RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE j-

J. J. MULLANE
"
I

ABSTRACT

It is shown that there are 3 fundamental types of

perforniance or recovery ~nechanisnlsby whieh petroleum reservoirs nlay be operated, viz.: l, dissolved-gas
drive, in which only the energy due to the gas dissolved
in the oil is utilized to produce oil; 2, gas-cap drive, in
which displacement of oil is effected by an expanding
gas cap, coupled with gravitational segregation of oil
and gas; and, 3, water drive, in which displacenlent of
oil is effected by the controlled encroachn~entof water.
Of these ~nethods,the latter two are the most efficient
types of operation and. by means of these, the highest
recoveries of oil from reservoirs can be obtained. The
characteristics of each type of perforn~ance are described and illustrated by nieans of actual field examples.
Particular attention is directed to the i~nportanceof
early identification of the type of drive to be employed
as the recovery nlechatlisn~in a petroleum reservoir, and
it is stressed that the dissolved-gas-drive nlechanisn~is to
be avoided whenever possible. The use of geologic and
engineering data to make this distinctiot~is illustrated.
The proper control of producit~g rates, and gas and
INTRODUCTION

The necessity and desirability of operating petroleunl

reservoirs a t the maximum efficiency practicable have
occasioned t h e development of t h e growing science of
reservoir engineering. The proper development a n d control of oil reservoirs form t h e subject m a t t e r of this
field of study. During recent years the work of a number of petroleum technologists has.resulted in the establishment of certain basic principles, upon which modern
thought on oil reservoir performance i s based. I t is t h e
purpose of this paper t o present these principles and
t o show, by actual examples, how they may be effectively
utilized.
Reservoir Performance

Three definite modes of performance of petroleum

reservoirs have been recognized: 1, dissolved-gas drive;
2, gas-cap drive; and, 3, water drive. These a r e defined
according to the source of energy, or drive, under which
t h e oil i s moved through the producing formation into
the well. I t is important to know t h e outstanding features t h a t characterize each of these types of operation
because, in a g r e a t many instances, it i s possible to
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water production as factors of reservoir performance,

are discussed; and a nuniber of exan~plesof the applicatiora of ~ n o d e r tengineering
~
principles to problenas of
these types are given.
The subordinate r6le played by well spacing in the
modern concept of reservoir perforniance is discussed.
The particular point stresbed is that well spacing alone
is not the controlling influence on recovery efficiency;
it is the control of the reservoir as a whole, in such a
way that the most efficient n~echanisn~
of recovery is
propcrl? utilized. that governs the recovery to be obtained. Specifically, in any field, a sufficient n u ~ n b e rof
wells should be drilled so that, when the field as a whole
is produced at an efficient rate, the rate of production
of individual wells is not excessive; i.e., individual wells
should not be produced at such rates that there is an
excessive production of free gas or water, or that the
rate of depletion of the sand in the neighborhood df
the wells is materially ,greater than in the remainder of
the reservoir.

make a choice between them a t a n early stage of t h e

development of a field. I n particular, w h a t must be
known a r e t h e criteria by which one kind of performance may be distinguished from another, t h e consequences t h a t result from a specific choice, and t h e
operating procedures t h a t must be follou~edto achieve
the type of performance desired. The character of .each
type of drive will be briefly outlined and illustrated
with examples taken from field experience.

'

Dissolved-Gas Drive

When t h e sole source of energy available or utilized

t o produce the oil from the reservoir is in the g a s dissolved in the oil, the reservoir i s defined a s being in
operation under a dissolved-gas drive. This type of
performance is characterized by continuous and rapid
decline in reservoir pressure, paralleled by a steady
decline in well potentials; and it.exhibits a distinctive
gas-oil-ratio behavior, in tvhich the gas-oil ratio rises
steadily t o a maximum value several times the original
ratio, and thereafter declines. The recovery t o be expected from this type of mechanism ranges f r o m 15 t o
40 per cent of t h e oil originally in place.
The conditions which make this method of operation
mandatory a r e :
a., F l a t structure, usually with substantial stratification
or low vertical permeability, obviating t h e possibility of appreciable gravitational segregation of
g a s released from solution.

b. Absence of a free g a s cap or of a water body which

could move into the oil reservoir.
c. High r a t e of production, substantially exceeding the
ability of a n y water present to advance into t h e
reservoirs, o r the ability of a free g a s cap, if
present, to expand efficiently.
I n Fig. 1 a r e shown the production statistics f o r the
Gloyd-Mitchell zone of the Rodessa Field in Louisiana.
This reservoir is a nearly flat extension of the main
Rodessa structure. Production is from 2 intervals in
the Gloyd zone, found a t 5,900 ft. The upper one of
these, a sandy lilne, is known a s the Mitchell sand; and
the lower section is predominantly oolitic lime, and is
designated a s the lower Gloyd. The oil produced from
this field has a surface gravity of 42 to 43 deg API,
and the solution g a s w a s originally 627 cu f t per bbl
under the original pressure of 2,400 psi. No f r e e g a s
was originally present in this section, and there h a s
been no evidence of water drive noted. The wells completed in this zone were produced a t high rates, and
experienced a rapid decline in production. The availability of reasonably accurate data on this field h a s made
possible the presentation of a n excellent practical example of the salient features of this type of drive, and
provides a satisfactory check on the theoretical expectancy. It will be noted t h a t the production a n d pressures both suffered a steady rapid decline, and the

gas-oil-ratio history has exhibited behavior typical of

this type of drive.
The ultimate recovery from this zone h a s been estimated to be 20 per c e n t of the original oil in place. This
low recovery is in accord with t h e expectation f o r this
type of drive. This conclusion is based on the study of
a number of fields which have been wholly, or largely,
produced under this mechanism, and includes fields '
producing from the Chester sands in Illinois and the
Bartlesville sand in Oklahoma. Although recoveries a s
high a s 40 per cent ]nay be anticipated under this drive,
by f a r the majority of cases reviewed showed recoveries
t h a t ranged from 20 to 30 per cent:
Gas-Cap Drive

