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Probability*
The probability of a chance event can be calculated mathematically using the following
formula:
Probability = number of events of choice/number of possible events
What is the probability that you will draw a spade from a shuffled deck of cards? There
are 52 cards in the deck (52 possible events). Of these 13 cards are spades (13 events of
choice). Therefore, the probability of drawing a spade from this deck is 13/52 (or or .
25 or 25%). To determine the probability that you will draw the ace of diamonds, you
again have 52 possible events, but this time there is only one event of choice. The
probability is 1/52 or 2%.In this investigation, you will determine the probability for the
results of a coin toss.
Materials (per team of two)
2 pennies (one shiny, one dull)
Procedure
1. Work in teams of two. One person will be student A and the other will be student
B.
2. Student A will prepare a score sheet with two columns-one labeled H (heads), the
other T (tails). Student B will toss a penny ten times. Toss it into the cardboard
box to prevent the coin from rolling away.
3. Student A will use a slash mark (/) to indicate the result of each toss. Tally the
tosses in the appropriate column on the score sheet. After 10 tosses, draw a line
across the two columns and pass the sheet to student B. Student A will then make
10 tosses, and student B will tally the results.
4. Continue reversing the rolls until the results of 100 (10 series of 10) have been
tallied.
5. Prepare a score sheet with four columns labeled H/H, Dull H/Shiny Tail, Dull T/
Shiny H, and T/T (H = heads; T = tails). Obtain two pennies-1 dull and 1 shiny.
Toss both pennies together 20 times, while your partner tallies each result in the
appropriate column of the score sheet.
6. Reverse roles once so that you have a total of 40 tosses.
Discussion
1. How many heads are probable in a series of 10 tosses? How many did you
actually observe on the first 10 tosses?
2. Deviation is a measure of the difference between the expected and observed
results. It is not the difference itself. It is the ratio of the sum of the difference
itself. It is the sum of the differences between expected and observed results to the
total number of observations. Thus:
Deviation = (| difference between heads expected and heads observed | + | difference between tails expected and tails
observed |) / number of tosses
Calculate the deviation for each of the 10 sets of tosses.
3. Calculate the deviation for your teams total (100 tosses).
4. Add the data of all teams in your class. Calculate the class deviation.
5. If your school has more than one biology class, combine the data of all classes.
Calculate the deviation of all classes.
6. How does increasing the number of tosses affect the average size of the deviation?
These results demonstrate an important principle of probability. State what that is.
7. On the white board, record the data for tossing two pennies together. Add each
column of the chart. In how many columns do data concerning heads of a dull
penny appear?
8. In what fraction of the total number of tosses did heads of dull pennies occur?
9. In how columns do data concerning heads of shiny pennies occur?
10. In what fraction of the total tosses did heads of shiny pennies occur?
11. In how many columns do heads of both dull and shiny pennies appear?
Trial
Offspring's
Genotype
Offspring's
Phenotype
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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13
14
15
16
17
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Summary:
Name___________________
F1 x F1
F2s
Thus we can see that the F1 gametes can combine in ______ ways to give rise to the F2,
and that the expected phenotypic ratio of the F2 is: (fill in the phenotypes)
9 ________________ : 3 ________________ : 3 _________________ : 1____________
Using this information, compare your number of individuals (actual counts) with the
number that would be expected for your sample size. To do this, divide the Total Corn
Grains Counted by the number of possible gamete combinations (16) in the F2
generation. Multiply this number (the dividend) by, respectively, 9, 3, 3, and 1 to fill in
the expected numbers of Table 2.
Do the numbers of phenotypes you observed seem to be close approximations of the
expected numbers? _________
What factors could cause variation from the expected numbers?
What would be the genotypes and phenotype ratios expected in the following cross?
R/r Su/su x r/r su/su ? Show your work.
Table 1
Purple
Starchy
Purple
Sweet
Yellow
Starchy
Yellow Sweet
Total Ear 1
Total Ear 2
Total Ears 1 &
2
Table 2
Phenotype Class
Number of Individuals
(actual)
Expected Number
1
Purple
Starchy
2
Purple Sweet
3
Yellow
Starchy
4
Yellow Sweet
a1
a2
a3
a4
e1
e2
e3
e4
4 Classes
Total (1-4)
Attached earlobes
Do the tips of your ear lobes hang partially free, or are they completely
attached to the side of your head?
f.
g.
