Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 22

AMPUTATION

DEFINATION:
Amputation is the removal of a body extremity by trauma or surgery. As a
surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the
affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene.
Amputated finger approx 1 in 13,066 or 0.01% or 20,816 people in USA
INCIDENCE :
20,816 349 annual cases in Victoria

Amputated thumb approx 1 in 11,573 or 0.01% or 23,500 people in USA


23,500 394 annual cases in Victoria

Amputated arm approx 1 in 506,683 or 0.00% or 536 people in USA 536 9


annual cases in Victoria

Amputated toe approx 1 in 111,223 or 0.00% or 2,445 people in USA 2,445


41 annual cases in Victoria

ETIOLOGY AND RISK FACTOR

Amputations are caused by:


• Accidents

• Disease
• Congenital Disorders
The accidents most likely to result in amputation are traffic accidents,
followed by farm and industrial accidents.
Amputations in the case of disease are performed as a lifesaving measure.
The diseases that cause the most amputations are peripheral vascular disease
(poor circulation of the blood) and cancer.
Congenital disorders or defective limbs present at birth are not amputations,
but rather are a lack of part or all of a limb. A person with a limb deficiency
can usually be helped by use of an artificial limb. Sometimes amputation of
part of a deformed limb or some other type of surgery may be desirable
before the application of an artificial limb.
TYPES OF AMPUTATION
The list of types of Amputation mentioned in various sources includes:
• Amputated finger
• Amputated thumb
• Amputated arm
• Amputated toe
• Amputated leg
• Amputated lower leg

Amputated finger:
Conditions that may require amputation of the finger include infection,
gangrene, frostbite, atherosclerosis, bone infection and cancer

Amputated thumb:
Conditions that may require amputation of the thumb include infection,
gangrene, frostbite, atherosclerosis, bone infection and cancer
.

Amputated arm:
Conditions that may require amputation of the toe include infection,
gangrene, frostbite, atherosclerosis, bone infection and cancer. Prosthetics
are often worn following an arm amputation.

Amputated toe:. Conditions that may require amputation of the toe


include infection, gangrene, frostbite, atherosclerosis, bone infection

DIAGONOSTIC STUDIES
History and physical examination
Physical appearance of soft tissue
Skin temperature
Sensory function
Arteriography
Venography
Transcutaneous ultrasonic Doppler studies

Amputation of lower limb


Above-knee amputations may be performed through the distal femur
(supracondylar), the midfemur (diaphyseal), or just below the lesser
trochanter (highabove-knee amputation) ( Above-knee amputations
performed for tumors of the distal femur or sarcomas of the distal thigh tend
to be performed at a higher level than standard above-knee amputationThere
are more "below-knee" (trans-tibial) amputees than any other type. Surgeons
preserve the knee joint whenever it is practical to do so and will fashion the
stump at the lowest practical level. Very short stumps make fitting extremely
difficult and very long below-knee stumps are prone to circulation problems.

Level of Amputation
Above-knee amputations may be performed through the
distal femur(supracondylar), the midfemur(diaphyseal), or
lessertrochanter (high
above-knee amputation) . Above-kneeamputations
performed for tumors of the distal femur or sarcomas of the
distal thigh tend to be performed at a higher level than
standard above-knee amputations. By contrast, tumors of
the leg are treated with thestandard above-knee amputation.
As a rule, any lengthof femur makes prosthetic fitting easier
than none. Even
amputations at the subtrochanteric level are preferred to hip
disarticulation; if 3–5 cm of bone distal to the lesser
trochanter remain, the patient can be fitted with a prosthesis
in a manner used for above-knee amputation.The main
factors that determine the type of flaps to be constructed are
the soft-tissue extent of the tumor, areas of prior irradiation,
and previous scars.
Level of osteotomy and cross-sectional anatomy for
supracondylar,diaphyseal, and high above-knee amputation.
Higher above-knee amputations are generally used for
primary bone sarcomas of the distal femur. Low above-knee
amputations are used for bone sarcomas of the leg,
especially those involving the popliteal fossa or arterial
trifurcation. High above-knee amputation is preferable to hip
disarticulation, even though the osteotomy is only a few
centimeters below the greater trochanter. With the hip joint
intact, movement of the prosthesis is greatly facilitated.to
avoid local recurrence and no attempt is made toadhere to
standard flaps. At this level a skin or muscle flap of almost
any length will heal in the young patient. Furthermore, it is
not necessary to use equal flaps; longposterior, anterior, or
medial flaps will all heal rapidly.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

