/
d ~ i ng
~groscopic + [ nonhygroscopic
/
behavior
behavior
~ m s s ~ s ~ m ~
+I /
r
~s

~0.6
v

2.?'"

0.4
e-

transition m i s t u r e
content locus

0,2

R = RM" P(Wr)

+
s

Weq)]/(Wtr- Weq)

These two different normalizations were based on physical considerations. In the case of zinc ore, the transition
point is the experimental characteristic point, whereas
for iron ore, the critical point is obviously the reference
to be considered.
In each case, a single curve was obtained, which is
characteristic of the drying of iron ore pellets (Figure 4(a))
and of zinc ore pellets (Figure 4(b)). The drying rate at
any instant is calculated from the known maximum drying
rate, Ru (see Section I I I - B ) , and the equation of the
characteristic drying curve, P(Wr), obtained by polynomial regression. In the case of iron ore, the drying rate
i s given by

Tg = 70~
_
!

(drying rate/drying rate

when W = W,r)

12

[la]

P(Wr) = 1 - (1 - Wr) (1 - 1.796Wr + 1.0593W~)

2

10

[lbl

12

Solid moisture content (%)

Since, in the case of zinc ore, R,~ is not known analytically, we use

(b)
Fig. 3 - - E x p e r i m e n t a l drying rate
pellets and (b) zinc ore pellets.

vs

R = f . Ru" P(W~)
moisture content: (a) iron ore

P(Wr) = - 0 . 0 5 6 0 3 + 3 . 2 1 5 5 W r - 3.9223W 2
+ 2.2488W~ - 0.4914W 4

critical moisture contents are compared to the usual initial moisture contents for the sintering process (5 to 12 pct
for iron ore and 4 to 5 pct for zinc ore), it is concluded
that the drying of iron ore pellets during the sintering
operation occurs in two periods (at constant and at decreasing rate), whereas for zinc ore sinter-roasting, the
decreasing rate drying commences directly.
In addition, the shape of the drying curves is different.
In the case of iron ore (Figure 3(a)), during the second
period, the curve is concave downward. This is characteristic of hygroscopic behavior. The final (equilib-"
rium) moisture content, Weq, is close to zero. In the case
of zinc ore (Figure 3(b)), a period is observed during
which the curve is concave upward, characterizing nonhygroscopic behavior. Later, below a transition moisture
content, Wt, hygroscopic behavior appears. Such features can also be found during the drying of other materials, such as wood, for example, t~9] In the case of zinc
ore, the equilibrium moisture content is about 1 pet.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

[2a]

[2b]

The value o f f = R J R u was experimentally determined

to be about 0.7.

III. MATHEMATICAL MODELING

OF M O I S T U R E T R A N S F E R D U R I N G
THE SINTERING OPERATION

A. General Equations
As noted earlier, the present model of moisture transfer during the sintering operation is part of a comprehensive model that simulates the entire sintering
process. [16JTA8l The equations used to describe heat and
mass transfer in the moist zone are as follows (see
Nomenclature for symbols):
Thermal balance of the gases:
0

upgCpg Ox Tg

-epgCpg Ot Tg + agh(Ts - Tg)

[3]

VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990--39

tionshipP~ were solved by using an iterative implicit

finite difference method.

1.2
x

"

e2 ~"
O

=~j~

0.8
I~l
k..
cn n K
.~ ~'~

~m 111
I}1~0
~

0"

I
I
I

,
I

constant r a t e
drying

x~ 0./I ~ J e

falling r a t e i

It:

~ ~

B. Kinetic Equations for Moisture Transfer

The important term in the above balance equations is

the rate of moisture transfer, rH~o (mol-S -1" mff3). To
calculate rn~o, we first calculate the mass transfer rate in
the boundary gas layer, rR, which is a function of the
difference in vapor pressure at the surface of the particle
(assumed to be saturated) and of the bulk gas, given by
agk
rR = - ~ (pv,,(Ts) - Pn:o)

0.5

1.5

Reduced m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t

2.5

where ag is the specific area of the bed,

(g/Wcr)

ag = 6(1 - e)/de

(a)

1.4

pv,,(Ts)=exp

Iinonhygroscopic
I
i
i
i

~1.2
.

