Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Bodily effects of
Cannabis
Cannabis, also known as marijuana[7] and by numerous other names,a[] is a preparation of the Cannabis
plant intended for use as a psychoactive drug or
medicine.[8][9] The main psychoactive part of cannabis
is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); it is one of 483 known
compounds in the plant,[10] including at least 84 other
cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol
(CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV).[11][12]
Eyes:
- Reddening
- Decreased intra-ocular
pressure
Mouth:
- Dryness
Cannabis is often consumed for mental and physical effects, such as heightened mood, relaxation,[13] and an
increase in appetite.[14] Possible side-eects include a
decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired
motor skills, red eyes,[13] and feelings of paranoia or
anxiety.[15] Onset of eects is within minutes when
smoked and about 30 minutes when eaten.[16] They last
for between two and six hours.[16]
Skin:
- Sensation of
heat or cold
Heart:
- Increased
heart rate
1
1.1
Cannabis is used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with
HIV/AIDS, to treat chronic pain, and help with muscle
spasms.[25][26] Its use for other medical applications is insucient for conclusions about safety or ecacy. Shortterm use increases minor adverse eects, but does not
appear to increase major adverse eects.[27] Long-term
eects of cannabis are not clear,[27][28] and there are concerns including memory and cognition problems, risk for
addiction, risk of schizophrenia among young people, and
the risk of children taking it by accident.[25]
The medicinal value of cannabis is disputed. The
American Society of Addiction Medicine dismisses medical use because of concerns about dependence and adverse health eects.[29] The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that cannabis is associated with numerous harmful health eects, and that signicant aspects such as content, production, and supply are unregulated. The FDA approves of the prescription of two products (not for smoking) that have pure THC in a small controlled dose as the active substance.[30]
Uses
Medical
1.2
2 ADVERSE EFFECTS
Recreational
cannabis tea, which contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic)
and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility
of 2.8 mg per liter).[39] Cannabis tea is made by
rst adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g. cream
or any milk except skim) with a small amount of
cannabis.[40]
1.3
Spiritual
1.4
Available forms
3
Heroin
Cocaine
Tobacco
D
e
p2
e
n
d
e
n1
c
e
Street methadone
Barbiturates
Alcohol
Cannabis
Benzodiazepines
BuprenorphineAmphetamine
Ketamine
4-MTA
Methylphenidate
GHB
Ecstasy
Solvents
Alkyl nitrites
LSD
Khat
Anabolic steroids
Physical Harm
2.5
Neurological
2.1
Toxicity
2.2
Lungs
2.3
Cancer
3
cannabis could not be made. If cannabis arteritis turns out
to be a distinct clinical entity, it might be the consequence
of vasoconstrictor activity observed from delta-8-THC
and delta-9-THC.[60] Other serious cardiovascular events
including myocardial infarction, stroke, sudden cardiac
death, and cardiomyopathy have been reported to be temporally associated with cannabis use. Research in these
events is complicated because cannabis is often used in
conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and
cocaine.[61] These putative eects can be taken in context
of a wide range of cardiovascular phenomena regulated
by the endocannabinoid system and an overall role of
cannabis in causing decreased peripheral resistance and
increased cardiac output, which potentially could pose a
threat to those with cardiovascular disease.[62]
2.5 Neurological
A 2013 review comparing dierent structural and functional imaging studies showed morphological brain alterations in long-term cannabis users which were found to
possibly correlate to cannabis exposure.[63] A 2010 review found resting blood ow to be lower globally and
in prefrontal areas of the brain in cannabis users, when
compared to non-users. It was also shown that giving THC or cannabis correlated with increased bloodow in these areas, and facilitated activation of the
anterior cingulate cortex and frontal cortex when participants were presented with assignments demanding
use of cognitive capacity.[64] Both reviews noted that
some of the studies that they examined had methodological limitations, for example small sample sizes or
not distinguishing adequately between cannabis and alcohol consumption.[63][64] A 2011 review found that
cannabis use impaired cognitive functions on several levels, ranging from basic coordination to executive function
tasks.[65] A 2013 review found that cannabis users consistently had smaller hippocampi than nonusers, but noted
limitations in the studies analyzed such as small sample
sizes and heterogeneity across studies.[66]
Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar
to that found in tobacco smoke,[55] and over fty known
carcinogens have been identied in cannabis smoke,[56]
including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic
hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.[57] As of 2015,
there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer.[58]
Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for
causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, longterm use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when 2.6 Suicide
compared with those of tobacco.[53] Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming It is not[50]clear whether cannabis use aects the rate of
suicide.
THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.
2.4
Cardiovascular
specic brain regions associated with memory, learning, alertness, and executive function.[44] A study has
suggested that sustained heavy, daily, adolescent onset
cannabis use over decades is associated with a decline in
IQ by age 38. No eects were found in those who initiated cannabis use later, or in those who ceased use earlier
in adulthood.[68]
2.8
also expressed in neuroglial cells.[74] THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on
the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger
system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner.
These actions can be blocked by the selective CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant), which has
been shown in clinical trials to be an eective treatment
for smoking cessation, weight loss, and as a means of controlling or reducing metabolic syndrome risk factors.[75]
However, due to the dysphoric eect of CB1 antagonists,
this drug is often discontinued due to these side eects.[76]
Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine
release and produces psychotropic eects. Cannabidiol
also acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta
opioid receptors.[77] THC also potentiates the eects of
the glycine receptors.[78] The role of these interactions in
the marijuana high remains elusive.
