Judicial Involvement and Conduct Problems of Fathers of Infants Born to Adolescent

Mothers
Arthur B. Elster, Michael E. Lamb, Laura Peters, James Kahn and Jane Tavar
Pediatrics 1987;79;230

The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is located on
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PEDIATRICS is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly publication,
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Judicial
Fathers

view

were

Data

MD, Michael

B. Elster,

James

Kahn, MS, and Jane Tavar#{233},

MS

obtained

the Department

from

of Pediatrics,

retrospective

re-

of 191 patient

records
to determine
the extent
and
types
of conduct
problems
among fathers of infants born
to adolescent
mothers.
Ninety-eight
fathers
(51%)
reported
having
committed
a legal
offense
prior
to the
pregnancy.
This
rate appears
substantially
greater
than
rates
of arrests
of adolescents
in the general
population.

When
paired
data for couples
were analyzed,
there was
great similarity
for severity
of offense.
Fathers,
however,
had committed
more severe
crimes
than their partners.
Male offenders
came
from families
of lower socioeconomic status
backgrounds
and more single-parent
families and were less frequently
employed
or in school
(or
graduated)
than nonoffenders.
They also had been more
involved
with various
other problem
behaviors,
such as a
previous

pregnancy,

problems

at school.

behaviors

among

adjustment
an

to the

these

fathers

young

fathers

During

the

have

oping

be well

past

placed

clinical

increasingly

evident

also
involves
Whether
or not

involved

the
with

As we learn
of mothers

with

group.

that

Although

some

mother.

social

and

health

emphasis
for

on

assisting

plandeveladoles-

medical
and psychosocial
early
pregnancy
and par-

more about
how
and their infants,
that

successful

working
with
young
they marry,
many
men

their

delinquency

others
have signifi1987;79:230-234;

Pediatrics
adolescent

interventions

suggest

It appears

adjusted,

decade,

mal-

results

and

mothers.

considerable

cents
in overcoming
problems
associated

enthood.
population

psychosocial

fatherhood

problems.
problem,

behavior

of problem

Our

a heterogeneous

may

cant
psychologic
paternal
conduct

ners

suggesting

of adolescent
form

and

a clustering

pregnancy.

between

partners

behavior,

was

offenders

prior

association

among

drinking

There

adolescent

partners

to help this
it becomes
intervention
fathers.13
now remain

and

accept

University

the

for publication
Feb 7, 1986; accepted
April 23, 1986.
requests
to (A.B.E.)
50 N Medical
Dr, Department
of
Pediatrics,
Salt Lake City, UT 84123.
PEDIATRICS
(ISSN
0031
4005).
Copyright
1987 by the
American
Academy
of Pediatrics.

230

of Utah School

responsibilities

involvement,

major

influence

of Medicine,

these
on

mothers)

their

and

emotionally.

these

young

people

young

may

young

and

new

(and
family

addition,

contribute

secu-

socioemo-

fathers

their

of

exert

emotional

cognitive

In
will

fathers

partners

to support

cially

productive
the country.
considering

Salt Lake City

As a result

young

rity and on their

infants
tional
development.58
As a society,
we expect
lescent

MS,

of parenthood.24

their

we

adofinan-

hope

that

in a vocationally

way to the economic

advancement
of
This expectation
may not be realistic
the poor academic
histories
of many

fathers.92

Other
than
educational
outcomes,
however,
we
know little about the partners
of adolescent
mothers. Pauker13
reported
that 94 adolescent
fathers,
matched
for age and socioeconomic
status
with a
group
of nonfathers,
had similar
personality
profiles

and

years

levels

of intellectually

earlier.

Comparing

income
matched

teenage
controls

grounds,

Rivara

functioning
100

fathers
with
from comparable
et

several

predominantly

a14 reported

low-

nonfather
economic
that

similar
with
respect
to knowledge
physiology
(both
were
low),
family

ageback-

groups

were

of reproductive
dynamics,
self-

and
impulse
control.
Nakashima
Camp7
compared
psychosocial
development
three
groups
of fathers:
one group consisted

and
in
of 20

esteem,

adolescent

with
ers

fathers

(younger

than

20 years

of age)

adolescent
partners,
another
of 15 adult
with adolescent
partners,
and the third

adult

fathers

with

adult

partners.