~ o.~
ox

~0.6

a~

[8]

The term p~, is the saturated vapor pressure, expressed

from data reported by Keey, pq as

k.

[7]

behavior

25.541-

5211~
T~ /

[9]

[]
[]

[]
0

The term PH:o is the vapor pressure in the bulk gas, and
k is the mass transfer coefficient, as defined by Krischer. I22~

o~ oQ_S'W--~
~t~R

hTg

k =

[10]

hygroscopic

3.155P~(1-

behavior

oXt3 ? ~

0.24Xm)(1 + ~ ) ( 1 - - X m )

~0J4
0.2
Oil

0.2

Odt

0,6

0.8

Reduced m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t

1.2

1,g

([ W-WeoI/[ gtr-Weq] )

(b)
Fig. 4--Characteristic drying curve: (a) iron ore pellets and (b) zinc
ore pellets (the various markers represent runs carried out under different experimental conditions).

Thermal balance of the solids:

0
p a C m - ~ tt T s = a g h ( T g

Ts) - MH2O r a 2 o L ~ ( T ~ )

[4]

Water vapor balance:

0

OX U C H 2 0 :

- - e Ot C H 2 0 + rH~o

[5]

Moisture balance of the solids:

0
Ot Onto

--MH20

rH20

[6]

The above coupled equations, plus the equations which

represent the total mass balances of the gases and solids
and the local momentum balance (using Ergun's rela40--VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990

The term Xm is the logarithmic mean of the molar fraction of vapor in the bulk gas and at the saturated surface.
The value of rR is used to determine the regime of
moisture transfer (drying or condensing) and, hence, the
appropriate form of the equations.
If rR < 0, there is condensation, and rHz0 = rR.
If rR -- 0, there is drying, and rn2o depends on the
case considered. For iron ore, if W -> Wet, "equilibrated"
(first-period) drying takes place, and rn2o = rR. If W <
Wcr, decreasing rate drying occurs, and rn2o is calculated
from the characteristic drying curve using Eq. [1]. For
zinc ore, drying always occurs at decreasing rate, and
rnzo is calculated from the characteristic drying curve using
Eq. [2].
The value of rM in Eqs. [1] and [2] can be determined
from the mass transfer relationship (rM = rR(Tw)) or from
the thermal balance of the solids, since during the first
period, drying takes place at a rate such that the temperature of the solids remains constant and equal to T~.
This thermal balance is written
agh(Tg - Tw)
=
MH2orMLv(Tw)
(heat brought by gases)
(heat for evaporation)

[111

In this equation, the heating of vapor is neglected, the

wet-bulb temperature, Tw, is a function of moisture content, pressure, and the temperature of the gases, and the
latent heat of vaporization of water, Lv, is a function of
temperature (obtained by linear regression from data reported by Keey [211)
Lv(Tw) = 3.1563 x 106 - 2396.6Tw
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

Thus, the two relationships controlling the first period

of drying are

rM

agh

(Tg

Tw)

I12]

MrhoLv(Tw)
auk
ag h
(Tg - Tw) =
(Pv+a,(Tw)- Pn2o)
MH2oLv(Tw)
-~g

[ 13]

In practice, Eq. [13] is used to obtain Tw and Eq. [12]

to calculate rM.

C. Parameters of the Model

The parameters e, ag, h, and de are assumed to be
constant in the moist zone. Particularly, the change in
porosity with moisture content has not been introduced.
In spite of the work by Wajima et a l . [141 and Rankin and
Roller, tim the means to predict quantitatively the influence of moisture content on porosity and permeability
are not presently available. The parameters p~, pg, Cps,
and Cpg are treated as functions of temperature and
composition.
IV. V A L I D A T I O N O F T H E M O D E L
AGAINST PILOT POT EXPERIMENTS

A. Specific Predrying Experiments on Pilot Pot

In order to validate the model and to+obtain experimental observations concerning moisture transfer during
the sintering operation, iron ore predrying experiments
(cases A and B in Table II) have been undertaken using
the Institut de Recherches de la Sid6mrgie's (IRSID) pilot
pot.