Emphasis is on flap design and meticulous dissection,use of


continuous epineural analgesia, myodesis of themajor
muscle groups to the distal femur, meticulouswound closure,
and application of a rigid dressing.The patient is supine, and
the operated extremityshould be abducted and flexed .Most
amputations are performed without compressive tourniquet
because it is easier to locate the bleeding edges of
bloodvessels and perform an adequate hemostasis
undersuch circumstances. The most common type of flap is
the anterior and posterior “fish-mouth” flap, and theskin
incision should be planned accordingly. It is recommended
to draw the incision line prior
to surgery.Transection of muscle and bone is shown in. Major
musclegroups should be carefully dissectedand tacked for
their further use in soft-tissue reconstruction.The femoral
edge should be beveled and smooth
. Cytologic examination and a frozen sectionof the proximal
marrow canal must be performed toascertain that there is no
occult medullary extension of
the tumor. A frozen section of any questionable siteshould be
performed.
Sciatic and Femoral Nerves
The cut ends of the nerves may form neuromata, which can
be extremely painful when exposed to pressure fromthe
prosthesis or direct trauma. Therefore, the nerveendings
must be positioned, and even sutured, with
muscles. Malawer et al.2 described the use of continuous
infusion of bupivacaine into the epineural space tocontrol
postoperative pain. That method was found tosignificantly
reduce the need for intravenous and oral
narcotics, and it is now routinely used in limb-sparing
resections and amputations.the epineural catheter is placed
under the nerve sheath,in the epineural space. The catheter
is sutured to the nerve sheath,pulled through a muscle flap,
and
secured to the skin. A bolus of 10 ml of bupivacaine 0.25% is
injected into the epineural space, and an additional 10 ml are
given before the patient leaves the operating room. This is
followed by a continuous infusion of 4ml/h. Boluses of 10 ml
can be given as required. The epineural catheter is generally
removed after 5 days of treatment, following gradual
weaning.

Muscle Reconstruction
Muscle reconstruction around the femur is essential to
ensure a functional extremity. In addition, the bone end must
be adequately covered and padded with muscles in order to
avoid pressure from the prosthesis. The quadriceps and the
hamstrings are tenodesed to each other by covering the
bone end . The hip flexors are stronger than the extensors;
thus, the hamstrings should be cut longer than the
quadriceps and

Above-knee Amputation

Position. The patient is supine; the operated extremity is in


flexion and abduction. attached to one another, with the
hamstrings somewhat
tighter. In addition, the adductors should be tenodesed to
these muscles and the femoral stump using drillholes and 3
mm Dacron tapes. This is especially important in the short
proximal femoral stump, which has a tendency to go into
flexion and abduction. Closed suction drains are brought out
of the medial and lateral aspects of the incision, and the
superficial
ascia is tightly closed .Special attention should be given to
wound closure; it is important to avoid large folds of skin.
Skin sutures must be positioned
by halving the incision, especially if unusual skin flaps have
been utilized.
As soon as the surgery is completed, a rigid dressing is
applied it is used to reduce the swelling and, if positioned
proximally enough, prevent flexion contracture around the
hip joint. Contractures are more common with short stumps;
to prevent this problem the cast should be continued up to
the groin
and held in place with a belt. With early ambulation,patients
tend to have less pain and experience fewer psychological
difficulties. Patients with a rigid cast invariably mobilize
earlier than those who have a standard soft dressing.
Preoperative or early postoperative chemotherapy is not a
contraindication to a rigid dressing and early ambulation.
Drains are usually
removed on the third or fourth day after the surgery or when
each drains less than 50 ml/day. The patient should keep
compression on the stump at all times; this is best
accomplished with an elastic stump shrinker. As
soon as the wound is healed and the stump is not
significantly swollen (usually around 4 weeks after surgery),
the patient can have the first prosthetic fitting.
MEDICAL MANAGEMENT