The

fathers

fathof 16
as-

sociated
with adolescent
partners
were functioning
at a less mature
level of ego development
and had
lower
vocabulary
scores
than
the fathers
in the
third

Received
Reprint

E. Lamb, PhD, Laura Peters,

Arthur

From

ABSTRACT.

Involvement
and Conduct Problems
of
of Infants Born to Adolescent
Mothers

group,

adolescent

suggesting

partners

logically
Taken

than
adult
together,

gest

the

that

partners

that

might

adult

be less

men with
the results

men

who

mature

adult
partners.
of these
studies

of adolescent

mothers

PEDIATRICS
No. 2 February 1987 at UIC Library of Hlth Sciences on June 23, 2014
DownloadedVol.
from79pediatrics.aappublications.org

choose

psychosugdo not

have

major

psychopathology.

pregnancy

program,

male

many

In

however,

partners

have

we

boys
Bureau

adolescent
Federal

ported
arrested

that, of the approximately

in the United
States
juveniles

gang
men

et al,5 in a longitudinal
from
Philadelphia,
found

mitted
as

a legal

high

as

youth,

offense

50%

44%

by

for

for

backgrounds,
social
study

than

nonwhite

youth

and

class
family
of 369 boys

second

grade,

population.
(FBI)

re-

from

In
recruited

his

rates
white
higher

boys

in London,

of delinquency
and Miller,8

none

that

30%

271 (12%)
in the tenth

of age

of these

with
reports,

of 2,300
students
grade
had been

an offense

men

fathered

who

mothers.

In

however,

was

addition,

infants
we

whether

lem

there

behaviors

legal

among

initially
charged
by
court.

a link

born

attempted

behavioral
characteristics
that
tween offenders
and nonoffenders
mine

a record

in juvenile

between
delinquency
and adolescent
In the present
study,
we investigated
and extent
of the judicial
involvement
by

had

In

fatherhood.
the nature
experienced
to

adolescent
to identify

had

of other
probcommitted
a

offense.

METHODS
The

years
to

Teen

Mother

of age,
lower

The

are

and

Child

(85%),

program
including

social
some

and

psychosocial
natal
care

problems,
is provided

teenagers

with

major

come

family

agencies,
have

in Salt

from

middle

police

variety

practitioners,

and the
numerous,

People
of

problems,

learn

data.

unknown,

Of
78%

of the program.

have

police

involvement

arrests

and

These

terms,

offense

insignificant

police

inal

traffic

offenses,

are

and

other

types

as well

judicial

of

as the

involvement

involvement

from

violations

were

actual

not

crim-

considered

as offenses.

Because
within

offenses

each

1 (status

curfew

violation;

minor

theft,

the

severity

category,

influence
of

narcotics;
forgery,

class

are inclided

we

soft

also

classified

and

truancy,

severity

conduct,

offense),

drugs,

run-away,

offense),

eg,
and

severity

offense),

and kidnapping.
A total of 328 records
of police
involvement
and

217

(66%)

of al-

3 (low-moderate
of drugs,
driving
statutory

rape;

theft,

possession

robbery,

eg,

possession

eg, auto

and

and

offense),

assault
eg,

class

heavy

eg, assault,
class 6 (very

with

forcible

severunder
burglary,

of

class 5 (high severity

offense),
and sale of heavy
narcotics;

armed

fathers

eg,

2 (low

of alcohol,

severity

severity

(greatest

offense),

vandalism;
class
eg, possession

(moderate

high

as

of varying
crime

disorderly

cohol, and
ity offense),

jury,

media.
Alcomplex

FBI

judicial
involvement
using
a scale
adapted
from
Hoffman
et al.#{176}
In this scale, offenses
were classifled by severity
into one of the following
categories:

schools,

such

2 years
who

informabehaviors
Later
data

earlier

was

between

referral

others
do not. Because
preby a certified
nurse
midwife,
medical

than

history

involvement.
legal

sale

backgrounds.

is 17 years.

from
private

service
teenagers

Program,

comprehensive
adpregnant
women
and
are younger
than
19

urban

age at delivery

the

sources,

friends,
though

white

middle-class

average

about

distinguish

class

Lake
City, is a university-based
olescent
program
that
serves
young
mothers,
most
of whom

first

people

complete
problem
started.