1. Principle
Hot air leaving a Cowper stove passes through the
charge and dries it. Thermocouples are used to measure
the temperatures of the solids and of the inlet and outlet
gas. Gas flow rate and pressure drop are controlled. In
order to determine the moisture content of the outlet gas,
the pot has been fitted with a hygrometric measurement
apparatus that includes a gas collector in the exhaust pipe
and a LiC1 hygrometer to measure the dew point. However, this measurement is affected by condensation of

Table II. Brief Description

of the Experiments Simulated

iron ore

predrying experiment in pilot pot:

hot air through moist raw bed

water at the bottom of the pot. Hence, a valve has been

installed to decant the condensed water. The volume of
the decanted water is measured.

2. Results
From these experiments, we have determined the variation in time of the temperature of the solids at various
positions and the temperature and moisture content of
the outlet gas.
B. Comparison of Computed and Measured Results
Using the model based on the equations already described, predrying experiments on the pilot pot have been
successfully simulated. The results of these simulations
are presented below. The discussion and interpretation
of the shape of the curves are given later in Section V.
Figure 5 shows the comparison between the computed
Ts(t) curves and those measured by seven thermocouples
placed in the charge for experiment A (Table II). Very
good agreement between predictions and measurements
is noted. At a given depth, the evolution of the temperature curve shows several stages:
(1) a short plateau at the initial temperature (25 ~
(2) a small and rapid rise;
(3) a plateau with temperatures between 55 ~ (at the
beginning) and 45 ~ (at the end); for a usual complete
sintering experiment, these temperatures would be slightly
greater; and
(4) an increase in temperature up to the temperature of
the drying gas.
All of these stages are reproduced by the calculations,
and, particular!y, the length of the plateau is well represented for all depths. A few experimental points at high
temperatures deviate from the simulation results, but since
these points indicate temperatures greater than those of
the drying gas, it is concluded that the discrepancies are
caused by irregularities in the measurements.
Figure 6 shows the comparison between the dew-point
temperature of the outlet gases measured by the hygrometer and computed by the model for the same experiment. Measurement of the dew point is a method of

500

l~Ol ~

400

.,

:,

iron ore

similar to A but interrupted when

drying was 1/3 completed

zinc ore

predrying of fictitious moist raw

charge with air at 350 ~ (calculation run only)

iron ore

complete sintering experiment in

pilot pot, in usual conditions

iron ore

similar to D, but the raw charge is

initially at 60 ~ (calculation run
only)

METALLURGICAL

TRANSACTIONS

~ 200

I
,.,

t
+

~
i

100

+]
0

x+

~.

400

I.

i'.

i
/

..+

I"

i~

o f-a-':7~:~

mI

- - -.- _

/.

,'o

+o~

~ ~ ~--~-.2"~-~'~-

lii

~ o o

--+ 0*__o*

....

.."

300

~ /--~.q~-~.~

i
/
]^

*+

,.i

,,

,'

i o~

<

,'+

~
;

./ - "

,'

:::::
.....

- -Is c|
--2+era

, ]

+/

- - - 77 cm

.A?_+;_2' ....... J
800

r. II

11 ~

+,
+'

1200

I
I

+~+,
1600

2000

Time (s)
Fig. 5
Comparison of experimental and computed solid temperature vs time during predrying experiment A (iron ore).
V O L U M E 21B, F E B R U A R Y 1 9 9 0 - - 4 1

6O

,,

30

.......

10 ~

L
0

Measueed,

~-

Computed

3b0

9b0

1 00

1 00

is00

Time (s)
Fig. 6--Comparison of experimental and computed dew-point temperature of the outlet gas during predrying experiment A (iron ore).

determining the humidity of the gas. To account for the

response time of the hygrometer (experimentally measured as 220 seconds), the experimental curve has been
shifted 220 seconds to the left (dotted line). A very good
agreement between experimental and calculated temperatures is then seen, particularly at the maximum temperature (55 ~ and along the plateau (45 ~
The positive results of this validation step allow the
confident use of the model for analytical and predictive
purposes.
V.