The objective of treatment is to achieved heeling of the


amputation wound. The result brings a nontender residuel
limbs.(stump)with healthy skin for prosthesis used. Heeling
enhanced by gentle handling of residual limb ,control of
residual edema through rigid or soft compression dressing
and use of aseptic technique in wound care to avoid infection
• A closed rigid cast dressing is frequently is used to
provede uniform compression to support soft tissue , to
control pain to prevent joint contracture
• Residual limb is immediately is applied with sterile limb
shock and felt pad are over pressure sensitive area
• The residual limb is wrapped with elastic plaster of paris
bandage while firm pressure is maintained ,care is
taken not constrict the circulation
• For the patient with lower extremities amputation
plaster cast may equipped to attach a temporally
prosthetic extension (pylon )and artificial foot this rigid
dressing technique is to created a socket for immediate
post operative prosthetic fitting .the length prosthetic is
tailored individual patient . Early minimal weight
bearing on the residual limb with rigid cast dressing
and pylon attached produced little discomfort .The cast
is changed in about 10 to 14 days .Elevated body
temperature ,severe pain ,or loose fitting cast may
necessitate earlier replacement
• A removable rigid dressing may be placed over soft
dressing to control edema ,to prevent joint flexion
contracture and to protect residual limb from
unintentional trauma during during transfer activities
• This rigid dressing is removed several days after
surgery wound inspection and is then replaced to
control edema .The dressing facilitate shaping of the
residual limb
• A soft dressing with or without compression may be
used if there is significant wound drainage and frequent
residual is desired . An immobilizing splint may
incorporated in dressing stump,wound haemotoma are
controlled with wound drainage device to minimize the
infection
REHABILITATION

Successful rehabilitation of the patient who has undergone


an above-knee amputation requires a coordinated effort that
should start at the time of the staging studies. The health-
care team must develop an honest
relationship with the patient and family and include them in
the decision-making process from the very beginning.
Building upon this basis the patient will be better able to
accept the amputation and set realistic goals for recovery.
The patient should be told that phantom limb sensations
might occur following surgery. These sensations should be
presented as a normal part of the recovery process. Phantom
limb pain is generally controlled by the judicious use of
analgesics and the passage of time. The requirements of
above-knee amputees are somewhat different from those of
below-knee amputees.
Their energy requirements are almost 100% greater, and it is
not unusual for the above-knee amputee to require an
assistive device (i.e. a cane) for community ambulation, and
be less able to participate in sports than
a patient who has undergone below-knee amputation.
Younger and motivated patients can have a good functional
outcome, but older patients can find the energy cost difficult
to overcome. The first stage of recovery is dedicated to
proper wound healing and conditioning of the stump.
Prevention of flexion contracture of the hip can beachieved
with rigid dressing, prone positioning, a physical therapy
program and, in most cases, a combination of all three
modalities. The use of immediate
postoperative prosthesis is more practical and better