crimes.

differentiated
beand (2) to deter-

was a clustering
fathers
who

else-

Legal
offenses
were classified
by two methods.
The first method
is used by the FBI in their annual
Uniform
Crime Report.4
Eight categories
of violent
and property
crimes
make up type-i
offenses,
and
type-2
crimes
comprise
2i categories
of less serious

suggested

(1)

referred

are, therefore,
used interchangably.
For this study, consecutive
charts
of new patients
entering
the program
during
the first 5 years (1980
to 1985) were reviewed.
Social,
demographic,
educational,
vocational,
and
legal
information
was
compiled
for both partners.
To separate
relatively

by 21 years of age. Finally,

Conger
in a study
of young
men in Denver,

found
that
interviewed
18 years

found

complete

judicial

in the
all

terms

found

that
13% had a history
of an arrest
15 years
later,
and 14% reported
recent
trouble
with the police.
West
and Farrington,7
in their
longitudinal
study
of 411

are

actually
arraigned
by the courts
and charged
with
an offense.
In fact, approximately
38% of juveniles
arrested
by the police
nationally
are dismissed
before arraignment.4
In our interviews,
we did not

a prospective
during
the

associates6

more

whose

Not

socioeconomic

teenagers

and

therefore,

entered

lower

for

are,

Wolf-

18 years
of age, with
youth,
29% for

mellitus,

ner. We began
gathering
more
tion
about
arrest
histories
and
several
years
after
the program

of 9,945 young
35% had com-

of age.4

study
that

diabetes

A semistructured
psychosocial
interview
is conducted
with each pregnant
teenage
girl upon entry
to the program
and, when possible,
with her part-

subjects

18 years

backgrounds.
and
girls

Howell

that

8.5 million
men
during
1983, 15.8%

from

31%

noted

where.

offenses.
This
involvement

in the general
of Investigation

were

juvenile-onset

of behavioral

oflegal
ofjudicial

among
The

younger

have

a variety

problems,
especially
a history
led us to question
the extent

adolescent

our

serious

rape;

attempted

in-

class

murder

were reviewed.
The history
was known
for 191 (58%)
pregnant

teenagers.

ARTICLES
Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org at UIC Library of Hlth Sciences on June 23, 2014

The

231

socioeconomic

backgrounds,

ery)

for

fathers

legal

information

data.

The

fathers

did

were

not

or

of reported

interviewed

at

attended
another

known

lies,

directly.
Managing
tend
to underestimate

conduct

problems

know

err

their

side

erreporting
test

in that

partners

on the

legal

initial
interto 25% were
Data

ob-

of

data in this manner

the rate of legal
and

those

girls

histories

x2

events.

significance

for

whom

was

known

the
are

history

presented

did
probably

rather

than

was

in

for

used

delivery.

Fathers

TABLE

1.

Background

Whom

Arrest

Data

with

study

to
data

sub-

1. Like

an

Variable

of

Fathers

No.

For

No.

Unknown

17
14
33
34

26.0
22.0
52.0

20
25
19
29

18 to

21 years.

arrest,

76%

21

Hispanic

Other
Unknown

Age at delivery
15-17
18-2 1
>21
Marital
status

140
37
8
6

76.0
20.0
4.0

70
18
5
5

75.5
19.0
5.5

36
118
37

19.0
62.0
19.0

22
57
19

32
39
29

70
19
3
1

76
21
4

23.0
58.0
19.0

14
61
18

15
66
19

50.0
41.0
9.0

36
43
9
10

41.0
49.0
10.0

52
29
7
5

55
31
14

of parentst

Separated/divorced
Parents
deceased

Unknown

88
72
16
15

analyzed

by

known.

by 61%
48% of

and

51%

of

fathers

older

men

with

the

history

of an

of the

(83%

This

the

fathers

was

younger

time

than

the

and

most

a type-i

both

theft,

followed

by

burglary.

older

fathers,
under
and

TABLE
Fathers

the

most

the

influence

vandalism

2.
(n

age

Type
81)

of Offenses

crime

18 years

most

common

larceny-

younger

type-2

of alcohol.
next

Com

mitted

most

and

crime

was

Simple

as-

common

by Prospective

No.