DISCUSSION

A. Moisture Transfer Phenomena during the

Sintering Process
Based on the results of the pilot pot and thermogravimetry experiments and the calculations using the
validated model, a representation of the phenomena concerning moisture transfer in a sintering bed is proposed.
The representation is given in Figure 7 for the case of
iron ore. Temperature and moisture content profiles are
two complementary factors used in the explanation. The
purpose of the drying rate is illustrative. At a given time,
the moist zone can be divided into various subzones,
characterized by the mechanisms of heat and moisture
transfer involved. These are described below, in the order
encountered by the flowing gas.
1. Drying subzones
Hot gases leaving the dried zone act to dry the first
layers of the charge encountered. In this region, the
moisture content of the solids decreases with time. But
as determined by the thermogravimetry experiments, two
drying periods occur, corresponding to two subzones according to the moisture content of the solids. The first
of these subzones is characterized by a decreasing drying
rate, while the second has a constant or "equilibrated"
drying rate.
In the decreasing drying rate subzone, the moisture
content of the solids is lower than the critical moisture
content, and the temperature of the solids increases with
42--VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990

time. Drying rate is a function of T,, Tg, and W, and

calculation shows that it first increases (effect of the increasing temperature of the drying gas), then decreases
(effect of the decreasing moisture content) with time. This
subzone extends from point (a) (rr~2o = 0, T, -~ 200 ~
to point (b) (W = Wcr) in Figure 7.
The equilibrated drying subzone corresponds to the
dynamic equilibrium of the first drying period of the pellets observed during thermogravimetry experiments. Here,
however, the drying rate is not constant, because the external drying conditions (gas characteristics) are not. But
the temperature of the solids, which is equal to the wetbulb temperature (about 50 ~
remains nearly constant.
This subzone ends at point (c), where the drying rate
becomes zero, and, therefore, Ts ~- Tw ~-- Tg. At this point,
Tw is the adiabatic saturation temperature.
For zinc ore, a unique drying subzone exists, as all of
the drying occurs in the decreasing rate regime.
2. Overmoistened subzone
The zone between points (c) and (d) is the overmoistened subzone. In this subzone, a remarkable
thermodynamic equilibrium takes place, defined by Ts =
Tg = Tw = Td (Td being the dew-point temperature). This
equilibrium is called "quasi-adiabatic saturation." At (c),
gases which have been loaded with water and decreasing
in temperature from (a) to (c) are saturated (Tg = Ta,
since Pn2o = pv,,,(Tw) = pvs=(Tg)) at the adiabatic saturation temperature (T~ = Tw = Tg). There is neither moisture transfer nor heat transfer. This condition continues
as long as the solids are at temperature Tw.
As in the paper by Korotic and Puzanov, ~ and in
contrast to other works where this subzone is not distinguished from the condensation zone, the formation of
the overmoistened subzone is thought to be the result of
the passing of a relatively narrow condensation front
through the bed, which leaves behind a zone of slightly
heated solids (50 ~ to 60 ~ enriched in moisture (relative increase of 10 to 15 pct with respect to the initial
moisture content).
The existence of this inert overmoistened subzone has
been previously demonstrated t131and is confirmed for the
present pilot pot experiments by Figures 6 and 8. It is
seen that after a rise in gas temperature and a maximum
in the dew-point temperature (corresponding to the exiting
of the condensation front), the gas temperature remains
constant and equal to the dew-point temperature (saturation). During longer experiments (Figure 6; case A,
Table II), these temperatures remain constant until the
drying front arrives, which determines the length of time
that the overmoistened subzone is present at the bottom
of the bed.
The harmful influence of this overmoistened zone comes
from its poor permeability. Indeed, excess water can reduce porosity by its own volume and because it weakens
the concerned layers, promoting their collapse. Wajima
et a1.[14] have noted that condensed water above a critical
level results in the release of the adhering fine particles,
with subsequent breaking up of the particles and a drastic
rise in the resistance to gas flow.
3. Condensation subzone
Beyond point (d), the saturated gases are in contact
with colder solids. The transported water condenses on
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

Temperature (*C)
02550
200 - .
.