Musculoskeletal Cancer Surgery

Incision. The skin flaps are marked. The main factors that
determine the type of flaps are the extent of the soft-tissue
tumor, areas of prior radiation, and previous scars. The
greatest priority is to avoid local recurrence and no attempt
is made to adhere to standard flaps; at this level a skin or
muscle flap of almost any length will heal primarily in a
young patient. It is not necessary to utilize equal flaps; long
posterior, anterior, and medial flaps will heal. tolerated by
these patients than by below-knee amputees. A temporary
prosthesis provides the patient the advantage of training
with a simple and adaptable
device. It also becomes a backup to the permanent
prosthesis, which is fabricated when the residual limb has
stabilized in volume and matured to allow full-time wear. Two
critical elements are selection of the knee joint mechanism
and suspension system. Many designs, with varying degrees
of durability, gait parameters, weight, and stability, are
available. Selection of an appropriate product is dependent
on patient-specific factors such as age, weight, type of daily
activities, and desired sports activities, and requires close
consultation with the prosthesist.
The Immediate
Postsurgical Period
Nearly every amputee feels
quite depressed immediately
after the surgery, except
possibly those who have
suffered intense pain for a
period just prior to the
amputation. This depression is
usually replaced early by a
will to resume an active life.
The dressing applied by the
surgeon is either "rigid,"
usually made of plaster-of-
Paris, or "soft," using ordinary
cotton bandaging techniques.
When the rigid dressing is
used it is left in place for 10 to
14 days during which time
most of the healing takes
place. Sometimes a simple
aluminum tube, or "pylon",
and an artificial foot are
attached to the rigid dressing
so that walking, or gait,
training can begin even before
the healing period is complete.
When the soft dressing is used, elastic bandages are used soon after surgery
to aid circulation. The bandages are removed and reapplied throughout the
day. (Instructions for application of elastic bandages are given in the next
section.)
Regardless of the type of dressing used, exercises are extremely important to
prevent contractures (tightening of the muscles) which, when present,
prevent efficient use of a prosthesis. Some "Don'ts" that will help prevent
muscle tightening, or contractures, are shown above.
It is most important that the prescribed exercises be carried out regularly,
and the positions shown above be avoided if the greatest benefit is to be
obtained from the prosthesis.

Musculoskeletal Complications in Amputees: Their Prevention


and Management

John H. Bovvker, M.D.


Robert D. Keagy, M.D.
Pradip D. Poonekar, M.B., B.S., M.S. (Gen. Surg.)
One of the primary aims of any surgical procedure, apart from obtaining primary healing
at the operative site, is the prevention of complications due to that procedure. Amputee
management has the added dimension of complications related to the amputation-
prosthesis interface. The complications of amputation surgery can therefore be divided
into preprosthetic and post-prosthetic problems.
In general, the frequency and degree of complications decrease remarkably when the
surgeon is keenly interested in the challenge presented by properly designed and
executed amputation procedures and keeps abreast of innovations. A casual or defeatist
attitude toward amputation surgery engenders many of the problems to be discussed.