Freckles
Do you have small reddish- brown spots on your skin?
Widows peak
Pull your hair back over your forehead. Does the hairline come down to a
short point in the middle of your forehead or does it go straight across?
h.
Five fingers Were you born with five fingers on each hand?
Figure 1.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Trait
| Phenotype
| % of Class | Dominant
| Genotype |
|
|
| or Recessive |
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Mid-digital hair |
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Tongue rolling
|
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dimples
|
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cleft chin
|
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Attached earlobes |
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Freckles
|
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Widows peak
|
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Five fingers
|
|
|
|
|
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Compare your data with that of your class mates. Calculate the percentage of the
class that exhibits each trait.
5. Look at the pedigree below. Colored figures represent individuals that possess the
trait. Explain why individual IV-8 and her parents provide the evidence that
attached earlobes is a recessive trait.
Attached
Earlobes
II
III
IV
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6. Analyze the pedigrees for tongue rolling and five fingers. Explain whether each trait is
dominant or recessive. Each of the other traits listed in your table is dominant.
Tongue Rolling
II
III
Five Fingers*
II
5
III
*In this case, the normal state of five fingers is not colored in.
Based on available information, use appropriate symbols for each trait to
record your possible genotypes in your table.
6.1.
Analysis
1. Analyzing data
Does the information you collected and studied during this investigation indicate
that dominant traits are most common? Explain.
2. Evaluating Methods
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Look at the pedigree for five fingers. Explain why individuals II-5, II-6, and their
children are the most important for analyzing whether this trait is dominant or
recessive.
Source (Holt Biology, Visualizing Life, George B. Johnson, 1994, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston)
Id. #____ Name: ______________________________________ DG: 10/ DD: 10/ Turned in: ________
Lab # ____ Pedigree Study
Grade: ___ / ____ = _____ %
Introduction:
Pedigrees are not reserved for show dogs and racing horses. All living things, including yourself, have
pedigrees. A pedigree is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance, or phenotype, of a particular
genetic trait from on e generation to the next in a family. Genotypes for individuals in a pedigree can usually be
determined with knowledge of inheritance and probability.
Over the past ten years nearly 200 elephants have died annually as a result of conflict with humans in Sri
Lanka India. In India man and elephant have co-existed in the island from prehistoric times, and over the past
3,000 years the elephant has been considered an important and venerated cultural, religious icon. Experts believe
that at the turn of the 19th century there were 20,000 elephants in Sri Lanka. The present population is less than
3,500 elephants. In 1998 over 350 elephants were killed in Sri Lanka. (www.bentghic.com/sri_lanka/issues.htm)
In a woeful version of natural selection, or arguably artificial selection, ivory poaching may be causing Asian
elephants to lose the gene that allows them to develop tusks. About 40 to 50 percent of the animals are normally
tuskless, but in Sri Lanka, more than 90 percent of the population is not growing tusk. When you have ivory
poaching, the gene that selects for whether an elephant has tusks or not will be removed from the population,
said Paul Toyne, a species conservation officer on the WWF. (www.save-the-elephants.org)
Objectives:
Learn the meaning of all symbols and lines that are used in representing a pedigree.
Predict geneotypes for all individuals shown in two sample pedigrees.
Investigate real life cause, effect and solutions to environmental issues.
Procedure:
The pedigree in Figure 1 shows
the pattern
Of inheritance in a family of a
specific trait.
the trait being shown is elephant tusk.
Geneticists
Recognize two general tusk
characteristics in Asian
elephants. The males have visible
tusk and the
Females do not have visible tusk.
The gene
Responsible for Tusks (E) is
dominate
over
The gene for no tusk (e).
In a pedigree, each generation is represented by a Roman numeral. Each elephant in a generation is
numbered. Thus each elephant can be identified by his/her generation numeral and number. Males are
represented by square symbols while females are represented by round symbols (Figure 1)
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tusks,
would
Figure
child,
(E).
Part II
Using the same genes as above for elephant tusk inheritance, determine the
genotypes of all individuals in family A (figure 4) and Family B (Figure 5).
Record
the genotypes of each elephant in Data table 1 be sure to include genotype (letters) and phenotype (physical
characteristics, tusk or no tusk).