GAS

Falling

79 8.

It

Drying r o t e rH90
(mol.m_3,s_l) L
0
IO0
-50

soLids T

D r i e d zone
rate drying

"Constant"rate

Solid moisture
content W (Z)

drying

'-I
tl
(,D " - I

Overmoistened
subzone

II
.-I
C

b,,--,.

II
O.

"4

Condensation subzone

e - - - Raw subzone

GAS

<
X

Fig. 7--Mechanisms of moisture transfer in the sintering bed (iron ore).

these solids and warms them by the release of the latent

heat of condensation. This subzone ends at point (e),
where the vapor pressure of the gases again becomes equal
to the saturation vapor pressure at the temperature of the
cold solids. The thickness of this subzone is of the order
of a few centimeters, roughly between 4 t'31 and 8 (this
study).
In contrast to the drying front, the condensation front
rapidly passes through the bed; in less than approximately 4 minutes (hence, before the end of the ignition
period in the case of the iron ore process), the condensation subzone and the raw subzone (discussed in the
next section) completely disappear.
Experimental results clearly show the following evolution of the condensation front. In the temperature of

60

-r

50

,"

,'"

/ .". . . . . . . . .

a~ 40
f,,,.

ii
""-

~rL---

N
"-----:---

i / i / /

4. Raw subzone
The raw subzone consists of that portion of the charge
where moisture transfer has not yet commenced. It extends from point (e) to the bottom of the bed.

P 30
~ 20

--Tglgas)
/ . . . . Td(dew-point)

10

-*---:-Td (t-220)

120

the solids vs time curves (Figure 5), the small rise in

temperature from 25 ~ to 50 ~ indicates the condensation period. This rise takes place very early in the process, even in the deepest layers of the bed, and can only
be attributed to the heat of condensation. Indeed, heat
transfer calculations show that it is not possible to reach
a temperature of 50 ~ in the deep layers, in less than
4 minutes, by simple heat convection. In Figure 8, the
passage of the condensation front through the end of the
bed (between 2 and 4 minutes) coincides with the maximum of the dew-point temperature (after correction for
the hygrometer's response time) and the rise in gas temperature. In addition, tapping of the liquid water condensed at the bottom of the pot shows a strong maximum
in the condensation rate at this time.
Condensation is an inconvenient phenomenon during
the sintering process for two reasons. First, it leads to
the formation of a barely permeable overmoistened zone,
and, second, it delays the drying step, since the condensed water represents excess water which must be removed. To reduce or suppress condensation, several
alternate practices may be considered, such as preheating of the charge.

240

360

480

600

Time (s)
Fig. 8--Experimental temperature and dew-point temperature of the
outlet gas during predrying experiment B (iron ore).
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

B. Representation Using Mollier's Diagram

The moisture transfer mechanisms can be illustrated
in another way, using a Mollier diagram which describes
the thermodynamic characteristics of the gas (temperature Tg, wet-bulb temperature Tw, absolute humidity X,
and relative humidity ~b). Figure 9 shows the Mollier
diagrams for predrying a moist charge (experiment A for
iron ore, Figure 9(a), and experiment C for zinc ore,
VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990--43

A b s o l u t e humidity ( g / k g dry air)

2~0 0

20

~0

60

BO

Absolute humidity (glkg dry air)

o,

t~O

20

60

80

100

120

220

2~.o

_a?-,-

200 9
180

~.J 180
16o

'C

160

1~0
\
120

lt~O

,00

--

<"
-

__

6
~'0

-_

.20%

16cm
18cm

wet-bulb temperature ( % )
relative humidity (%)
5 nm between each point

.....
.....

t00%
cm

r
]

.t-bulb ts

y -6.5cm

(~

e
humidity (%)
5 m between each point

1~)0
0

120
0

100

o
~

40

32cm

32cm

ta
9

60%

...-,)

,1,o.