PREPROSTHETIC COMPLICATIONS

Delayed Healing
Delayed healing may be related to several factors that can be operative singly or in
combination. These include inappropriate amputation-level selection, sub-optimal
operative technique, inadequate postoperative management, and infection.
A common cause of delayed healing is inappropriate amputation-level selection. This
can, to a large extent, be obviated by proper use of the vascular laboratory as an aid in
level selection. Noninvasive techniques such as segmental Doppler studies and
transcutaneous oximetry mapping can yield valuable information. Delayed healing can
also be due to suboptimal operative technique. Handling dysvascular skin with forceps,
attempting to close the skin under tension, or placing excessive closure tension on muscle
of questionable vascularity can result in ischemic changes leading to dehiscence. Even
with minimal closure tension, skin edges may be made ischemic by the placing of too
many sutures, especially mattress sutures . It is better to place a few widely spaced
sutures and reinforce the wound with adhesive paper strips . There is also little need for
subcutaneous sutures in most amputations if good myofascial and fascial closures are
done. Removal of skin sutures prior to firm initial healing of the amputation wound may
also lead to dehiscence, especially in the immunocompromised or dysvascular patient.
Prior to any definitive treatment of dehiscence other than debridement, the patient should
be thoroughly reevaluated to determine the reason for wound failure. The preoperative
vascular studies should be reassessed to be sure that the level previously selected was
correct. If the patient's wound healing potential was not evaluated preoperatively, it
should be done at this point. This would include a determination of serum albumin level
to ascertain nutritional status and a total lymphocyte count to assess immunocompetency.
If these are deficient, further surgery should be delayed until nutrition is normalized. In
chronic renal failure, this may not be possible, and one may be forced to proceed without
this assurance. Although it is good practice for patients to permanently discontinue the
use of nicotine or at least delay resumption until the wound is well healed, it is common
to find them smoking within a day or two of surgery. Rather than have another
immediate failure due to smoking, the surgeon has the option to refuse surgical treatment
beyond debridement on these patients if they fail to comply with this request, so long as
life is not threatened. If vascular studies and nutritional parameters are normal and the
patient stops the use of nicotine, treatment should proceed with the most appropriate
technique.
Treatment is determined by the length and depth of the dehiscence. If skin separation is
minor, the residual limb may be allowed to heal by secondary intention following
conservative debridement under adequate antibiotic coverage. Often a temporary
fiberglass or plaster of paris cast helps in the healing of such cases. If wound edge
separation due to necrosis is confined to the skin, local debridement that avoids trauma to
skin of marginal viability is called for. This may be followed by split-thickness skin
grafting once adequate granulation tissue forms. Dehiscence with moderate wound
separation can be managed by adequate debridement and secondary closure without
tension by utilizing a minor wedge excision with minimal bone shortening .
If infection is the sole cause of dehiscence, the wound should be widely opened for
drainage and appropriate antibiotics given. Once the wound is clean and granulating well,
the decision can be made to allow healing by secondary intention, with delayed split-skin
grafting coverage of granulating areas, or to revise proximally and maintain the same
anatomic level if an adequate soft-tissue envelope for the bone can be constructed. In the
presence of gross necrosis or failure of the wound to produce adequate granulation tissue,
the choice is limited to a revision amputation.
If peripheral vascular parameters are poor, before proceeding to a higher anatomic level,
for instance, from transtibial to transfemoral, transcutaneous oximetry can be utilized to
determine the potential for skin healing slightly more proximally in the same limb
segment. Evaluation should begin with baseline transcutaneous oxygen pressure (Tcp02)
determinations on room air at the site of proposed revision. If less than 40 mm Hg, the
measurements may be repeated after the patient has been breathing 100% 02 at 1 atm for
20 minutes. If Tcp02 values then meet or exceed 40 mm Hg, postoperative hyperbaric
oxygen (HBO) therapy may be considered. In selected cases, readings can be taken in the
hyperbaric chamber while the patient is breathing 100% 02 at 2.4 atm. If Tcp02 levels are
still borderline, consideration should be given to amputation at the next higher anatomic
level, followed by HBO therapy if Tcp02 readings are borderline at that level.
On occasion, repeated attempts at healing a trans-femoral amputation in cases of severe
dysvascularity result in wound dehiscence due to necrosis at a higher level. The next
proximal level is a hip disarticulation, with no assurance that this level will heal. If
necrosis then recurs, the patient is at great risk of death due to the difficulty of
controlling a wound at that level without involving the pelvic structures. It is sometimes
best to merely debride high transfemoral wounds in a manner so as to avoid trauma to
wound edges of marginal viability. This is done by leaving a residual rim of necrotic
tissue approximately 2 to 3 mm in width. In this way, the marginally viable skin beyond
the necrosis is not traumatized by the scalpel. This will often stop the inexorable spread
of necrosis attendant upon repeated aggressive debridement. This small rim of necrotic
tissue should separate spontaneously. Gauze dressings applied moist and removed dry
three times daily will encourage the formation of granulation tissue, which will lead to
either healing by secondary intention or the production of a suitable bed for a split-skin
graft. This is, of course, combined with improvement of nutrition and cessation of
smoking. HBO treatments are again a useful adjunct in management if pretreatment test
results are favorable.
In older dysvascular patients, falls in the early postoperative period are common due to
problems with balance, coordination, and weakness during crutch or walker ambulation.
Direct falls on a partially healed amputation wound can result in massive dehiscence and
leave the bone exposed. Cleansing, debridement, and closure should be done on an
emergency basis to prevent infection, flap shrinkage, and prolonged delay in prosthetic
fitting . This complication is usually prevented by application of a cast to the midthigh
with the knee in full extension each week for 3 weeks. This will also allow wound
inspection at weekly intervals and afford an opportunity for a full range of motion of the
knee prior to application of each cast.

Skin Adherence to Bone of the Residual Limb


The ideal closure of an amputation includes the construction of an adequate soft-tissue
envelope for the enclosed bone or bones. Myodesis or myoplasty are the two best
techniques available to provide both distal padding and to prevent adherence of the
incisional scar to the underlying bone. If the skin cannot slide over the underlying bone,
it will not be able to comfortably tolerate shear forces applied by the prosthesis at the
interface with the residual limb.
If wound closure is to involve split-thickness skin grafting, this should be applied only
over deeper soft tissues such as muscle and not directly on bone because the graft is very
likely to ulcerate as soon as use of a prosthesis is begun. Exceptions occur in upper-limb
amputations, which are not weight bearing, and in children, who do surprisingly well
with split-skin grafts once they have matured.

