The Universe

Universe - The universe is all the heavenly bodies such as

stars and planets and the enormous space between them.
Galaxy - Galaxies are collections of hundreds of stars around
a common centre.
3 Shapes of Galaxies
Irregular Galaxy - overall globular shape
Elliptical Galaxy - egg-shaped
Spiral Galaxy - spiral shape; most common form of galaxy;
examples are our Milky Way Galaxy and the Andromeda
Galaxy
Solar System - A solar system is any star orbited by planets.
Our solar system is our Sun orbited by the planets Mercury,
Venus, Earth and so on.
Planet - A planet is a large body that does not produce its own
light and revolves around a star.
Moon - A moon is a natural satellite that revolves around a
planet.
Asteroid - An asteroid is a celestial body made of rock that
orbits the sun between Mars and Jupiter.
Comet - A comet is a celestial body made of frozen rock and
gas that revolves in an orbit around the sun. Its orbit is not the
same as the planets. It has a nucleus and a hazy tail which
always points away from the sun because the tail is
composed of evaporated gases heated by the sun.
Light Year - A light year is a unit of astronomical
measurement. It is the distance light travels in one year. A
light year is equal to 9 461 000 000 000 kilometres.
Order of the Universe Diagram

Theories on the Origin of the Universe

Age - The universe is estimated to be between 7 and 20
billion years old. There are 2 main scientific theories about
how the universe formed.
Big Bang Theory - This is the more widely accepted theory. It
explains that the universe was formed from the gigantic
explosion of a central large and dense mass. In the first few
minutes after the big bang, many elements such as hydrogen
and helium were formed. Other heavier elements were
formed later in the nuclear fusion processes of the stars. The
universe is expanding, as is shown by the Red Shift of many
stars (Red Shift is the spectrum showing longer wavelengths
that form when stars are receding away from us).
Steady-State Theory - This theory states that matter is
continually being created at the outer parts of the universe,
and is condensing into galaxies. It is not generally accepted
now.
The Sun
Our sun is a star, composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.
The sun is at the centre of our solar system. Planets revolve
around the sun.

The sun is about 150 million kilometres from Earth. This is a

distance of one astronomical unit. Light from the sun takes
only a few minutes to reach the Earth.
The sun's temperature varies from 5 500 C at the surface to
13 600 000 C at the core.
The sun rotates approximately every 28 days.
Sunspots are darker, cooler parts of the sun which rotate
approximately every 11 years.
Solar Flares are explosions of hot gases from the surface.
These send off electromagnetic radiation that causes auroras
in Earth's night sky, and disrupts radio transmission.
Solar Prominences are arches of hot gases that are seen on
the sun's surface.
The sun makes its energy from nuclear reactions called
Nuclear Fusion, a process in which 2 hydrogen nuclei join to
make a larger helium nucleus. This process gives off huge
amounts of heat and light energy.
The sun's age is about 4.5 billion years. There is probably
enough hydrogen to fuel nuclear fusion reactions for another
5.5 billion years.
The Solar System
Solar System
A planet is a large heavenly body which orbits our sun, and is
held in orbit by the force of gravity.
The name "planet" comes from the Latin word meaning
"wanderer", which refers to the fact that the planets that we
see do not follow the same path as the stars across the night
sky.
The planets are named after Roman gods, such as Mars, the
Roman god of war.
The Time of Revolution is the time it takes for a planet to orbit
once around the sun. For example, Earth takes one year to
revolve around the sun.
The Time of Rotation is the time it takes for a planet to rotate
or spin once on its own axis. For example, Earth takes one
day or 24 hours to rotate once on its axis. All planets except
Venus and Uranus rotate counter-clockwise. The side of the
planet which is lit by the sun can be much hotter than the side
which is dark.
Some planets have their own moons or satellites. For
example, Earth has 1 moon and Jupiter has 64 moons.
All eight planets have an atmosphere composed of gases.
The eight planets in order from the sun are:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune.
There are also five dwarf planets. A dwarf planet has a
smaller mass than a planet and does not have enough gravity
to clear the area around its orbit.
The five dwarf planets in order from the sun are:
Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris.
Distances in our solar system can be measured in kilometres
or astronomical units. An astronomical unit is the distance
between the sun and Earth (150 million kilometres).
Mercury
Closest planet to the sun.
Much smaller than Earth.
Force of gravity is only one-third of Earth's.
Very thin atmosphere containing hydrogen, helium, oxygen
and sodium.
Temperature varies from +427 C on the lit side to 193 C on
the dark side.
No moons.