Under this type of drive o r recovery mechanism, a

distinct free-gas area-either
originally present or
created--espands, or is caused t o expand by injection
of gas, thus encroaching downward into t h e oil zone
and displacing oil downstructure. . Here t h e energy i n
the system in the foinm of solution g a s is augmented by
t h a t of the expanding g a s cap and, under proper conditions, will be further enhanced by the force of gravity.
I n this type of drive the pressure may be either maintained a t approximately its original value o r maintained
under a controlled decline. A t the same time t h e producing rates a r e maintained a t Inore uniform levels
than is possible under ordinary dissolved-gas-drive operation. The free g a s in fields of this kind is virtually
all segregated in the gas-cap zone; and-the gas-oil ratio
of all wells, except those close t o t h e gas-oil contact,
remains a t a low value. The gas-oil ratio of wells close
to the gas-oil contact 'continues to rise until largely f r e e
g a s is produced, a t which time such wells a r e closed to
production. The ultimate recovery to be espected ffom
this recovery mechanism will range from 40 per cent to
possibly a s high a s 80 per cent of the original oil
in place.
The conditions which favor this type of operation a r e :
a. The sand must have high permeability; because, f o r
practical purposes, the prevention of channeling
and bypassing of gas, both t h a t evolved from solution and t h a t previously in the g a s cap, would be
very difficult if this condition were not fulfilled.
b. Pronounced structure is usually necessary to aid
gravitational segregation.
c. The sands must be continuous and reasonably uniform to permit thorough displacement of the oil
a s the gas cap expands through the oil body.
d. Some ~estrictionof oil-withdrawal r a t e is necessary
to prevent g a s channeling and bypassing.
e. Careful gas conservation i s usually necessary if the
full use of the displacing ability of the g a s cap is
to be enjoyed. I n some cases this may require
return of g a s to the crest of the structure.

Rodessa Field-Northwest Gloyd EstensionGraphical Statistics.

FIG. 1

As an esample of this type of operation, t.he production statistics f o r the Mile Six Pool in Peru a r e shown
in Fig. 2. This field, which produced a 40-deg-APIgravity oil from the Parinas sandstone, met the require-

ments for gas-cap-drive operation. I t has good porosity

and permeability and pronounced structural relief, a s
is seen on the structure map in Fig. 3. Throughout
operations, there has been a high degree of gravitational segregation; and the volume of gas returned to
the sand, up to 1940, amounted to 127 per cent of all
the gas produced from the field. The effect of this on
the downward migration of the gas-oil contact is graphically illustrated on the map in Fig. 3. I t will be observed in Fig. 2 that the pressure has been maintained
ali~losta t the original level, and that gas-oil ratios have
held remarkably constant. Practically all of the oil
produced from this pool to date has been obtained by
natural flow, and the indicated recovery efficiency is
approsinlately 50. per cent. This relatively high efficiency is typical of this recovery mechanism.
Water Drive

When, in a petroleum reservoir, the principal means

for the displacement of oil from a producing horizon
into the wells is the encroachlnent of edge water or
bottom water into the oil zone, under the influence of
the pressure gradients created by the production from
the wells, the .reservoir is said to be operating under a
water drive. The chief operating characteristic of this

type of recovery mechanism are the maintenance of

reservo&- pressure, a t relatively high levels throughout
the course of productiop, the retention of productivity
by the \veils, and operation a t low gas-oil ratios. The
degree to which these ends are attained depends on the
relation that exists for a particular reservoir between
the rate a t which oil, gas, and water are removed from
the reservoir and the rate of influx of water. The recovery of oil under this mechanism will range from
40 per cent to a s high a s 80 per cent, depending on the
properties of the reservoir and its contained fluids:
Water drive may come about in 2 ways: 1, simple
artesian flow, which is conlparatively rare; and, 2, a s a
result of the espansion of the water in that part of the
reservoir outside the oil zone. The requirements for a
satisfactory water drive are a s follows:
a. The oil body must be in good communication with a
permeable and continuous water-bearing sand
(usually the regional continuation of the oil sand
itself) of considerable areal extent, or outcropping
a t a reasonable distance.
b. The permeability of the sand must be fairly high,
so that the rate of water advance can be sufficient
to be of benefit within practical time limitations.
Similarly, oil viscosity must be reasonably low.

Mile Six Pool-Operating

FIG. 2

Data;

c. The sands in the oil reservoir proper must be reasonably continuous and uniform, so that effective
flushing nlay be obtained. .
d. Rate of fluid withdrawals must be restricted to a
level comn~ensuratewith the ability of the water
to advance evenly into the oil sands, if maximum
effectiveness of the flushing action, through avoidance of channeling and bypassing by the encroaching water, is to be realized.
The behavior of the D i s Pool (Fig. 4) in Jefferson
County, Illinois, furnishes a n excellent exanlple of a
field operated under the water-drive recovery mechanism. The reservoir here is a small anticlinal dome in
the Bethel sand, and the water-bearing p a r t is continuohs in all-directions from the pool for a distance
of a t least 20 miles. Throughout the life of the field to
date, the pressure in the reservoir has been maintained
above the saturation pressure (270 psi) of the oil. It
is of interest to note that, in the past year, there
h a s been a buildup in pressure of 1 9 psi. The water
encroachment has been, and remains, uniform-the
water contours following the structure very closely. I t
is too early in the life of this operation to forecast
accurately the recovery efficiency for the reservoir, but

