RECTENNA DEVELOPMENTS FOR SOLAR ENERY COLLECTION

Mohammad Sarehraz, Kenneth Buckle, Thomas Weller. Elias Stefanakos, Shekhar Bhansali, Yogi Goswami,
Subramanian Krishnan
1
Clean Energy Research Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620
2
Solar Energy & Energy Conversion Lab, University of Florida, Gainesville. F t

100 pV. Calculations of the electrical properties of Silver

at light frequencies indicate a skin depth ranging from 2-3
nm and a resistance of 5-7 R per square. If we compare
these numbers to the corresponding values at 100 GHz
where the skin depth is 6.3 pm and the resistance is .079
fl per square, the problem of treating the wave as an
electromagnetic phenomenon is emphasized.
In addition to the fundamental electrical properties
problem, the antenna, rectifier and filters have unique
issues when an attempt is made to design them for
operation in the light wave spectrum. This research dfort
has identified the problems and, through experimentation
at lower frequencies and simulation at the light
frequencies, has identified possible design solutions to
some of the critical segment problems.
The issues associated with the antenna are:
polarization, bandwidth, efficiency, and impedance
matching. The radiation from the sun is randomly
polarized, so a single linearly polarized antenna can
capture only a fraction of the incident radiation. The use
of cross polarized linear antenna elements will double the
radiation capture and is a step in the right direction for
solving the polarization mismatch between the antenna
and solar radiation. Regarding the bandwidth issue, 60%
of the solar spectrum is contained in a fractional
bandwidth of 60%. For antennas wide bandwidth is
usually on the order of 1520%, presenting a problem for
the application of the rectenna to solar power collection.
With a conducting ground plane behind a wire antenna,
the efficiency can approach 100% in the microwave
frequency domain.
However. the extremely high
resistance of metal conductors at light wave frequencies
will limit the efficiency of a wire type antenna. Similarly,
the use of microstrip impedance matching techniques
between the antenna and the rectifier is also limited by the
conductors ac resistance. Therefore, matching must be
achieved by simple methods that exhibit extremely low
loss.
At solar light frequencies the most practical choice for
the rectifier is the metal-insulator-metal (MIM) diode.
There are several problems associated with the MIM diode
element of the rectenna. The rectifier is non-linear, so it
will generate harmonics of the received frequency, which
must be prevented from re-radiating from the antenna to
space. The low pass filter in the design accomplishes this
function. The MIM itself has to be designed with a
sufficiently small cross sectional area or the effective
capacitance will shunt out the rectifier action. Therefore,
at light wave frequencies the linear dimension of the MIM

ABSTRACT
The rectenna concept for solar energy collection rests on
the dual wavelphoton nature of light. The recent
developments in nano technology and manufacturing led
to the re-examination of the rectenna concept for solar
energy collection. Two fundamental physical limitations,
skin effect resistance and very low vottage per antenna
element, were identified for the rectenna system. This
paper reports on research efforts to identify the problems
through experimentation at lower frequencies and
simulation at the light frequencies and has identified
possible design solutions to some of the problems.

INTRODUCTION
In 1973 Dr. R. Bailey of the University of Florida
patented the concept of solar energy collection using the
rectenna. While the rectenna concept does nothave any
fundamental physical limit on efficiency there are a great
number of challenges to realizing this concept. The
rectenna concept for solar energy collection has been
dormant until recently due to the technical inability to
manufacture structures in the nammeter size range.
Recent developments in nano technology and
manufacturing led this group to begin the re-examination
of the rectenna concept for solar energy collection.
Two fundamental physical challenges were quickly
identified for the rectenna system. These challenges are
the skin effect resistance problem at light frequencies and
the physical size requirementsfor the antenna and rectifier
components dictating very low voltage per antenna
element. The system typically consists of an antenna, a
rectifier, and two filter elements, as illustrated
schematically in Figure I.

Figure 1. Block Diagram of a Rectenna

Based on the AM1 spectrum and a 15% bandwidth
the peak voltage out of a single antenna would be about

0-7803-8707-4/05/$20.0002005 IEEE.

7s

The open circuit voltage at the terminal of an antenna

is equal io the electric field.times the effective height of the
antenna (VA=28.5pV fof a h12 dipole with h=0.3U).

must be on the order of tens of nm. The MIM requires the

insulation layer to be extremely thin, between. 1 and 5 nm
thick for tunneling.
EFFICIENCY OF THz RECTlFlCATlON

V, = E x h

PA =-IvA

(5)

(6)

The availabfe solar power at the terminal of the M2 dipole

is equal io 5.56 pW.
Rectification can be defined as a transformationof an
AC voltage into a DC voltage by means of a non-linear
device such as a diode. The rectifier, as a detector, can be
dassified in two categories according to its available input
power: (I)
square-law (small signal) and (2) linear detector
(large signal). Schottky diodes are routinely used in high
frequency rectifiers, because of their fast response time.
However, these diodes have an operating frequency upper
limit, which is far below the visible frequency spectrum.
The diode of choice for the optical frequency rectifier is a
metal insulator metal (MIM) diode. A MIM diode consists
of two metallic plates, which are separated by a very thin
insulator layer. In order for the electrons to tunnel throu h
the barrier, the insulator thickness must be less than 50 .
Assume a MIM diode, to start our discussion
regarding the solar rectifiers efficiency and refer to the
equivalent circuit model of a MIM diode (shown in Figure
2) inside the dotted box. The zero bias resistance F?u of the
MIM diode can be approximated by Equation 7 [5].