20

.?

6o

~ 1 ~ "1_
,~J c l l & - c t

\/

20~

~ 7 o ,

\~

6o

~O

lO~

[0~

120

80

~o

200

220

[] 2cm
o ~
0
0%

80

~0

~"6"0~

~5c|

o'- 10cm

0 0
B'

16cm

9t,

m. 60

O R B - 12cm

~os

[]

,,/,'0 0

7.5cm 0

9
~

Cl -I.5 cm

8O

ae
o a~176
o

a,O-6cm

0
0

o 0

0
'5

"~ - 20
4o
- 60

32cm

O0 0

O0
O0

20

30

t~O

50

0 0 0 0 0 0 O0
60

70

80

gO

100 110

120 130

OoDoODO0

10

20

(a)
diagrams

of the gas and corresponding

30

40

50

60

?0

80

90

(b)
d r y i n g rate d u r i n g a p r e d r y i n g e x p e r i m e n t :

Figure 9(b)). The gas state is presented at two times: at

40 or 60 seconds (when the condensation front is present
in the bed) and at 300 seconds (when the condensation
front has passed). In this figure, both the evolution of
the gas characteristics through the bed at a given time
and their evolution with time can be followed. B e l o w
the Mollier diagrams, the corresponding drying rates are
plotted to complete the picture.
1. Iron ore case (Figure 9(a))
At 60 seconds, starting from the bed entrance (not pictured in the diagram) to point a (x = 3.5 cm), secondperiod drying takes place. From point a to point 7 (where
the moisture content is greatest, x = 16 cm), first-period
drying occurs, leading to moisture enrichment of the gas
up to the saturation point. Around 3, (from/3, x = 12 cm
to 6, x = 18 cm), the gas is nearly saturated, and the
drying rate is practically zero; this is the overmoistened
subzone. Then, from 6 to the end of the bed, the gas
remains saturated (points on the curve ~b = 1), while the
drying rate is negative; this is the condensation subzone.
In this case, the raw subzone has already disappeared
from the bed.
4 4 - - V O L U M E 21B, FEBRUARY 1990

'-6,5cm

Absolute humidity ( g / k g d r y air)

Absolute humidity (g/kg dry a i r )

Fig. 9 - - M o l l i e r

32cml2~1

- 20
10

( a ) i r o n o r e ( c a s e A ) a n d (b) z i n c o r e ( c a s e

C).

At 300 seconds, the situation is rather different. Drying

has advanced downward, and the first point in the diagram is now at 7.5 cm. The gas is cooled in the dried
zone; thus, drying is less intense, and the gas humidity
is lower, which is shown in the diagram by the points
further to the left. The second-period drying subzone (to
point a ' , x = 10 cm) is followed by the first-period drying
subzone (from a' to/3', x = 16 cm). Points corresponding to first-period drying exactly follow an iso-wet-bulb
temperature line, the equilibrated drying being stabilized. This was not so at 60 seconds because of a transitional effect linked to condensation. The condensation
subzone has completely disappeared, and the inert overmoistened subzone extends over half of the bed (from
/3' to the end of the bed).
2. Zinc ore case (Figure 9(b))
The shape of the curves in Figure 9(b) is similar to
that of Figure 9(a); thus, only the main differences will
be mentioned. These are mostly attributed to the solid
charge characteristics.
The bed texture (larger particle size, smaller specific
area, etc.) and the differences in the operating conditions
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

between predrying experiments A and C induce lower

drying rates, leading to lower gas humidities. More importantly, the critical moisture content of zinc ore pellets
is such that no equilibrated drying period can occur.
Therefore, the points do not lie on an iso-wet-bulb temperature line, and the gas leaving the drying subzone is
never completely saturated. Thus, at 40 seconds, the gas
relative humidity is about 70 to 80 pct during condensation. At this time, the presence of the raw subzone
(from point e, x = 26 cm to the end of the bed) can also
be noted. At 300 seconds, the overmoistened subzone
again extends over half of the bed (from/3', x = 15 cm
to the end), but the gas relative humidity remains slightly
lower than 1.