preli~ninaryestimates place i t in the neighborhood, of

40 per cent. This is to be compared with E a s t Tesas,
which is a t the opposite extremity of the efficiency
range. A t E a s t Tesas the recovery h a s been estimated,
both from cores taken in the flooded zones and from
careful calculations, to be approsinlately 80 per cent.
Other water-drive fields, such a s Magnolia in Arkansas,
producing from the Smackover lime, and North Searight
in Oklahoma, producing from the Ordivician Wilcox
sand, lie in between these extremes. I n general, there
is to be found a relation between the recovery efficiency
and the properties of the reservoir and its contained
fluids. I n particular, recovery is affected by the permeability of the reservoir and the viscosity of the oil and,
in a Inore general way, the recovery will be affected by
the uniformity, or lack of it, in the reservoir. Further,
there a r e capillary forces a t the oil-water interface
which exert a definite, but a s yet not measured, effect
on the recovery. A t D i s the reservoir sand h a s a permeability of 80 millidarcys, and the reservoir-oil viscosity is 2.5 centipoises; whereas a t E a s t Texas the
permeability of the Woodbine sand averages 1,500 millidarcys, and the reservoir viscosity is low, approximating 1.5 centipoises. In general, however, although the
recovery under water drive may vary from 40 to 80 per
cent, depending on reservoir conditions, for any particular reservoir water drive can be expected to yield
a higher recovery than simple dissolved-gas drive. To
return to the example given previously, normal recoveries by simple g a s expansion in the Bethel and
other Chester series sands in the Illinois Basin average
20 to 25 per cent, whereas recovery from this sand
under water drive will approximate 40 per cent.

Con~parativeBehavior
To sumnlarize the principles observed above, we may
draw the following conclusions with regard to the comparative behavior of these three fundamental recovery
mechanisms :

Mile Six Oil Pool-Migration

FIG. 3

of Gas-Oil Contact.

1. The simple dissolved-gas-drive mechanism operates

with a rapid depletion of pressure, whereas in the
gas-cap drive o r in the water drive pressure is
maintained a t relatively high levels, if the proper
operating practices suitable to each a r e observed:
2. I n the dissolved-gas-drive operation there is a n
estrenlely rapid decline in the production rate,
due to the rapid depletion of energy, compared to
the retention of productivity a t higher levels in
the other recovery mechanisms.
3. Each type of drive shows a distinctive gas-oil-ratio
behavior. I n Fig. 5 there is shown typical gas-oilratio behavior of the 2 types of gas-drive recovery.
It will be noticed that, in the dissolved-gas drive,
there is a very rapid depletion of the g a s in solution; whereas .in t h e gas-cap drive, particularly
under those conditions favorable t o gravitational
segregation, the g a s is conserved in such a manner
a s to be of material assistance in promoting higher
ultimate recovery, and the gas-oil ratio throughout

RESERVOIRPERFORMANCE
the major part of the life of the operation is maintained a t a low level. I t will be observed that,
where gravitational segregation of oil and gas is
not effective, the gas-cap-drive mechanism reverts
to a behavior lying between that of simple dissolved-gas drive and gas-cap drive, coupled with
complete segregation. Lack of segregation will
result in the production of excessive amounts of
gas, rather than in its retention in the reservoir.
Such a condition may be encountered in very flat
structures that afford little opportunity for the
control of the free gas, in tight sands, or in re-

57

pressuring operations, in which gas injection is

made throughout the oil acreage. I n water-drive
operations, when properly controlled, the gas-oil
ratio is also maintained a t low levels and, under
some conditions, can be maintained a t solution
gas-oil ratio over virtually the entire producing
life of the pool. This is particularly true in such
cases as the Dix Pool, cited previously, in which
the reservoir oil was initially undersaturated. In
those cases, when the oil is initially saturated a t
the original bottom-hole pressure and a free gas
cap is present, adequate control of gas-oil ratio

Pressure Decline and Fluid Withdrawal-Dis

FIG. 4

Pool, January 1944.

PRACTICE
PRODUCTION

i8

and the avoidance of the production of g a s from

the g a s cap can usually be attained by proper
well-completion and production techniques.
With regard to ultimate recovery, these types of
performance a r e again divided into two distinct
'
groups: a dissolved-gas drive, with a generally
low recovery; and the gas-cap drive and water
drive, with generally higher recoveries. Esperience and study have shown t h a t the dissolved-gasdrive mechanism is inherently t h e most inefficient
means of recovering oil. Laboratory esperimental
work '"on the espulsion of oil from sands through
t h e medium of dissolved-gas drive h a s shown that,
whenv the g a s saturation in the sand reaches approxin~ately10 per cent of the pore volume, t h e
flow of g a s (hence, the gas-oil ratio) increases
rapidly; and, when the gas saturation reaches
approsinlately 20 to 35 per cent of the pore volume, the production of oil becomes negligible. I n
other words, the recovery of this type of drive,
expressed a s per cent of pore volume, will be,
generally, in the neighborhood of 25 per cent. I t
is apparent, of course, t h a t the percentage recovery, in terins of the original oil in place, will
vary with the percentage of connate water in the
sand. The recovery efficiencies, then, in dissolvedgas drive, depend only on the conlposition and
properties of the reservoir and its contained fluids.
In the case of gas-cap drive, coupled with gravitational segregation, the esamples cited previously
illustrate t h e higher recoveries obtained under this
mechanism. To capitalize to the greatest possible
extent on this type of drive, i t is often desirable
.
Figures refer to REFEI<ESCES on p. 64.

FRACTION OF ORIGINAL OIL PRODUCED

Typical Gas-Oil-Ratio Behavior.

FIG. 5

'