(1)

(7)

BW =-f, -f- A
Jc

The area under the solar spectrum curve is equal to the

total power radiated by the sun. The fractional power
available in the antennas bandwidth can be calculated by
over that bandwidth to yield (3).
integration of (I)

(3)

4
A A12 long linearly polarized dipole has an average
bandwidth of 15%, and the available power density from
the sun in this bandwidth is equal to S = 99.43 W/m*.
Since the solar radiation is randomly polarized, which can
be decomposed into a set of perpendicular linearly
polarized waves, the power density of a linearly polarized
dipole drops to half (S= 49.72 W/m2).
The power density is related to the electric field and
the intrinsic impedance of free space by equation (4),
where the intrinsic impedance of free space q = 377 R.

(4)

2 4

In order to find out how much of this power is availablefor

rectification, we first need to determine the bandwidth of
the antenna. Antennas have limited bandwidth, and they
only can capture a fraction of the total power density. Let
us assume that a half-wave length dipole antenna has a
center frequency of fc, and its upper and lower 3-dB
frequencies are f, and fi respectively. According to
equation (Z), the 3-dB fractionat bandwidth can be
calculated, and consequently the upper and lower
wavelengths (5 anfil).

s(n)= ]rb(n)dn

The power at the terminal (in the pre&nce of a .

reflecting ground plane [4]) can be calculated, using equation (6),where RAis equal to the radiation resistance
of the AJZ dipole, 73 C2.

The rectenna has been thoroughly studied for the last

fifty years, mainly for power transmission purposes with
efficiencies exceeding 80% at a single microwave
frequency [l]. It is not clear that such high efficiencies are
achievable in practice for a rectenna operating in thesolar
radiation spectrum. Solar radiation is quite different in
nature from monochromatic microwave radiation. It is unpolarized, incoJerent and extended over a broad
spectrum.
The solar constant is the total power density radiated
by the sun (from .115 microns to 1000 microns wave
length) [Z]. which is equal to 1353 W/m2 outside the
Earths atmosphere (known as air mass zero, or AMO).
However, due to atmospheric attenuations, this power is
known as
considerably lower at sea level. Equation (l),
Bougers law [3]. can be used to calculate the amount of
power available at sea level (known as air mass one, or
AMI).

I , = I,e- km

Figure 2 Equivalent Circuit Model of a MIM Diode

RT is the tunneling resistance, which takes into account

the tunneling of the electron through the potential barrier
. and thermo-ionic emission. The tunneling resistance is
inversely proportionalto the contact area, and proportional
to the tunneling resistivity, which is a function of the
height, thickness and relative permittivity of the potential
barrier. Rs is due to the spreading resistance, which is
inversely proportional to the contact diameter, and
proportional to the resistivity of the metal. CO is the
junction capacitance of the two metal plates separated by

79

a dielectric layer, which can be approximated by the

Replacing the. terms with CD in Equation 11 by their

equivalent.values reduces the mean current to:

parallel plate capacitor equation.

.
c, = E,,

A
d

_.

tn Eq. 8, er represents the relative dielectric constant, A

the contact area and d the thickness of the dielectric layer.
Since the tunneling mechanism is much faster than the
period of the optical frequency, the junction capacitance
CD is the limiting factor for determining- the cut-off
frequency of the MIM diode in combination with the
antenna's resistance %. The following expression, given
by Sanchez [6],can .be used to calculate the cut-off
frequency of the diode.

'
fc

However, I m is equal to VJRL, which gives the following

closed form relation between the voltage rectification
efficiency and input voltage.

In order to validate the closed form equation for the

voltage rectification eficiency, the measured CV curve of
the MIM diode was curve-fitted to a third order polynomial
and modeled, using Agilent's Advanced Design System
simulator. The modeled MIM diode v a s subsequently
used in a rectifier for a harmonic balance simulation.
The calculated and simulated efficiencies correlate
well with each other, which makes them very useful for
efficiency estimation based on knowledge of the open
circuit voltage at the terminal of a solar antenna. However,
since we are more interested in gaining knowledge of the
DC power conversion efficiency of the rectifier q~ rather
than the voltage rectification, which i s defined as the ratio
of the DC power at the toad to the input power, we obtain

1
(9)

= 2nR,C,

Beyond this cut-off frequency, rectification is still possible.