Homicide

1
1
4

rape

Aggravated

assault

0.8
0.8
3.5

3.5

9
23

8.0
20.0

4.0

0.8

4.0

Vandalism

1
4

0.8
3.5

Possession
of weapons
Sex offenses

2
2

2.0
2.0

Burglary
Larceny-theft

vehicle

theft

Type 2
Simple
assault
Possession
of stolen

Drug

abuse

Driving
Liquor

property

violations

12

under the influence

law violations

Drunkenness

Disorderly
Runaways
Offenses

conduct
against

family

and

18
6

10.0
15.5

5.0

3.5

5
1

4.0
0.8

0.8

7.0

children

.05.

Other

tP<.10.

PATERNAL

CONDUCT

offenses

of

at some

were

both

the

reported

had

The

frequent
were

Each

FBI

than

groups
For

younger

two

(43%)

offense.

for

81

older.

crime

younger

crimes

driving

of the

fathers

by

was

fathers

and

serious

fathers
27 older

committed

18

one

18

older)

of offense(s)

18 years

into

2). Eleven

type-i

63

classified

(63%)

type

included

and

using

(Table

specific

group

18 years

subject

of

years,

for whom

than

92

current

years

Motor

(yr)

Married

and

a history

Of those

Kidnapping

White

232

fathers

than

Type
%

Race

*P<

When

Crime
Category4

status2
28.5
30.5
32.0

(51%)

reported

paternal
age, offenses
had been committed
of fathers
younger
than
18 years
of age,

Forcible
Robbery
37
39
52
63

fathers

(42%)

involvement.

sault

Nonoffenders
(n=
93)

Offenders
(n=98)

Socioeconomic
1-2 (high)
3
4-5

history

Known
Total
Group
(n = 191)

or race.

prospective
adolescents

judicial

age
their

arrest

Characteristics

Were

by age

fathers

female
partners,
these men were usually
white and
came
from
middle-class
families.
They
averaged
19.6 years of age at delivery.
Most couples
(93%)
conceived
premaritally
and
remained
together
through

differ

fami-

ov-

involvement

Table

not

socioeconomic

single-parent

not

cate-

for

pregnant

categories

of the

of judicial

did

lower

from

of age and 75% of those

18 years and
were one-time
offenders
only.
A total
of 1 16 crimes
were
committed

used

was

groups

gorical
data, and Students
t test
at the interval
level.20
The background
characteristics
jects

who

would

analysis

between

they

Ninety-eight

though

visits.

of underreporting

problem

level

the

but

from
and

RESULTS

tamed
from interviews
in which
fathers
were not
present
were kept in the analysis
because
they did
not differ
substantially
from
data obtained
from
fathers
would

came

backgrounds

partners

Even

clinic

frequently

for
initial

both
the
15%

more
family

histories

(52%).

subsequent

deliv-

on whether

with

mothers

half of the fathers

meeting,
probably

(at

unknown

with

legal

depending

with

age
with

to those

conducted

only

and

girls

similar

differ,

were

(48%)

race,

pregnant

frequency

interviews

only
view

and

PROBLEMS

Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org at UIC Library of Hlth Sciences on June 23, 2014

crimes

for

the

violations
Subjects
their

worst

group,

offense

categories
thers

younger

into

described

each

in

i, 0%;

whereas

were prevalent
among
were
then
classified

offense

class

5, i5%;

of

eight

was

class

a clearer

interpretation

reported

committed

by

couples
egories

curred

above

nificant

at

cantly

the

Thus,
legal

Background
presented

in

4.

were

more

related

nancy,

often

six

52

nonoffenders

lems

were

found

for

Relationship
Committed

An

and

24

11

13

23

38

catoc-

Drinking

behavior

(4

drinks/wk)*

29

45

17

27

times/mo)

14

21.5

sig-

Behavioral

47

68

Substance

use

(drugs

problems

(truancy,
ing)t

*P<

.05.

tP<

.01.

in school

sloughing,

14

28

38

or fight-

El
E

OFFENDERS
NON-OFFENDERS

z
Ui
C-)
0:
0

(n

Between
169)*

and

39

14

Moderate-high

defined

severity

for

offense

severity

offense

and

Severity

with an arrest
history
no judicial
involvement

by

of-

and

eight fathers
(15%)
had
three
or more

problems.