Revolution time is 88 days.

Rotation time is 59 days.
Venus
2nd planet from the sun.
Incorrectly called the 'morning star' or 'evening star' because
it is very bright in the sky at sunrise and sunset.
Slightly smaller than Earth.
Thick atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with clouds of
sulphuric acid.
Winds up to 360 km/h.
Temperature is about +460 C.
No moons.
Its Revolution time is 226 days, which is shorter than its
Rotation time of 243 days.
Earth
3rd planet from the sun.
Fifth largest planet.
Blue colour because of the oceans that cover most of the
surface.
Only planet known to support life.
Thick atmosphere of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Temperatures range from +58 C to 89 C.
Revolution time is 365 days.
Rotation time is 1 day.
Mars
4th planet from the sun.
Reddish colour because of its rusted surface.
Polar ice caps.
Appears quite bright in the night sky.
Atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide, with some nitrogen,
oxygen and water vapour.
Temperatures range from +20 C to 87 C.
Two moons.
Revolution time is 1 year 321 days.
Rotation time is 25 hours.
Asteroid Belt
The Asteroid Belt is between the planets Mars and Jupiter.
It is occupied by thousands of asteroids that revolve our sun.
The dwarf planet Ceres is in the Asteroid Belt.
The Belt marks the end of the inner solar system and the start
of the outer solar system.
Jupiter
5th planet from the sun.
Jupiter is the largest of the planets, and is over 1000 times
larger than Earth.
Clouds give it a banded appearance because it spins so fast.
Great red spot.
Atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium, with some
methane and ammonia.
Temperature is about 108 C.
64 known moons including the largest moon in the solar
system, Ganymede.
Revolution time is 11 years 9 months.
Rotation time is 10 hours.
Saturn
6th planet from the sun.
Yellow appearance, with a ring system made of rock, frozen
gases including some water.
At least 62 moons.

Atmosphere is mostly hydrogen and helium, with some

methane and ammonia.
Winds up to 1700 km/h.
Temperature is about 139 C.
Revolution time is 29 years 6 months.
Rotation time is 10 hours.
Uranus
7th planet from the sun.
Blue colour.
Atmosphere of hydrogen, helium and methane.
Temperature is about 200 C.
27 known moons.
Revolution time is 84 years.
Rotation time is 17 hours.
Neptune
8th planet from the sun. Last of the large planets.
Blue colour, with five thin rings.
Atmosphere of hydrogen, helium and methane.
Temperature about 201 C.
13 known moons.
Revolution time is 248 years.
Rotation time is 6 days.
Dwarf Planets
Pluto is the largest dwarf planet.
Pluto's temperature is about 229 C.
Pluto's revolution time is 248 years. Its rotation time is 6 days.
Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris all orbit further from the
sun than any of the eight large planets.

The Moon
Has a nearly circular orbit around the Earth
Perigee distance, the closest distance the moon is from Earth,
is 363 000 km.
Apogee distance, the furthest distance the moon is from
Earth, is 405 000 km.
One rotation takes 27.3 days
One revolution around the Earth takes 27.3 days
Reflects light from the Sun
No atmosphere so all UV rays from the Sun reach the surface
Gravity is only 16 of the Earth's gravity
Craters are deep depressions on the surface caused by
meteorites
Maria (or 'seas') are large smooth areas on the surface
covered by plains of grey basalt - like rock
Lunar highlands and rilles (long steep-sided valleys) cover the
rest of the surface
Earth's moon is only the 5th largest moon in the solar system.
The Phases of the Moon
Revolution of the Moon around Earth - 27.3 days
Rotation of the Moon on its Axis - 27.3 days
'Moonlight' - The Moon does not make its own light. It reflects
light from the Sun. Half the Moon is always in sunlight, just as
half the Earth has 'day' and the other half has 'night'. From
Earth, we can only see 50% of the Moon at any time.
8 Moon Phases each Lunar Month of 27.3 days
New Moon - The face of the Moon facing Earth is completely
in shadow ('No Moon'). The Sun, the Moon and the Earth are
in line.