5
Medicine refute the possibility of self-administered zinc in 1993 to 8.8% in 2008.[87] Other studies have found
producing false-negative urine drug tests.[84]
similar increases in potency since cannabis THC content
began to be studied in the late 1970s.[88] It is unclear,
however, whether the increase in THC content has caused
people to consume more THC or if users adjust based on
5 Varieties and strains
the potency of the cannabis. It is likely that the higher
THC content allows people to ingest less tar. At the same
time Cannabidiol (CBD) levels in seized samples have
lowered as users look for a more mind altering high.[89]
Australias National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (owers) of the
female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration
of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have
much lower THC levels.[90] The UN states that leaves
can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the
stalks one hundred times less THC.[86]
After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the
government moved cannabis back from a class C to a
class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance
of high potency cannabis. They believe skunk accounts
for between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police[91]
(despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectly
mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis).[92][93] Extracts
such as hashish and hash oil typically contain more THC
than high potency cannabis owers.[94]
6 Preparations
Dried ower buds
Types of cannabis
CBD is a 5-HTA receptor agonist, which may also contribute to an anxiolytic eect.[85] This likely means the
high concentrations of CBD found in Cannabis indica
mitigate the anxiogenic eect of THC signicantly.[85]
The eects of sativa are well known for their cerebral
high, hence its daytime use as medical cannabis, while
indica is well known for its sedative eects and preferred
night time use as medical cannabis.[85]
5.1
Kief
Hashish
Tincture
Hash oil
Infusion (dairy butter)
Pipe resin
A forced-air vaporizer. The detachable balloon lls
with vapors
Psychoactive ingredients
6.1 Marijuana
This is the stock material from which all other prepaA study published in 2010 has shown that the average rations are derived. It is noted that cannabis or its
THC content of seized marijuana increased from 3.4% extracts must be suciently heated or dehydrated to
7 HISTORY
6.4
Tincture
7 History
8.2
Economics
8.2 Economics
8.2.1 Production
Main article: Cannabis cultivation
near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on Pusher Street in Christiania, Copenhagen in
It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal
2004.[161][162]
cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techSome jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment pro- niques have increased the potency of cannabis since the
grams and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent late 1960s and early '70s, when THC was rst discovered
known users. Simple possession can carry long prison and understood. However, potent seedless cannabis such
terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. Sinthe sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison semilla (Spanish for without seed) is the dried, seedor even execution. More recently however, many politi- less inorescences of female cannabis plants. Because
cal parties, non-prot organizations and causes based on THC production drops o once pollination occurs, the
the legalization of medical cannabis and/or legalizing the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are
plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged.
eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination.
In December 2012, the U.S. state of Washington be- Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics,
came the rst state to ocially legalize cannabis in a cloning, high-intensity articial lighting, and the sea of
state law (Washington Initiative 502) (but still illegal by green method are frequently employed as a response (in
federal law),[163] with the state of Colorado following part) to prohibition enforcement eorts that make outclose behind (Colorado Amendment 64).[164] On January door cultivation more risky. It is often cited that the av1, 2013, the rst marijuana club for private marijuana erage levels of THC in cannabis sold in United States rose
smoking (no buying or selling, however) was allowed for dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statethe rst time in Colorado.[165] The California Supreme ments are likely skewed because of undue weight given
more expensive and potent, but less prevalent
Court decided in May 2013 that local governments can to much [172]
samples.
ban medical marijuana dispensaries despite a state law
in California that permits the use of cannabis for medi- Skunk refers to several named strains of potent
cal purposes. At least 180 cities across California have cannabis, grown through selective breeding and someenacted bans in recent years.[166]
times hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa
In December 2013, Uruguay became the rst country to and C. indica (although other strains of this mix exist
legalize growing, sale and use of cannabis.[167] However, in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually
as of August 2014, no cannabis has yet been sold legally from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The averlevel in coee shops in the Netherlands is about
in Uruguay. According to the law, the only cannabis that age THC [173]
1819%.
can be sold legally must be grown in the country by no
more than ve licensed growers, and these have yet to
be selected; in fact the call for applications did not go
out until August 1, 2014.[168] In the elections of October 2014, there is a signicant chance that lawmakers
opposed to legal cannabis will come to control the legislature, and the law will be repealed before it has fully
taken eect.[169][170][171]
8.2.2 Price
The price or street value of cannabis varies widely depending on geographic area and potency.[174]
In the United States, cannabis is overall the number four
10
11
Distribution
SEE ALSO
9 Research
Cannabis research is challenging since the plant is illegal in most countries.[192][193][194][195][196] Researchgrade samples of the drug are dicult to obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national governments.
The Gateway Hypothesis states that cannabis use increases the probability of trying harder drugs. The hypothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by some
as the primary rationale for the United States prohibition on cannabis use.[181][182] A Pew Research Center poll
found that political opposition to marijuana use was signicantly associated with concerns about health eects
and whether legalization would increase marijuana use
by children.[183]
There are also other diculties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis
also smoke tobacco.[197] This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the
cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difculty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke
cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug
in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in
research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not
say how much cannabis they actually smoke.[198]
8.3
Gateway drug
11
12
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