We found

we

with
court

No.

24

14

16

18

11

13

of status
severity

of mod-

5i%

admitted

serious,

High

that

of men

who

were

partners

of

pregnant
adolescents
served
by a special
hospitalbased
program
reported
a history
of involvement
with
the police
prior
to the pregnancy.
Because
the
offenses

categories.

reported

DISCUSSION

fathers

Moderate-

combination

problems

nonof-

as com-

by

low-moderate

of conduct
nonoffenders.

and

4
PROBLEMS

no probi3

as: low, combination

moderate-high,

fenders

additional

Low

3
OF BEHAVIOR

Number

Figure.

prob-

Severity
of Offense
for
Prospective
Fathers

No.

NUMBER

of 2.80

Partners

(29.5)
with

23
severity9

and

com-

Conversely,

.Oi).

66

high

15
6
22
72
45

subject

reported

Low

and

57

14
6
20
65
42

48

number

(4.5%)

(38.5)

None

low

53

11
21
24
54
63

17

whom

i.52

offenders

categories;

44

11
20
23
51
59
30

preg-

each

for

No.

offense

43

pregnancy*

44 offenders

average

None

erate

by

(56%)

Severity
of Offense
for Pregnant
Teenagers

offense,

(#{189}pack/d)

of a prebehavior

total

were

offenders

<

(P

behaviors

Offense

No.

behavior

the

use,

the

There

fenders
(P < .Oi). Two
pared
with 21 nonoffenders

Living
together/engaged
Dating
regularly
Little/no
involvement
Employed*
School
dropout*

with

previous

experienced

(Figure).
available.

3.

at delivery

of previous

dropouts.

substance

offenders,

were

of Offense

No.

Relationship
Married

x2

out of school
to

drinking,
among

data

TABLE

93)

are

had a history
behavior,
and

related

plete

lem

(n=98)

Smoking

at

school

dropping

behaviors

and

Nonof-

fenders
(n=

to dif-

unmarried
and

behaviors

calculated

(45%)

compared

Of-

to school.

clustered

of these
was

Offenders

whether

smoking,

school

used

Legal

History

a dyad
had
was
signifi-

nonoffenders

frequently
drinking

To determine
problem

crime
(65%)

factors

of

37

for

from

unemployed,

also more
pregnancy,

the

reported

within
offense

psychosocial

Table

of delivery,

problems

offenses

hers.

offenders

nonoffenders
They
vious

partners
his

than

and
male

class

diagonal.
This difference
was
P < .Oi level using a McNemar
when
histories,

Characteristics

class

offense

and

whose
53

Psychosocial
Nonoffenders

of fa-

No legal

were

and

Offenders

partners
in
of small
cell
to permit

(39%),

partners

severe

ferentiate

time

couples

Of the 72 couples
between
partners,

the

more

66

both

(23%).
differed

statistic22.
different

of the data.

by

4.

fenders

of

4, 26%;

histories
were
known
for both
i69 (5i.5%)
couples
(Table
3). Because
sizes, severity
categories
were compressed

TABLE

crime

as follows:

Legal

was

abuse

percentage

class 3, 32%;
6 and 7, 0%.

classes

the

The

category

2, 27%;

and

one

earlier.

drug

older
fathers.
by the severity

Utah
data

police
and

by

speculate

our

subjects

that

the

involvement
charged
with

statistics
obtained

actually
a criminal

consistently

used:

6i%

relatively
of

were
act.

fathers

taken
Although

are not
available,
compared
from self-reports
by youth
from

parable
social
backgrounds
tion, the cumulative
arrest
was

were
majority

greater
v i2%

age

i8

years518

age

2i

years

to

and
and

in the general
rate of our young
regardless

of the

29%

for

51%

v 13%

younger.617

youth

to
It

was

age

for

possible

ARTICLES

Downloaded from pediatrics.aappublications.org at UIC Library of Hlth Sciences on June 23, 2014

with
corn-

populafathers

younger

30%

to

cutoff
than

youth
that

233

our rate
derreported

of juvenile
in that

reached

offense
among
16%
of subjects

fathers
had

is unnot yet

18 years of age.