Problems in Shaping of the Residual Limb


Much can be done at the time of surgery to create an amputation stump that, by its
configuration, will assist in early prosthetic fitting. On the other hand, many problems
that lead to delayed application of a definitive prosthesis are a direct result of suboptimal
operative technique. While it is axiomatic that wound closure tension should be
minimized by designing ample myofasciocutaneous flaps, it is equally true that
redundant skin and muscle can lead to slow stump shrinkage with persistent distal edema
despite adequate attempts at shrinkage .
In order to ensure optimal configuration, proper shaping of the bone end and adequate
soft-tissue coverage are important. Here the role of myodesis/myoplasty cannot be
overemphasized. The most structurally stable residual limbs are achieved with myodesis
in which the surrounding muscles and their fasciae are sutured directly to the bone
through drill holes . In the case of transfemoral amputation, the additional advantages of
myodesis are stabilization of the femur in adduction by the adductor magnus, enhanced
hip flexion by the rectus femoris, and enhanced hip extension by the biceps femoris, all
three being muscles that cross the hip joint.
In myoplasty, on the other hand, opposing muscle groups are simply joined to each other
by sutures through the myofascia and investing fascia over the end of the bone. In a
severely dysvascular residual limb with marginal muscle viability, myoplasty is probably
the preferable method but should be done with little closure tension. In either case,
tapering of the muscle mass avoids excessive distal bulk .
Following amputation surgery, there is a tendency for terminal swelling to occur. Control
of this edema will greatly reduce the tendency for wound complications and thus
facilitate early healing. This is a major benefit of rigid circumferential dressings of
plaster of paris or fiberglass. As postoperative swelling decreases, the rigid dressing may
slip distally and produce a circumferential constriction with distal choking and
aggravation of distal swelling. If the cast is changed promptly on loosening, this problem
will not occur.
Whenever removal of a limb for malignancy is to be followed by chemotherapy, it is
recommended that nonabsorbable sutures be used to oppose the fascia and other deep
structures. Fascia and other soft tissues tend to heal poorly in the presence of
chemotherapeu-tic agents, and soft-tissue retraction occurs if absorbable sutures are used.
The overall conformation of the residual limb will then be altered, possibly leading to
difficulties in fitting.
The Syme ankle disarticulation presents a special case. If the heel pad is secure and well
centered, the patient will be able to tolerate a great deal of end bearing. If it is not
properly anchored to the end of the tibia, it may migrate posteriorly or to one side in the
socket . If passively correctable, however, it can be held in the proper weight-bearing
position by a carefully fabricated prosthesis. On the other hand, if the heel pad becomes
fixed off center by contracture of the triceps surae, other muscle groups, or a scar, it
should be surgically repositioned by division of the contracted tendons or scar and
removal of an ellipse of excess skin, including the incisional scar, opposite the original
contracture. It may also be necessary to remove a wafer of distal tibia and fibula to allow
reduction of the heel pad. The plantar fascia of the heel pad may then be firmly sutured
to the distal-anterior portions of the tibia and fibula through drill holes.
Prior vascular surgery may have resulted in a longitudinal scar beginning on the lower
portion of the abdomen and crossing the inguinal crease into the thigh . This presents two
possible problems for the transfemoral amputee. One is scar irritation by the socket brim.
The other is maintaining suction suspension, especially if the scar is depressed. Another
incisional approach that results in a scar that will not cross the socket brim begins in the
proximomedial portion of the thigh and extends laterally, parallel and just distal to the
inguinal crease.
Repeated application of an elastic bandage has been the time-honored method of
shrinking and shaping a residual limb. Unfortunately, less-than-expert application of the
bandage will produce a poorly shaped residual limb, generally with distal edema . The
bandages are meant to be applied on the bias with gradually decreasing pressure as the
wrapping proceeds proximally. Since layers of bandage tend to shift with movement,
frequent rewrapping is necessary to avoid circumferential constriction and distal edema
formation. As a result, many surgeons and prosthetists now recommend the use of an
elastic shrinker sock. This sock not only is easy to don and doff but also results in the
proper pressure gradient. When first fitted, it should be snug. A tuck may be sewn in the
sides of the sock every 7 to 14 days to keep it snug as the residual limb decreases in
volume (.). Depending on limb configuration and activity level, the sock may need to be
fitted with a waist belt to keep it in place. The sock is briefly removed daily for skin care.
Two socks should be supplied so that a clean one can be worn each day to assist in
hygienic care of the residual limb. Very muscular or obese amputees may show virtually
no shrinkage of their residual limbs by wrapping or shrinker sock usage. In these cases, a
temporary prosthesis or weight-bearing rigid dressing fitted as soon as the wound is
sound will cause both the bulky calf and the obese thigh to shrink most rapidly. This
technique may also be applied to the standard residual limb as well. This shrinkage
includes the removal of edema as well as atrophy of all the soft tissues of the residual
limb. Shrinkage is the greatest during the first 6 weeks of compression by prosthesis use
but continues for approximately 1 year after amputation, at which time a new socket will
probably be required. Shrinkage may be further enhanced by applying a snug elastic
shrinker sock when the preparatory socket is removed each night. When a definite
plateau in shrinkage has been reached, as determined by no further need for shrinker sock
tightening or by stable weekly circumferential measurements of the residual limb, a
definitive prosthesis may be fitted.