to augment the free g a s originally present by

injection of a t least all of the produced gas, to
maintain the pool energy a t a high level. The
inherent efficiencies of gravitational segregation
and gravity drainage alone a r e graphically illustrated by the behavior of the Oklahoma City Field,
which produces in t h e Ordivician Wilcos sand. A t
the time the pressures had reached 100 psi, only
23 per cent of the original oil in place had been
recovered. Although the pressure in this reservoir
had been rapidly depleted, the recovery to J a n u a r y
1941 was 35 per cent of t h e estimated oil in place,
and is expected to reach 50 to 55 per cent ultimately by primary means. The difference between
the ultimate recovery and t h e recovery a t t h e time
of pressure depletion can be attributed largely to
the mechanism of gravitational segregation. I n
the updip p a r t of the structure on the east flank
of the pool, cores taken in t h a t p a r t of the sand
taken over by g a s have measured residual-oil
saturations a s low a s 20 per cent. It is to be noted,
however, that, in this pool, where the energy was
not maintained, as w a s the case i n t h e Mile Six
Pool, much of the oil to be recovered will be
produced a t relatively low rates. Further, the
sand quality in the Wilcos horizon definitely represents the most favorable conditions t h a t could be
encountered. I n general, in this type of field, both
from an econonlic point of view and from the
point of view of recovery efficiencies, the maintenance of reservoir energy through the injection of
gas is to be preferred.
The low residual saturations obtainable under
water drive have been determined by the analysis
of cores taken from the Woodbine sand a t E a s t
Texas, in t h a t p a r t of t h e producing horizon already flooded out by water. F u r t h e r testimony to
this is obtained from the experience of water-flood
~ p e ~ a t i o nin
s which, in the Oklahoma-Kansas
shallo\v area, residual saturations slightly below
25 per cent of the total pore volunle actually
flooded have been obtained in the Bartlesville sand.
Although these figures definitely represent the
maximuln efficiency obtainable, a n analysis of
other water-drive op&ations definitely establish
the superiority of this type of recovery mechanism
over sinlple depletion-type operation.
5. I n addition to the obvious advantages involved in
greater ultimate recoveries, the gas-cap and waterdrive mechanisms offer also definite advantages
from an operating point of view. I n many cases
operations under these kinds of drive can be conducted with most, if not all, of the wells in the field
producing by natural flow throughout most of their
life; whereas under dissolved-gas drive the flowing
life of the wells is usually brief. Particularly in
water-drive operations there will be some cases
when, even though the field is produced a t efficient
rates, i t will be necessary to resort to pumping
production. This will occur in fields where the oil

is so greatly undersaturated t h a t there is insufficient energy to flom'the wells. Further, i t i s also

to be noted that, when water production in the
wells reaches a range from 20 to 50 per cent of
the fluid produced, i t will usually be necessary to
resort to pumping.
From the foregoing points, the superiority of gas-cap
drive and water drive over simple dissolved-gas drive
is definitely established. I11 actual practice, of course,
many reservoirs a r e found to be operating under more
than one ,form of drive; however, some one recovery
mechanism usually dominates, or can be made to dominate, the performance of the field. The major problem,
then, t h a t confronts the operator and the reservoir
engineer when a field is opened to development is to
establish what type of drive is present, o r what type of
drive is to be utilized in the operation of the reservoir.
I t is apparent t h a t only when no other alternatives a r e
possible will dissolved-gas drive be employed, if the
masilnuln efficiency is to be obtained.
Identificatiot~of the Type of Drive

Often excellent indications of the type of drive t h a t

may be anticipated in a given field can be obtained from
a study of the geological data t h a t a r e available concerning the general a r e a in which development i s
planned. The geologic information required f o r preliminary study directed to the identification of the type,
o r types, of drive possible a r e given in the following
statements :

g a s cap, and the location of the water table, if one is

found to be present-an
excellent preliminary picture
of the possibilities may be set up. This can be well
illustrated by the following example. I n Fig. 6 is shown
a schematic diagram of a n actual reservoir. This oil
accuinulation w a s in a sand b a r extending f o r several
miles on a northeast-southwest trend. The location of a
major fault running in a north-south direction t o the
north and east of the field, a s shown i n the diagram,
mas known. A few dry holes i n the shale zone were
drilled, defining the edge of the reservoir and also the
continuity of the permeability and porosity on either
side of the pool. Porous and permeable sand was found
only to the southwest of the pool. From these data, then,
it can be immediately concluded t h a t only a very limited
water drive is possible in this field. If, f o r example, the
sand had been continuous in all directions around the
pool for a distance of several miles, such a s w a s the
case in the D i s Pool, previously cited, the possibilities
f o r a water drive would have looked favorable.
Imlnediately upon con~pletionof the first well, there
should also be made a number of physical measurements
which will be of value in making a n engineering study
of the pool and in identifying the type of drive to be
employed. Included in- these a r e electric logs, core

1. The nature and extent of the horizon to be exploited

should be known. I n this connection, it is desirable
to know whether the prospective producing horizon
is reasonably continuous over a large area such
as, for example, t h e Smackover lime; or whether
i t consists largely of more o r less isolated sand
bars, such a s the Waltersburg sand in Illinois o r
the Bartlesville sand in Oklahoma. From these
data i t can be deduced whether there exists a sufficiently large body of h a t e r in connection with t h e
oil reservoir to sustain a water drive. I n general,
what is required f o r this purpose is a continuous
,water-bearing horizon, extending from 10 to 20
miles from the edge of the pool.
2. The presence or absence of major faults should be
noted. If the accumulation is against a fault, o r .
near a major fault, the degree of water drive
attainable will be reduced. This will tend to limit
the rate of production t h a t the water drive can
sustain.
3. The continuity of porosity and permeability in t h e
horizon should be determined a s soon a s possible.
This information affords further indications of the
possibilities of t.he presence or absence of a water
drive.

From these prelinlinary data and the subsurface geodata

logic data obtaiflable from early wells-which
define the nature and extent of the oil reservoir, the
structural relief, the presence o r absence of a n original

Scl~elllaticDiagram of Reservoir.

FIG. 6

analyses, and bottom-hole-pressure and bottom-holesample data. With these geologic data and the physical
measure~nents made during the early development of
the pool, i t will usually be possible to tell reasonably
early in the life of the pool whether a satisfactory water
drive exists. If a water drive can definitely be ruled out
on the early data; the possibilities f o r gas-cap drive can
usually be determined a s soon a s sufficient wells have
been drilled to define the properties of the reservoir,
such a s structural relief, porosity, permeability, and
degree of stratification, and the extent of a n y g a s cap
found to be present. I n many cases there will be found
distinct possibilities f o r the avoidance of operation
under dissolved-gas drive. I n general, until such time
a s a decision on the type of drive to be employed h a s
been made, conservative producing rates should be employed in order to avoid doing harm to the reservoir
through the loss of energy which may be difficult t o
retrieve.
Reservoir Control