Waxing Crescent - A horn-shaped part of the Moon is

illuminated.
First Quarter - Only half of the face of the Moon facing Earth
is illuminated.
Waxing Gibbous - More than half of the face we see is
illuminated.
Full Moon - All of the face we see is illuminated. The Sun, the
Earth and the Moon are in a line.
Waning Gibbous - More than half of the face we see appears
lit.
Last Quarter - Only half of the face we see appears lit.
Waning Crescent - A horn-shaped part of the Moon facing
Earth is illuminated.

An equinox occurs twice a year when day and night are of

equal length.

Tides
Tides occur because of the pull of gravity of the Moon and the
Sun on the Earth's oceans. Because the Moon is closer to the
Earth, it has the greatest effect on our tides. There are
approximately 2 high tides and 2 low tides every 24 hours.
Spring tides (often called 'king tides' by fishermen) occur at
New Moon and Full Moon when the Sun, the Moon and the
Earth are in line. This forms extremely high high-tides and
extremely low low-tides.
Neap tides occur at First Quarter and Last Quarter, when the
Sun, the Earth and the Moon are at right angles. This forms
quite low high-tides and quite high low-tides.
Tides Diagram

Stars

Eclipses
Eclipses occur when a large shadow travels across the
surface of the Earth.
Umbra - The Umbra is the darker part of the shadow.
Penumbra - The Penumbra is the lighter part of the shadow.
Total Eclipse - Observers on the Earth's surface who are
shadowed by the darker umbra would see a total eclipse.
Partial Eclipse - Observers on the Earth's surface who are
shadowed by the lighter penumbra would see a partial
eclipse.
Solar Eclipses occur sometimes when the Moon passes
between the Sun and the Earth at New Moon. The shadow of
the Moon falls on the Earth appearing to block out (eclipse)
the Sun. The next total solar eclipse is 13th November 2012.
Lunar Eclipses occur sometimes when the Moon passes on
the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun at Full Moon. The
Moon passes in the Earth's shadow. It appears dull and can
only just be seen. The next total lunar eclipse is 15th April
2014.
Lunar Eclipse Diagram
Day & Night
The Earth's rotation causes the change of day and night.
The Earth rotates on its axis once every 23 hours and 56
minutes.
The rotation of the Earth is west to east, so the Sun is visible
in the eastern sky first.
The Sun shines only on half of the Earth at any time, so that
half the Earth is in daylight and the other half is in darkness.
The tilt on the Earth's axis causes day and night to be of
different lengths in different parts of the world.
A solstice occurs twice a year. The summer solstice is the
longest day (and shortest night) of the year. The winter
solstice is the shortest day of the year.

Seasons
Seasons are caused by the Earth's revolution around the Sun
and the unchanging tilt of the Earth's axis.
The different distances to the Sun caused by the tilt do not
cause the seasons.
The season depends on how much of the Earth's surface is
covered by light rays, and at what angle they reach the
Earth's surface. Head-on rays on a small area are strong and
cause summer seasons. Slanting rays focusing on a
large area are weaker and cause winter seasons.