500
w i t h condensation
oG

q00

300

without

condensation

200
o
u~ I00

2;0

4;0

8b0

6;0

looo

Time ( s )

C. Influence of Various Factors on the Drying

of the Sintering Bed
1. Influence of drying kinetics
Figure 10 shows the effect of Considering the decreasing rate period (case A, iron ore) compared to drying at
constant rate for all moisture contents. In the latter case,
as expected, the plateau at the wet-bulb temperature is
a little longer, but the total duration of drying is slightly
less. In the case of zinc ore, the difference would be
greater, as it has been shown that no constant rate drying
takes place in usual industrial conditions.

2. Influence of condensation
Figure 11 shows the influence of considering condensation (case C, zinc ore). It is seen that if condensation
is neglected, the initial rise in temperature is poorly described, and the total duration of drying is overly reduced. This comparison shows as well the harmful
influence of condensation on the rate of water removal
and, consequently, on the productivity of the sintering
operation. Similar results are obtained for the case of
iron ore.

Fig. 11 - - Comparison of the computed solid temperature v s time during a predrying experiment with condensation (case C, zinc ore) and
without considering condensation.

maps of the moisture content of the solids during a normal operation (case D) and during an operation with a
preheated charge (60 ~ case E) are presented. The abscissa represents time (equivalent to distance along the
grate), and the ordinate the height in the bed. The dotted
line indicates the boundaries of the overmoistened zone.
The considerable decrease of the extent of this zone after
preheating should be noticed, as well as the appreciable
decrease of m a x i m u m attained moisture contents.
VI.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has yielded a precise understanding of the

moisture transfer mechanisms in the sintering process.
Drying of iron ore pellets occurs in two periods: one at
constant rate and the other at decreasing rate. The critical

3. Influence of preheating the charge

Industrial experiments have shown that in order to reduce condensation, it might be interesting to preheat the
charge, for example, by using hot return sinter. The model
has ascertained these results. In Figure 12, the computed

d:Ying'r~
,.

u
c
firstp e r i o d

only

MO~it

,i.it

lL,oora,e~

c~

ratedrying

solid

2880

temperature:25*C.Case D(Jron ore).

//

~= 300

cm

20o

,~NV.O%

~a
~

. drying

con~ensat ion~

~7 %, over--

Dried zone

front

~<"~
~.~
~ , ~ : c - - T a. t t l n g.

~'~

rate drying

m o i s t e n e d zonee .l'zml
m~176
l i m ~ . ~ " c o n s t a n t ,,

....

Time (s)

(a) Initial

~N

% Z ~ ~

40

C, 400

0r,e0z0ne

over.oistened

con--,

500

two p e r i o d s

84

300

660

9do

1260

I;oo 18oo

Time (s)

Fig. 10--Comparison of the computed solid temperature v s time during a predrying experiment when drying occurs in first period only
and in two periods (case A, iron ore).
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

40

(b) I n i t i a l

Moist z o n e ~
Time (s)

solid

,, r a t e

drying

2880

temperature : 60"C. Case E (iron ore).

Fig. 12--Influence of preheating of the charge on the computed map

of solid moisture content for a complete sintering operation (iron ore).
VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990--45

moisture content has been determined, and the characteristic drying curve has been given. Drying of zinc ore
pellets always takes place with a decreasing rate, because the critical moisture content is higher than the usual
moisture contents for the sintering practice. The characteristic drying curve has also been given. In the sintering process, gases leaving the drying zone are highly
loaded with water, and during the early stages of the
operation, this water condenses in colder layers. Passage
of the condensation front leaves behind an overmoistened (+1 to 2 pct water), inert (without heat or
moisture transfer), heated (typically 55 ~
and low
permeability zone, which remains until the drying front
arrives.
An accurate description of these phenomena using a
mathematical model has allowed us to successfully simulate predrying experiments on a pilot pot and to calculate all of the variables relative to moisture transfer.
The necessity of describing both the two periods of drying
and the condensation period has been shown and the influence of changing operating conditions, such as preheating the charge to reduce condensation, has been
studied. It is believed that this approach can be directly
adapted to other processes where a hot gas passes through
a moist packed bed.
NOMENCLATURE
ag