I t has been pointed out t h a t the first problem in the

control of the performance of a new reservoir is the
absolute avoidance of the use of a dissolved-gas drive
a s the recovery mechanism, if i t is a t all possible.
Further, i t h a s been stressed t h a t conservative producing rates should be employed, until such time a s t h e
field is adequately explored and defined and the type
of recovery mechanism to be used is identified.
I n a gas-cap drive, usually, the primary problem is
the control of g a s production. I n this case the r a t e of
production must be consistent with the rate a t which
effective segregation of the g a s and oil can take place.
Further, there must be maintained a uniform advance
of the gas-oil contact downstructure a s the g a s cap espands, and the production of gas from the gas cap must
be held to a minimum. When pressure is being maintained by g a s injection, the r a t e of withdrawal must
be balanced with the rate of injection of gas. Excessive
rates of production by individual wells in a field of this
kind create high g a s saturations in the sand adjacent
to the well bore, and can create serious problems of
gas-channeling, particularly in wells in the neighborhood of the gas-oil contact. Further, production a t excessive rates in fields producing under this type of drive
does not permit taking advantage of the benefits to be
obtained from the gravitational segregation of oil and
g a s in the reservoir, with its attendant high liquid
saturations and high well productivities in t h e downstructure p a r t of the reservoir. I n outline, then, the
proper producing procedure f o r a reservoir of this type
is the production of oil a t such rates a s to minimize freeg a s production and gas-channeling and to maintain a
uniform encroachment of the gas-oil contact downstructure, highest degree-of segregation of oil and gas, and
a maximum liquid saturation in the producing horizon
downstructure. Whenever possible, the return of produced g a s to the reservoir should be considered to maintain reservoir energy, low fluid viscosities, and more
uniform producing rates.

I n water-drive operation there appears every type of

control problem likely to be' found in any reservoir.
Primary problems encountered in fields of this kind a r e
the control of producing rates a t such levels a s to maintain a balance o r a favorable ratio between withdrawals
and water influx, the maintenance of a uniform encroachment of the water, and the control of water and
g a s production.
I n Fig. 7 a r e shown the production statistics f o r the
North Searight Pool in Oklahoma, another typical
water-drive operation. Production in this field is from
the Wilcox sand. Here, through the medium of proration, producing rates have been such a s t o maintain a
balance between fluid withdrawals and influx of water
into the reservoir, such t h a t pressure may be maintained
a t a high level. Moreover, a s will be seen in Fig. 8,
there' has been a very uniform movement of the water
table upstructure. This feature is desirable in order to
attain a uniform displacement of oil from the sand in
t h a t p a r t of the reservoir flooded by water.
The inlportance of effective control of the r a t e of
production from a reservoir, particularly in the early
stages of development, is graphically illustrated b y the
behavior of the Elk Basin Field, which produces from
the Tensleep sand in II'yoming and Montana. From
geologic considerations and from the behavior of another
nearby Tensleep reservoir, there is reason to believe t h a t
a water drive of some magnitude may be present. However, a t the rates of production which prevailed in t h e
past, there has been a very rapid decline i n pressure;
and engineering study has shown that, a t these rates,
i t is impossible to tell whether a water drive exists. The
calculations shown in Fig. 9 illustrate this problem. I n
the study of the behavior of this reservoir, t h e pressure
history to be anticipated w a s calculated on the basis of
two assumptions: first, t h a t a water drive exists; and,
second, t h a t no water drive exists and t h e production
is due solely to the expansion of oil and its contained
g a s within the boundaries.
Important tools f o r the solution of problems of this
Schilthuis,'
kind have been developed by Muskat,"ruce:
and Katz.TThe most interesting and important feature
of the calculations shown in Fig. 9 is that, a t t h e high
r a t e of production of 600 bbl per well day, so f a r a s
pressure behavior was concerned, there is no distinction
between water drive and simple depletion operation.
Under these conditions, a satisfactory decision a s to the
type of drive possible in this field could not be made
and, in the meanwhile, there w a s occurring a rapid
depletion of reservoir energy. I t will be observed that,
a t the lower rates of production, there is afforded a n
opportunity to make the necessary distinction and also
to maintain the energy of the reservoir a t a high level.
This latter feature is, of course, of importance, whether
a water drive materializes o r not. If i t should fail to
materialize, this high energy level will be of value, in
order t h a t the m a s i m u ~ nbenefits of a gas-cap drive
may be employed. This reservoir is a steeply folded
structure, has good permeability, and the crude oil a t
the present pressure levels has a relatively low viscosity.

......
1900

DEC

R. 6

North Searight Pool-Keokuk

FIG. 8

E.
Area.

20M

ORIGINAL PRESSURE E S r l U A T E D
MEASURED PRESSURE
CALCULATED PRESSURE-WATER DRlVE
CALCULATED PRESSURE-NO WATER D P l Y E

JUN

DEC

JUN

DEC

1943

1944

Elk Basin Field-Comparative

FIG. 9

I
JUN

1945

Pressure Behavior.

Thus, it is seen that, if the water drive fails to be of

a commercial magnitude, there are good possibilities
that a form of gas-cap drive, or pressure-maintenance
through the medium of gas injection, can be employed
to advantage. This pool study presents a striking example of the alternatives that are presented in the
selection of a recovery lnechanis~nwhen a n engineering
study of the re'kervoir is made in its early life. I n
particular, the opportunities for the avoidance of the
adoption of dissolved-gas drive a r e stressed.
A problem of particular importance in water-drive
reservoirs is the control of water production. This is
not alone important from the point of view of individual
well performance, but also from the point of view of
the performance of the reservoir a s a whole; for, insof a r a s behavior of the reservoir is concerned, the withdrawal of a barrel, of water has just a s great a n
influence on the pressure behavior and other features
of the operation a s the withdrawal of a barrel of oil.
There are three methods by means of which the production of water can be controlled, viz.:

1. Mechanical methods, such a s plugging back and the

use o f small-bore pumps to facilitate uniform
withdrawals.
2. The injection of water produced back into the
horizon from which i t was taken.
3. The control of producing rates.
Inasnluch as the mechanical methods referred to are
not prop&ly a part of reservoir engineering, they will
not be further discussed here. However, particular attention is directed to the inlportance and availability
of these techniques for the control of water production.