Constellations
Constellation - A constellation is a group of stars that form an
imaginary pattern.
Zodiac Constellations - The constellations of the zodiac are
those groups of stars that travel directly overhead, following
the same path as our Sun. Examples of the zodiac
constellations are Taurus the Bull, Leo the Lion and Scorpius
the Scorpion.
Other Constellations to Learn are Crux the Southern Cross,
Centaurus the Centaur, and Orion the Hunter.
The Bayer Designation of Naming Stars - Stars in
constellations are named according to their brightness. The
brightest star in a constellation is called the Alpha star, the
second brightest star is called the Beta star, and so on using
the letters of the Greek alphabet.
For example, in the constellation Crux (the Southern Cross),
the stars in order of brightness are Alpha Crucis, Beta Crucis,
Gamma Crucis, Delta Crucis and Epsilon Crucis. Also, the
Pointers that point to the Southern Cross are part of the
constellation Centaurus the Centaur. The brightest star of the
2 Pointers is called Alpha Centauri and the second brightest
is called Beta Centauri.
Positions & Movements of Stars
Positions of Stars
Elevation - the number of degrees a star is above the horizon
Azimuth - the number of degrees a star is along the horizon
Movement of our Sun - Our Sun, which is a star, appears to
move across the sky from east to west. It appears to move
directly overhead along a path called the zenith. This
apparent motion is because the Earth is actually rotating in
the opposite direction from west to east.
Movement of Stars - In the northern hemisphere, stars appear
to rotate around a central point in the sky called the North
Celestial Pole where the Pole Star is. The North Celestial
Pole is directly above the North Pole. In the southern
hemisphere, stars appear to rotate around an imaginary point
in the sky called the South Celestial Pole. The South Celestial
Pole is directly above the South Pole.
Birth & Death of Stars

process of photosynthesis.

Differences between Animal & Plant Cells

Both animal and plant cells contain a nucleus, cytoplasm and
a cell membrane.
Only plant cells contain a cell wall and chloroplasts.
Rules for using Microscopes
Setting up and putting away the microscope

Cells
Cell Components
Nucleus - The nucleus is the control centre or 'brain' of the
cell, and controls all chemical reactions and activity of the cell.
Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance outside
the nucleus that contains the cell's nutrients and oxygen.
Cell Membrane - The cell membrane is the 'skin' that holds
the cell together.
Cell Wall - The cell wall is an extra wall in plant cells only.
Chloroplasts - These small containers of the green pigment,
chlorophyll, are only in plant cells. Chlorophyll is used in the

When using lamps, always take care because the bulb is

easily 'blown' when the bulb is hot. After use, allow about five
minutes for the bulb to cool before moving it.
Do not look through the microscope while lowering the body
tube.
Clean lenses with lens tissue. Wipe the body and the stage
before putting the microscope away.
Always turn the objective lens to the low power (shortest)
before putting it away.
Procedure
When you begin, use the focusing knob to raise the objective
lenses well above the stage.
Swing the lowest power objective lens (shortest) into place.
Clip the slide with the specimen onto the stage.
Move the specimen directly under the objective lens.
Use the focus knob to focus with the low power lens. The lens
should always be at least 2 millimetres from the slide. It
should never touch the slide.
Then focus with the medium power objective lens (medium
sized one).
Lastly, focus with the high power objective lens (longest).
Decide which magnification - low, medium or high - gives the
best view.
Drawing Cells
Diagrams should be drawn with fine pencil lines without
shading.

Diagrams should be about 13 of a page.

All parts should be labelled with horizontal arrows.
The title should include the magnification.
Total Magnification = Eyepiece Lens Magnification Objective
Lens Magnification
Respiration & Photosynthesis
Respiration is the process by which all cells obtain their
energy. It is the 'burning' of glucose sugar and oxygen to
produce energy, carbon dioxide and water.

Glucose
Sugar

+ Oxygen

C6H12O6 +

Energy + Water +

O2

Carbon
Dioxide

Energy + H2O +

CO2

Photosynthesis is the process used by plant cells only to

make glucose sugar and oxygen using green chlorophyll,
sunlight, carbon dioxide and water