Cn2o
pg

de
f
h
k
Lv

MH2O
PH20

Pvsat

P
P(W~)
FH20

rM,RM

rR
R

R
Rr
gtr
t

Td
r~
T~
Tw
u

w.

specific area of the bed ( m 2" m~ 3)

molar water vapor concentration in gases
(mol- m -3)
specific heat of the gases (J. kg -1 9K -I)
specific heat of the solids (J. kg -t 9K -1)
equivalent diameter of particles (m)
ratio Rtr/RM ( - )
heat transfer coefficient (W. m -2. K -I)
water mass transfer coefficient (m- s -I)
heat of vaporization of water (J. kg -~)
molecular weight of water (kg. mol -t)
partial vapor pressure of water (Pa)
saturation vapor pressure of water (Pa)
total pressure of gases (Pa)
polynomial representation of the
characteristic drying 1equation ( - )
drying rate (mol- s- 9m ~ )
drying rate during the first period of drying,
(mol- s - l . mb~) and (kg. m -3- s-l),
respectively
drying rate calculated from the partial
pressure difference (tool- s- i. mb3)
constant of ideal gas law (J. mo1-1- K -t)
drying rate (kg. m -3" S- t )
reduced drying rate ( - )
drying rate at transition point W = Wtr
(kg. m -3~ s -1)
time (s)
dew-point temperature (K)
temperature of the gases (K)
temperature of the solids (K)
wet-bulb temperature (K)
superficial velocity of the gas (m- s -l)
moisture content of the solids (kg/kg dry)
critical moisture content of the solids ( - )

46--VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990

~q
W,r
x

x~
E

4,
Pa
Pg
~'12O

equilibrium moisture content of the solids

(-)

reduced moisture content of the solids ( - )

moisture content at transition point ( - )
height in the bed (m)
logarithmic mean molar fraction of vapor

(-)

porosity of the bed (--)

relative humidity of the gas (Pn2o/PvSat) (--)
apparent density of the bed (kg- m~3d)
clenslty ot the gas (1~"m " )
moisture content of the solids per unit
volume of the bed (kg. m~ 3)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study has been performed with the scientific and
financial support of IRSID, which is interested in modeling the iron ore sintering process, and MINEMET
RECHERCHE, which is interested in modeling the
zinc ore sinter-roasting process. At IRSID, we thank
Drs. E. Marli~re, C. Dulcy, J.M. Steiler, and P. Riboud
for their collaboration and for allowing us to have pilot
pot experiments at our disposal. Since 1984, the iron ore
sintering study has been part of the Groupement
Scientifique "Fonte de haute puret6," jointly financed by
IRSID and CNRS. At MINEMET RECHERCHE, we
thank Drs. G.Sanchez and S. Jorget for their collaboration. In addition, we wish to thank Dr. B. Lally, who
kindly assisted with the English translation of this paper.

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PA, 1986, vol. 6, pp. 511-14.
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

17. F. Patisson and D. Ablitzer: in Proc. Reinhardt Schuhmann Int.

Symp., D.R. Gaskell, J.P. Hager, J.E. Hoffmann, and P.J.
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METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

19. F. Kneule: Das Trocknen, translation Eyrolles, Pads, 1962, p. 132.

20. S. Ergun: Chem. Eng. Prog., 1952, vol. 48 (2), pp. 87-94.
21. R.B. Keey: Introduction to Industrial Drying Operations, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, 1978, p. 362.
22. O.
Krischer: Die
wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der
Trocknungstechnik, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1963, p. 436.

VOLUME 21B, FEBRUARY 1990--47