IndividualGenotype Heterozygous Dominant
Phenotype
EE,Ee,ee Homozygous recessiveTusker
Homozygous Dominant
no tusk
I-1
I-2
II-1
II-2
III-1
III-2
13
III-3
III-4
IV-1
IV-2
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Family B (Figure B)
The area below is to be used for Punnett squares:
29)
30)
31)
32)
33)
34)
35)
36)
37)
38)
39)
40)
41)
42)
43)
44)
45)
46)
47)
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Analysis:
Investigate the following recopied figure of Family A. Answer the questions using your knowledge of genetics
and facts from the lab to support your answers.
Use the area below for Punnett square work.
Figure 4 Family A? ___________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
52)
53)
54)
55)
56)
57)
58)
59)
60)
61)
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Part III
The following is the family tree for the Rosamond Gifford zoo Asian elephant breeding program.
Elephant
Sex
Parents
Year Birth
Living location
Indy
Male
Wild caught
Rosamond Gifford
Syracuse NY
Targa
Romani
Mali
Stillborn
Tundi
Female
Female
Female
Female
Male
?
?
Indy/Targa
Indy/Targa
Indy/Romani
Wild caught
Wild caught
1997
1999
1991
Rosamond Gifford
Kirina
Preya
Shanti
Kumari
Kundulah
Female
Female
Female
Female
Male
Indy/Romani
Indy/Romani
?
Indy/Shanti
Shanti/?
2000
?
2000
2002
zoo
zoo
Rosamond Gifford zoo
Rosamond Gifford zoo
Died at birth
Wipshade zoo
Europe
Rosamond Gifford zoo
Died of Herpes/2003
Buffalo zoo
Died of Herpes
Lived
65 80)
Create a Pedigree chart for Indys family. Be sure to use the rules of a pedigree chart to indicate the following:
1) Sex of the individual
2) Generation of the individual
3) connect family relationships
You do not have to do the Genotypes or Phenotypes of the Elephants in this family tree.
Application questions:
7) How many offspring does Indy have? _________________________________________________________
8) Who are the daughters of Romani? ___________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
The Rosamond Gifford zoo elephant family helps educate people about elephant endangerment everyday. They
also breed the elephants to increase the population that is in captivity around the world. Explain two reasons you
think it is important to be breeding elephants in captivity.
12) Reason # 1
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
13) Reason # 2
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
14) The Rosamond Gifford zoo participates in a Species Survival program. In this program a Pedigree Chart of
all the elephants in captivity is kept. Explain using facts and things you have learned from this lab how this
could someday benefit the plight of the Asian elephants in Sri Lanka India.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
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PURPOSE
INTRODUCTION
Human variation in appearance is due not only because of the large variety of traits that exist
in a population but also because of the random mixing of alleles that occurs during sexual
reproduction. Each parent contributes half of each childs genetic make-up. In other words, each
parent contributes one allele for each gene locus.
Several different patterns of inheritance are possible. Many alleles are dominant, which
means they mask those that are recessive. Recessive alleles can be expressed only when
dominant alleles are not present. In some cases, incomplete dominance prevents the
expression of either allele, resulting in an intermediate phenotype. Other traits, such as beard
growth, are gender specific, meaning that the expression of such a trait is limited to one of the two
sexes.
Other human traits, such as height or skin color, show continuous variation in the population.
These traits are thought to be controlled by many genes and are called polygenic traits. Some
traits are controlled by interaction between multiple genes. One such interaction is called
epistasis. Epistasis occurs when genes at one location affect the expression of genes at another
location. For example, an individual may have two dominant genes for the production of melanin
(a pigment that gives skin color). If the individual also has two recessive alleles for albinism, the
genes for melanin will be silenced.
The activity below demonstrates how each of these modes of inheritance influence
phenotype. Parents will flip a coin to simulate the role of probability in the independent
assortment of chromosomes during gamete formation. The two parents will work together to
determine the facial characteristics of their offspring. Once the coin-flipping activity has been
completed, you will draw a picture of what your child would look like in his or her teens. Your
childs picture should be sketched on an overhead transparency. At the end of lab, each set of
parents will present their child to the class and explain how the genotype of their child results in
the phenotype shown.
MATERIALS
two coins
transparency sheet
transparency marker
Source: http://homepage.mac.com/massasoit.bio/faculty/lab12a/lab12a.html
PROCEDURE
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1. Pair up with a classmate. You will each act as a parent to this fictitious child. Begin the
simulation with the assumption that each of you has one dominant and one recessive
allele (i.e., you are both heterozygotes) for each of the facial features illustrated on the
following pages.