Carbon
Dioxide
CO2

Sunlight
+ Water
Chlorophyll
+ H2O

Glucose
Sugar

+ Oxygen

C6H12O6 +

O2

Organisation of Organisms

Movement - Some organisms have obvious movement from

muscular contraction (e.g. swim, fly, run). Some move by
beating of cilia or flagella, or oozing like an amoeba. Others
like corals and oysters do not move from place to place.
Irritability - response to a stimulus (e.g. light or chemicals
such as food)
Growth - increase in cellular mass, and/or increase in number
of cells
Reproduction - formation of another organism. Since viruses
cannot reproduce on their own without being inside a host
cell, they are not regarded as living organisms.
Adaptation - ability to adapt to an environment, by either
seeking a more suitable environment, or by undergoing
modifications to be better fitted to its present surroundings
Taxonomy Terms
Taxonomy - the hierarchical system of naming, describing and
classifying organisms using structural characteristics
Structural Characteristics - the features of an organism
relating to structure (e.g. radial or bilateral symmetry, asexual
or sexual reproduction, number of appendages, backbone,
shape of leaf)
Characteristics that are not used in classification - As
organisms to be identified are often dead, preserved in
alcohol, and not usually in their normal habitat, certain
characteristics are not useful in identification (e.g. body
temperature, habitat, movement, colour).
Reasons for Classification
To provide a scientific name that is accepted and
communicated by scientists from different countries
To show relationships between groups
To identify organisms accurately (e.g. poisonous organisms)
5 Kingdoms - Biologists generally classify living organisms
into 5 large groups or kingdoms
Kingdom Monera (simple micro-organisms)
Kingdom Protista (complex micro-organisms)
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
Classification within a Kingdom - Kingdom, Phylum (or
Division), Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Mnemonic for Remembering the Classification within a
Kingdom - King Paul Cries Out For Good Soup
5 KINGDOMS MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

MAIN

EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES

KINGDOMS CHARACTERISTICS

Classification

Monera

Unicellular

Specific size and shape

Metabolism - the sum of all the chemical activities of the cells
that provide for an organism's growth, maintenance and
repair

Bacteria

Cyano-

(singlecelled)

Characteristics of Life

bacteria

Cell wall

(blue-

usually

green
algae)

Protista

Unicellular

Parameci

Dichotomous Key Diagram

um

Amoeba

Some
algae

Slime
moulds

Fungi

Unicellular or

multicellular

Mushroo
ms

(many-celled)

Moulds

Yeast

1a. Internal skeleton

go to 2
1b. No internal skeleton go to 3
2a. Pouch present
kangaroo
2b. Pouch absent
cow
3a. Six legs
bee
3b. Not six legs spider
Plant Kingdom

Cell wall
No

COMMON MOSSE
NAME OF

FERNS CONIFERS FLOWERI

NG

GROUP OF

chloroplasts

PLANTS

PLANTS
Plantae

Unicellular or

Ferns

Pine

C NAME

trees

OF GROUP

SCIENTIFI BRYOP PTERIDO GYMNOSP ANGIOSP

multicellular

Cell wall

Chloroplasts

Roses

for

HYTES PHYTES

ERMS

ERMS

OF
PLANTS

photosynthesi
s

Animalia

Unicellular or

EXAMPLES Moss, Fishbone Pine tree,

Humans

Coral

Spider

Liverwo

fern,

rts

Bracken

Grass,

fern

Apple

multicellular

Oak tree

Rose,
Carrot,

Tree

No cell walls
nor
chloroplasts

VASCULAR

Non-

Vascular Vascular

Vascular

OR NON- vascula
VASCULAR

TRUE OR

Not

True

True

True

NOT TRUE

true

roots,

roots,

roots,

ROOTS,

roots,

stems

stems and

stems

STEMS

stems

and

Making a Dichotomous Key

Dichotomous Key Pictures
Example: Here are two examples of keys to show how to key
out organisms, such as a kangaroo, a cow, a bee and a
spider. Shown are a branching key and a numbered key.

and

AND

and

LEAVES

leaves

REPRODU Spores

leaves

leaves

leaves

OR
ABSENT)

Spores

CTION BY

Seeds in

Seeds in

cones

fruit

FLOWERS Absent
AND

SPORES

FRUITS

OR SEEDS

(PRESENT
OR
ABSENT)

CONES
(PRESENT

Absent

Absent

Present

Absent

Absent

Absent

Present