However, the signal strength at the output of the MIM will
drop approximately by a factor of (f#.
We have' established a relationship- between the
voltage rectification efficiency and input voltage of a
rectifier with a shunt capacitor CL at the load resistance
RL. The diode used for this rectifier was designed and
fabricated by the Clean Energy Research Center at the
University of South Florida. The measured I-V curve of this
MIM diode, which resembles a strong parabolic behavior
7'
in the forward region, is shown in Figure 3.

v,'

Since the voltage rectificationefficiency, input voltage

and load resistance are all known quantities, the DC
power can be readily calculated. The results of the
calculated and simulated efficiencies are presented in
Figure 4. Once again, the calculated efficiency from the
closed form equation agrees well with the simulated
efficiency.
Earlier the available power at the terminal of the
antenna was calculated as P~=5.56pW, which is not large
enough for efficient rectification by a single diode. In order
to

cez J
YEfbgv fit1

Figure 3 Measured MIM Diode I-V Curve

The diode conducts only during a small portion of the

period (0 to a), and charges the capacitor CL to VW.
When vAcos(@) c VL,the capacitor discharges through the
load RL until VACOS(@)> VL, where the diode starts to
conduct and recharge the capacitor. The expression for
the mean current in the circuit is given by Equation 90 [A.

Jlr

15VI

i '"'
5

Integrating equation 1.0 from 0 to @, gives the following

equation for IM.

D .

The voltage rectification efficiency is defined as the ratio of

the DC voltage at the load to the peak AC voltage at'the
input.
TI .

80

m
-x-

-p a -

callculaaan

power of each rod antenna. The advantages of the

proposed array are its high gain, low loss and light weight.
ANTENNA CONCEPT DESIGN

CONCLUSIONS

The solar antenna needs to posses the highest gain

possible, in order to exhibit low conductor losses at optical
frequencies and to support dual polarized wave
interception. The dielectric rod antenna IS] (DRA)'seems
to possess the first and second requirements for a solar
antenna. The DRA wilf be excited by a single slot in the
top ground plane of a non radiating dielectric waveguide
(NRD) as_shown
in Figure 5.
.

Experiments in the MM wave region and modeling at

solar frequencies indicate that a rectenna approach, which
mates a single linear polarized antenna element with a
diode can not efficiently harvest solar energy. A linear
array of high gain antenna elements feeding each diode
has a much better possibility of success. Research is
continuing on the issues related to dual orthogonal
polarization and the array approach.
.
REFERENCES
[t] W.C. Brown, 'The History of Power Transmission by

Radio Waves", /E Trans. Microwave Theory and

Techn.32,pp.1230-1242, Sep 1984.

[Z]W. Palz, Solar Power, Butterwoths. UNESCO, London,

('I978).

[2]D. Y. Goswami. F. Kreith, J. F. Kreider, yPrincip/e of

Solar Engineering', TYLOR 8 FRANCIS, Philadelphia,

Figure 5 Rod Antenna and Feed

(2000).

The attractive feature of the NRD p] compared to other

transmission lines is its low-loss and ease of fabrication.
The NRD consists of a section of dielectric slab, which is
sandwiched between two ground planes. Since the TEIO
mode at the boundary of the dielectric and air is at a
maximum, and at the boundary of the dielectric and
conductor at a minimum, the conductor losses are
minimized. The transmission lasses of the NRD consist of
the dielectric loss. and- conductor loss, the former is
independent of frequency and later decreases as the
frequency increases. The NRD will be fed through a slot at
its botto-m ground plane by a section of transmission line
(TL) on a substrate, also known as an electromagnetic
coupling (EMC). By changing the position of the TL
beneath the slot or adding tuning stubs in the EMC
technique, the broad band matching of the antenna's
impedance to some reference impedance can be
facilitated. A proto type of the proposed solar antenna was
fabricated at 7 GHz by CERC. which was linearly
polarized and has a gain of 10.4 dBi.
The power at the terminal of each rod antenna
will be approximately an order of magnitude higher than a
h/2 dipole. The concept can,without difficulty, be extended
to a linear array as illustrated in Figure
- 6.which will be
needed because of the low output

[4] D. Pozar, "Scattered and Absorbed Powers in

Receiving Antennas", I Antennas and Propagation46,
Feb 2004.
[5] C. Fumeaux a, W . Herrmann a, F.K. Kneubuhl, H.
Rothuizen "Nanometer thin-film Ni-NiO-Ni Diodes for
Detection and Mixing of 30 THz Radiation". Infrared
Physics & Technology 39, 1998, pp. 123-183.
[E] A. Sanchez, C.F. Davis Jr., K.C. Liu, A. Javan, "The
MOM Tunneling Diode: Theoretical Estimate of its
Performance at Microwave and Infra Frequencies", J.
Appl. Phys. 49., 1978 pp. 5270-5277.

[7]K. R. Sturley, "Radio Receiver Design", Chapman &

Hall, London 1965.

[SI D. G. Kiely, 'Dielectric Aeriafs", London, England:

Methuen and Co. Ltd. 1952.
[9] T. Yoneyama, N, Tozawa, S. Nishida, "Loss
Measurements of Nonradiative Dielectric Waveguide",
/E Trans M l T MTr-32, NO. 8, Aug 1984.

Figure 6 Linear Array of Rod Antennas

81