Attention has been focused recently on the return of

produced water to the horizon from which i t was taken.
Application of this technique has already been made a t
East Texas and, a t the present time, application of this
method is under consideration in the Magnolia Pool in
Arkansas. The return of unavoidably produced water
to the formation can be, under suitable circumstances,
a ineans of reducing effective reservoir withdrawals
and thus maintaining reservoir pressure-through the
medium of which gas is retained in solution, high liquid
saturations are maintained in the reservoir, and the
flowing life of the wells is extended. The results that
may be anticipated a t Magnolia from this kind of control are shown in Fig. 10. The calculated pressure production behavior is shown for 3 sets of conditions.
Curve 1 shows the behavior to be expected if all water
production is returned to the reservoir, the gas-oil ratio
is maintained constant, and the production rate reduced
4 per cent per year. Curve 2 shows the behavior when
all water is returned and the gas-oil ratio and producing
rate are maintained constant. Curve 3 shows the expected behavior with no return of water to the formation, maintaining the same producing rate a s in 2. It
will be observed that the return of all produced water
to the formation, coupled with moderate reductions in
producing rate over a period of years, will sustain the
flowing life of the wells in this pool indefinitely.
An interesting experiment along this general line is
already being conducted in the Midway Pool in Arkansas, which also produces from the Smackover lime. A
review of this operation has been presented to the
American Petroleum Institute by Horner and Snow."
I n this instance fresh water is being injected into

RESERVOIRPERFORMANCE
the Smackover through wells on the edge of the producing zone. This experimental project h a s shown
some degree of success a s a means of controlling the
I,ressure behavior of
field. hi^ project, however,
is to be distinguished froln t h a t contemplated for t h e
~
~ pool. ~ the ~ ~
~ pool
~
there
~ l already
~i
esists a substantial water drive;
injection of
water into the ~
~ ill this case,
~ is an ausiliary
~
~
l,roductioll control, as well as a lnealls of disposal of
salt water;
the id^^^ pool did not have a
water drive collll,arable in
with ~
~
~
and fresh water was injected primarily to augment t h e
water drive. The interesting feature of this experiment
is the practical denlonstration of the fact that it is
possible to influence the behavior of the reservoir by
the injection of water.
The third lnethod by \\+,ich
water I,roduction can be
controlled is by the control of t h e r a t e of production.
Much water produced- in water-drive fields, particularly
where the structure is rather flat alld where the producing section is relatively thin, is due to water-coning.
The theoretical treatment of this llrobleln, for the case
of a holnogelleous
has beell gi\,ell by ~ ~ ~ k
Most petroleuln reservoirs, of course, are not homogeneous, but have tight streaks and shale breaks and
other discolltinuities distributed more or less at random
The problem is, then,
t]lroughout the
reduced to establishillg
lllasilnum differential at
which the average wells in
field can be produced
and not make water. This can be done by test data, o r
production data taken from selected wells scattered over
the area of the field. These test data,
with
the tileoretical rates calculated for the same wells on
the assunlption of a holnogeneous sand, establish a
factor for the relation of theory to performance f o r
wells in the proclucing section. This factor can then be
~llultipliedby the theoretical r a t e for the average well;
i.e., a well having a n average thickness of sectioil above
the water table and the average penetration, and t h u s
determine the optimum producing r a t e a t which production of water can be minimized. A similar technique can
be used for the control of producing rates when the
coning of g a s is a problem. It is to be understood, of
course, t h a t in fields of this kind every effort is made in
the con11)letion of wells to take advalltage of every
natural barrier to the intrusion of water or gas. The
intention of this brief review of the problem has been
to demonstrate t h a t there a r e methods available, or
methods which can be adapted, for the solution of the
problenl of the control of producing rates in fields where
g a s and water production a r e problems.
It is evident in this discussion on the control of
reservoir performance that there a r e already available
much technical knowledge and esperience which may be
brought to bear upon the problem. Further, there a r e
many technical developments ltrhich a r e a t present under
trial, and many more lying dormant awaiting trial.
Considerable advancement has already been made, and
a considerable understanding of the problems involved
has been attained.

63

Well Spaeinag
Well spacing alone has, in t h e light of the advances
made in the understanding of reservoir performance,
heen relegated to a position of secondary importance
insofar
a s~ the ultimate
recovery
to ~be obtained from a
~~
l
i
reservoir is concerned. A t the present time attention
is directed
to thekoperation ~of the reservoir
a s a~whole,
~
~
with the idea of making i t yield the maximum amount
of oil ~~ossible,
rather than merely attempting to com~111ete~each~individual
l
i well
~ with
, the maximum potential
A thorough and complete analysis of field experience
has shown that, a t least over the range of well densities
e~nployedin this country, i.e., u p to 40 acres per well,
there is no significant increase in ultimate recovery to
be obtained by increasing the well density. A theoretical
investigation of this problem by Muskat8 h a s shown
t h a t the physical ultilnate recovery does
depend on t h e number of wells in the case of dissolvedgas-drive operation. With regard to economic ultimate '
recovery, i t was shown that, when the rates of ~ r o d u c tion
a r e low, say 10 bbl per well per day
~ at t abandonment
;
or less, or when the sand is
permeable, there
was no aljpreciable difference between the physical ultimate and the economic ultimate recovery. Although i t
not possible to assign ljractical significance
the numerical results obtained in this investigation,
the qualitative conclusions drawn a r e believed to be
Significant'
A worthwhile observation with respect to reservoir
drainage can be made fro111 a study of the behavior of
the Dill Pool in Oklahoma, which produced by dissolvedg a s drive from the Hunton lime. This field was developed on 4 0 - a ~spacing.
~
One well, however, the Dill
NO. 1, was originally completed in the Crolnwell sand.
After depletion of this sand lens, this well was deepened
to the Hunton lime. The original bottom-hole pressure
in the Hunton lime was 1,725 psi; and the initial production of the Hunton wells averaged, a f t e r acid treatment, 1,500 bbl per day. When the Dill No. 1 was
completed in the Hunton lime, i t had a n initial production of 101 bbl of oil per day, and the bottom-hole
pressure was found to be 113 psi. This indicated stage
of depletion was approxin~atelythe same a s that in the
offset wells, which had produced tllroughout their entire
life from the Hunton lime. That the oil, a s well a s the
gas, had been drailled from this area was demonstrated
by the fact t h a t the gas-oil ratio of this well was ~0111parable to the gas-oil ratio f o r the renlainder of the
field, indicating comparable oil and g a s saturations
throughout the reservoir. The u l t i ~ n a t erecovery to be
espected fro111 this well is 40,000 bbl of oil, compared
with approsimately 160,000 bbl of oil f o r the offset
wells. From these and other similar observations of
pools producing under dissolved-gas drive, i t is evident
t h a t the only co~lsiderationin which well spacing is of
primary importance is in the proper exploration and
definition of the reservoir. Insofar a s the proper depletion of the pool is concerned, i t is only necessary t h a t