Partners
in a dyad
were
similar
in their
history
of involvement
or lack
of involvement
with
the
police
and the severity
of crime
committed.
When
histories

differed,

more
severe
surprising
crimes,

in

should
other

however,

than
because
general,

investigate
measures

and

than

fathers

appeared

social

problem
haviors

to

that

juvenile

who

situations

maladjusted
It is well
ment.58

For

a scale
on

had

from

and

these

example,

to

attitudes

and

and

in more

Problem
bearrest
history,
psychosocially

occurred.
problems

beyond

West

of-

family

engaged

were

measure

an

legal

of

involvede-

Farrington7

antisocial

selected

tendencies

behaviors

heavy
drinking,
and promiscuous
Of the hO youth
who scored

such

as

sexual
highest

on

the scale
during
the tenth
grade,
60%
had delinquent
records
by 21 years
of age as compared
with
4% among
the 72 youth
who had the lowest
scores.

In the

study

by Howell

and

associates6,

not

This
study
was funded
by the Office
Pregnancy
Programs
(APR
000922-02-0).
also funded
by a Faculty
Scholars
Award

health
Teti,

only

8.

12.

other
problem
use, suspension

from
school,
and frequent
job changes.
What
has
not been
demonstrated
previously,
however,
either
or

among
fatherhood

young
and

care
and their
his technical

support
assistance.

for

our

study,

and

Doug

fathers,
socially

Lamb

ME,

Elster

AB:

Adolescent

mother-infant-father

re-

lationships.
Dev Psychol
1985;21:768-773
9. Kerckhoff
AC, Parrow
AA: The effect of early marriage
on
the educational
attainment
of young men. J Marriage
Fam

more
frequently
behaviors,
such

among
delinquent
youth
is an association
between
maladaptive
behaviors.

for

1. Pannor
R, Massarik
F, Evans
B: The Unmarried
Father.
New York, Springer,
1971
2. Elster
AB, Lamb ME: Adolescent
fathers:
The under-studied
side of adolescent
pregnancy,
in Lancaster
JB, Hamburg
BA
(eds): School-Age
Pregnancy
and Parenthood:
Biosocial
Dimeruions.
New York, Elsevier,
1986, pp 177-191
3. Klinman
DG, Sander
JH, Rosen JL, et al: The teen father
collaboration:
A demonstration
and research
model, in Elster AB, Lamb
ME (eds): Adolescent
Fatherhood.
Hillside,
NJ, Lawrence
Erlbaum
Associates,
1986, pp 155-169
4. Rivara
FP, Sweeney
PJ, Henderson
BF: A study
of low
socioeconomic
status,
black teenage
fathers
and their nonfather peers. Pediatrics
1985;75:648-656
5. Parke
RD, Power
TG, Fisher
T: The adolescent
fathers
impact
of mother
and young child. Child
Dev
1980;36:88106
6. Lamb
ME: Fathers
and child development:
An integrative
overview,
in Lamb ME (ed): The Role of The Father
in Child
Development.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1981, pp 1-70
7. Nakashima
II, Camp BW: Fathers
of infants
born to adolescent mothers.
Am J Dis Child
1984;138:452-454

10.

multiple
marijuana

Adolescent
Dr Elster
is
from the W. T.

Grant Foundation.
We thank
the members
of the Teen Mother
and Child
Program,
for their
concern
and interest
in adolescent

were youth
who were
assessed
as having
an attentional
deficit
disorder
during
elementary
school
more
likely
to be involved
with
crime
than
those
without
the disorder
(31%
v iO%),
but they
also
reported
as daily

Of

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the pregnancy
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that
the
social

veloped
smoking,
activities.

offense

This
more

than
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in fathers
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delinquents

based

fathers

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behaviors
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men
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prior
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mothers
some
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men

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others
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father

infants

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may

studies

ad-

have signifiwill only be an

are

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to

assess
more
clearly
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We also
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behaviors
represent
an especially
high-risk
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PROBLEMS

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work-

1975

Multi-

Judicial Involvement and Conduct Problems of Fathers of Infants Born to Adolescent

Mothers
Arthur B. Elster, Michael E. Lamb, Laura Peters, James Kahn and Jane Tavar
Pediatrics 1987;79;230
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