2. To determine the genotype inherited by your child, both you and your partner will flip your
coins. Heads represents dominant alleles; tails represents recessive alleles.
Example: If your partner flips heads and you flip tails, your childs genotype for that trait
would be heterozygous (one dominant and one recessive allele).
3. First, determine the sex of the child. Which parent should flip the coin? In humans, the
fertilizing sperm (from the male) determines the sex of the child. All eggs have X
chromosomes, but roughly half the sperm produced by the father will have an X
chromosome and half have a Y chromosome. If a Y-bearing sperm fertilizes the egg, the
child will be male (XY). If an X-bearing sperm fertilizes the egg, the child will be female
(XX). Therefore, in this simulation, the father will flip a coin to determine the sex of the
child. If the father flips a head, your child is a boy; if tails are flipped, your child is a girl.
4. Give your child a name. Record this information on your lab report.
5. You and your partner should simultaneously flip coins for each facial feature. Record the
genetic contribution of the parents and the offsprings genotype and phenotype on the lab
report.
6. Draw your child on the transparency provided and be prepared to describe him/her to the
class.
7.
8. After you have completed steps 1 6, summarize below, what you have learned
concerning human inheritance.
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Parents names:
Childs sex:
________
_____________________
Trait
Childs name:
Allele
from
Dad
Allele
from
Mom
Childs
genotype
Childs phenotype
1. Face shape
2. Chin size
3. Chin shape
4. Cleft chin
5. Skin color
6. Hair type
7. Widows peak
8. Eyebrow color
9. Eyebrow thickness
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5. Pour the 10 mL of DNA extraction buffer into the back, reseal the bag, and mash the
strawberry for 1 minute, mixing it with the DNA extraction buffer. Put the 15 mL
DNA Ex. Buffer tube back in the rack for the next class; do not clean or rinse this
tube.
6. Place the funnel in the standing 50 mL tube, and place the cheesecloth in the funnel
so that it makes two layers. Push the cheesecloth in a bit with your fingers, but dont
worry about getting all of the way in the strawberry material will take care of that
for you when you pour it on the cheesecloth in the next step.
7. While one person holds the tube, the other should carefully pour the mashed
strawberry DNA extract onto the cheesecloth in the funnel. The DNA extract will
drip through.
8. After about 2 minutes the dripping should have slowed; you will likely have 10 mL or
more of filtered strawberry DNA extract in the 50 mL tube. All you need is 2 mL.
9. Throw away the cheesecloth, set aside the funnel, and carefully pour 2 mL of the
filtered strawberry DNA extract into the clean 15 mL tube (use the lines on the tube to
measure). Try to get close to 2 mL, but a bit more is fine. Put the funnel back in the
50 mL tube to help keep things clean.
10. By this time the TAs should have provided each group with a small bottle of cold
95% ethanol. Open the ethanol and use the pipette to get 3 mL of ethanol. If you
dont have 3 mL try again a bit less or more is fine, but try to be pretty close.
11. Hold the 15 mL tube with the strawberry DNA extract at an angle and slowly add the
3 mL of ethanol down the side of the tube. Be careful not to disrupt the layer that
forms between the strawberry DNA extract and the ethanol.
12. Watch closely as the DNA precipitates and clumps together at the layer between the
extract and the ethanol. Tiny bubbles will appear as the DNA precipitates.
13. After 1-2 mins of precipitation you should have plenty of DNA. Put the stick into the
ethanol layer and slowly and carefully rotate it to wind or spool the DNA onto the
stick. Then carefully remove the stick and look at the DNA.
Cleanup: The 50 mL standing tube and funnel should be rinsed out and placed back at
your table for the next lab. Place the ethanol container where indicated by the TAs. The
15 mL tube that was used for DNA precipitation should be rinsed and placed in the
cleaning bin indicated by the TAs. The stick, Ziploc bag, and 3 mL pipette should be
thrown away.
Follow up questions:
1. What cell barriers had to be disrupted to get the DNA out, and how were those
barriers disrupted?
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http://www.auburn.edu/academic/classes/biol/1021/lab12DNA.htm
Homework Help
https://www.homeworkping.com/
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