.
~

sufficient wells be drilled to develop adequately the

reservoir and obtain production a t economic rates.
The primary problem in successfully draining a reservoir operating under water drive or gas-cap drive will
be the proper location of wells, rather than well spacing,
a s such. I n general, i t is obvious that, in a gas-cap
drive, i t would be desirable to locate most of the producing wells downstructure-in which direction the expanding g a s cap would tend to displace the oil; and,
conversely, in water-drive fields, development would be
concentrated upstructure to avoid unnecessary production of water and the drilling of unnecessary wells
which contribute little o r nothing to the ultimate recovery of the field. A s a purely practical matter, however, wells a r e usually drilled throughout the field on
a somewhat regular pattern, and a r e not confined t o
t h a t portion of the reservoir where they would be most
effective.
The number of wells required in a water-drive o r
gas-cap-drive field is t h a t which will permit the proper
control of the movement of g a s and water to accomplish
uniform displacement. Further, sufficient 'wells should
be drilled so that, w11en the field is produced a t a n
efficient rate, the production rate of individual wells
should not be excessive; i.e., individual wells should not
be produced a t such rates t h a t there is a n excessive
production of free g a s o r water, o r t h a t the rate of
depletion of the sand in the immediate vicinity of the
wells is materially greater than in the remainder of the
reservoir. A well, o r group of wells, operating a t excessive rates in a reservoir of this kind can create a
localized dissolved-gas-drive condition which could affect
the ultimate recovery from the reservoir a s a whole,
and this is a condition to be avoided. The particular
spacing to be used, then, in fields of these kinds, can
only be properly determined a t such a time a s a n efficient rate f o r the reservoir a s a whole can be established. The implication of this statement is t h a t i t is
prudent to develop a field on a nloderately wide spacing
until such time a s the reservoir is defined and the proper'
producing r a t e determined. If, then, further development is indicated, in order t h a t proper control of the
reservoir can be maintained, such additional wells a s
may be necessary can be drilled. By a procedure o r plan
of development of this kind, i t will be possible to obtain
the maximum recovery from petroleunl reservoirs and
to maintain efficient and economical operation.

Discussion
I n the foregoing sections, the fundamental features
of petroleunl reservoir performance have been outlined
and illustrated. Attention has been directed to the
importance of making a thorough engineering analysis
of the reservoir in the early stages of its development,
and reference h a s been made to a few of the important
theoretical and experimental studies which, together
with the experience of the past, form the. basis of the
present knowledge of reservoir engineering.
Although the details of the analysis of a n y specific
reservoir a r e often somewhat difficult-particularly

when i t is considered that, due to the vagaries of nature,

each reservoir presents new problems-the
basic principles a r e essentially simple and of considerable generality. Variations in t h e nature of the reservoir appear
to modify only the details of its history, rather than t h e
fundamental character. The fundamental features of
the performance are, in a large measure, in the hands
of the operator and t h e engineer. A s has been shown,
i t is possible to determine in advance o r a t a n early
stage of production in many, if not in most, fields just
what type of recovery mechanism is to be ,utilized.
Accordingly, the broad general outlines of t h e history
of the operation can be laid out. Thereafter, w h a t is
required is the accumulation of accurate measurements
of the properties of the system, and accurate records of
the production and performance, in order to maintain
' a detailed and uniform control of the operation. It is
to be stressed t h a t efficient operation of the reservoir
means proper control of the entire reservoir, and not
merely p a r t s of it. A s h a s been stated by S. E. Buckley,"
good practice on one lease and bad practice on another
do not necessarily average out to give a reasonably good
average performance.
Although there a r e unquestionably large gaps in our
knowledge of the details of reservoir performance, a
small capital of knowledge has been accumulated over
the past decade which, if intelligently and diligently
applied, will serve to inlprove our understanding of
these problems in the future, and will be of economic
advantage to all concerned in the development of the
petroleum industry. Intensive research is being continuously carried on to further improve the methods of
control and yield of oil reservoirs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is particularly indebted to the " ~ o i n t
Progress Report on Reservoir Efficiency and Well Spacing" by the Committees on Reservoir Development and
Operation of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey)
Affiliated Companies and the Humble Oil and Refining
Company, which was freely drawn upon in the preparation of this paper. Thanks a r e also due to the management of The Carter Oil Company f o r permission to
publish the paper.

REFERENCES

JI. C. Leverett a n d W. B. Lewis. "Ste;dy

Flow of Gas-Oil
J I i s t u r c s through UnconsoliBate(1 Sands, Trans. Am. I t ~ s t .
iUi#lil#g;vet. f?,rnra
l a 2 l n 7 .-..--,.
il!Ul i
>..>..". A--,
JI. l\Iuska t, Flow of H o ~ a o y c ~ i r o rFlrtitls,
ts
IIcGraw-Hill Book
Co.. New T o r k ( 1 9 3 7 ) .
3 nr. A. Brll ce, "Pressrcre Pre(licti6n f o r Oil Reservoirs," T~CIILS.
d 1 1 1 . I ~ r x t .i1Ii1ri1rg X c t . E ~ i g r s .151, 7 3 ( 1 9 4 3 )..
R. J. S c l i i l t l ~ u ~ "Active
r.
Oil nl111 K e s e r r ~ ~ Energy,"
ir
Trcr~re.
d ? n . I n s t . .IIi)li~zgMet. E ~ r g r s .118, 83 ( 1 0 3 6 ) .
Q. L. Katz. "A RIethotl of Estirnatin a Oil a u d G a s Reserves."
9111. Inat. iliin'i~tgN c t . Engrs. 118, 2G i1936).
L. Horlier a n d D. R. Snow. "A New Application of W a t e r
Injection f o r JInintaiuing Reservoir P r e s s u r e a u d Increasing
Natilral W a t e r Drive." Urillirig n ~ l d Prodlcction Prncticc, 2S
(,l C.l-.
i R.i, .
II. JIuskat. "An A l ~ p r o x i m n t eTl?epry of W a t e r Coning i n Oil
Pro(111ction." T r a ~ l s . Am. Irtst. ~ U r n r ~ r-1Iet.
a
E ~ l o r s . 114. 144

-".

'

DISCUSSION

J. J. A r p s (British American Oil Producing Company, Tulsa, Okla.) : I should like to ask whether recovery percentages here mentioned f o r the various types
of drive were expressed a s a percentage of the original
residual oil, o r the original reservoir oil?
Mr. Mullane: I n all instances percentages given were
sub~nitteda s percentages of the original residual oil.

E. A. Stephenson (Department of Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.) : When

a dissolved-gas drive fails, which sometimes occurs,
why not inject water, o r s t a r t a water flood a s soon
a s such failure is demonstrated? Water flooding has
been and is successful, and why not utilize the water a s
soon a s the basic laboratory work indicates its feasibility? By so doing, the ultimate recovery should be
greatly increased over t h a t due to dissolved-gas drive.
Mr. Mullane: I regret to say t h a t I do not have a n
intimate knowledge of water flooding. However, if a n
operation has produced a pool by g a s drive, and one has
developed the pool in a n economic manner, and the recovery has paid out and made a profit, then a n y additional
recovery obtainable by water drive nlay be profitable.
If, however, the sand thickness, t h e kind of oil, and t h e
other factors t h a t go to make a successful flood have
been misinterpreted, and we put water into the horizon
a t a n early stage, then the operator may encounter
difficulties. There is always the possibility t h a t the sand
nlay not flood successfully. I have in mind the Oklahoma
City Field, where I a m told t h a t water encroachment
flooded out something like 30 o r 40 wells. So one might
actually figure on the fact t h a t we know so little about
the factors t h a t control the thing that, if we wait until
later in the game, we cannot possibly get hurt.
George R. Elliott '(Phillips Petroleum Company,
Bartlesville, Okla.) : I should like to compliment Dr.
Mullane on his paper, and also his company on its
publication, which h a s given to u s a n excellent summary
on which y e can base f u t u r e studies on the behavior
of reservoirs.
A. W. Walker (Stanolind Oil and Gas Company,
Tulsa, Okla.) : Dr. Mullane has discussed very nicely
the question of reservoir performance, o r reservoir
mechanisms. Where the reservoir performance begins
and mechanisms leave off is a n extremely difficult point
to consider., I n other words, all the pressure differentials causing fluid movement a r e due to pressures
within the reservoir itself, and a t the well bore. Now
whether this pressure difference be due to encroachment of water, o r to g a s expansion, o r to gravity, t h e
net result is t h a t fluids move toward the well; but a t
the same time there must be a displacement. I think

'

the mechanism which is directly related to the displacement medium (whether i t be water o r gas) must be
taken into consideration.
There a r e a few points which I should like to discuss,
such a s whether the reservoir is under water drive, o r
g a s cap, o r g a s gravity, o r whatever you might choose
to call it. Conditions which Dr. Mullane has pointed
out a r e recognized primarily a s ideal cases. Actually,
we find few cases where fields a r e under one type of
operation; and very likely there a r e fields which will
change from water drive6to g a s expansion, o r vice versa,
depending upon operating practices. I n a great many
cases we have larger fields wvllere all three types a r e
silnultaneously in effect. So in reservoir performance
i e have to take into account the degree of the ~nechanisnl
and how the production of the fluid is affected.
There is one point I should like to bring out. I think
there is quite a bit of confusion regarding the question
of "solution-gas drive." No doubt Dr. Mullane and his
associates will readily agree that g a s does no driving
while in solution, only a f t e r coming out of solution. I n
other words, the drive is the pressure exerted by the
expansion of gas, a f t e r i t has been liberated from the
oil and is more o r less uniforn~lydistributed throughout
the reservoir.
Getting to the question of gas-cap drive, the ideal case
presented here is extremely interesting, and probably
is the first o r only one of which we have a complete
history. Actually, in operation we find in this country
t h a t we do not have true gas-cap drive; i.e., if we have
enough g a s expansion or liberation, we have a large
amount of free g a s with the oil, and then we have
increasing gas-oil ratios with a limited accumulation
of g a s in the reservoir-whether
it be on top o r in snlall
localized traps. Actually the mechanism of the gas-cap
drive is essentially gravity drainage. I n other words,
with a complete segregation and stratification of the
g a s and the oil, i t is the force of the gravity t h a t causes
t h e stratification and brings the oil to the well bore,
although i t is operating under a high static pressure.
So f a r a s gravity drainage is concerned, we have
heard a g r e a t deal about i t lately. F o r a good many
years it was more o r less neglected, and then i t came
u p again, after the Oklahoma City and other fields
seemed to eshibit special characteristics. However,
there is a tendency in our production practice to go in
cycles, and I think there is a tendency now to overemphasize gravity drainage. We know i t exists in all
things 'and a t all times. I n certain cases where conditions a r e ideal, i t may be the predominant influence.
As I see it, in order to have true gravity drainage, we
must have a relatively thick uniform sand section, with
very little stratification; therefore, whether we like i t
o r not, we do not find i t very frecluently. Those two
factors necessary f o r gravity drainage apparently were
present in the cases which have been noted recently.