Contractures
The joint immediately proximal to an amputation site tends to develop contractures if full
range of motion is not initiated early in the postoperative phase. Contractures most often
occur as a result of the patient keeping the residual limb in a comfortable flexed position.
In lower-limb amputees, a variety of contractures may occur. These are serious
complications that will interfere with proper prosthetic gait and increase the energy
requirements of ambulation.
Patients with partial-foot amputations between the transmetatarsal and Syme ankle
disarticulation levels are likely to develop an equinus deformity due to the relatively
unopposed action of the triceps surae. This may be prevented during tarsometatarsal
(Lisfranc) and midtarsal (Chopart) amputations by reattaching the extrinsic muscle-
tendon units of the foot to more proximal bony structures in a balanced fashion and by
lengthening the Achilles tendon percutaneously. A postoperative cast applied with the
partial foot in a plantigrade position will prevent contractures until a definitive prosthesis
is made. A plastic ankle-foot orthosis fitted with an anterior ankle strap can be similarly
used. If, despite these precautions, a contracture later develops, a second percutaneous
Achilles tendon lengthening or revision to the Syme ankle disarticulation level may be
required.
Transtibial amputees, especially those with a short tibial segment, are prone to develop
knee flexion contractures in the first or second week postoperatively . For this reason, a
circumferential rigid dressing of plaster of paris or fiberglass with the knee in full
extension is advised until the wound heals sufficiently to allow the removal of sutures.
This is replaced weekly for 3 weeks with a full range of knee motion at each change. The
patella should be well padded to prevent pressure necrosis of the prepatellar skin. Even
with a cast in place, pillows should not be placed under the residual limb, or a hip flexion
contracture may be encouraged.
Severe knee flexion contractures are virtually impossible to reduce by exercise once they
become fixed. In amputations not done for vascular insufficiency, hamstring lengthening
and release of the posterior knee joint capsule should be considered. The dysvascular
amputee with a short contracted residual limb may be fitted with a bent-knee prosthesis,
which is functionally no better and cosmetically inferior to that for a knee
disarticulation . Occasionally, moderate knee contracture in a proximal-third amputation
may be improved by fitting a prosthesis with the foot in slight equinus to provide a knee
extension moment on foot contact.
At the transfemoral level of amputation, a hip flexion-abduction contracture can be
devastating because the already high energy requirement for ambulation at this level is
further increased by contracture. Again, prevention is the key. During transfemoral
amputations, flexion-abduction contracture can be discouraged by a balanced myodesis,
including reattachment of the adductor magnus tendon to the lateral aspect of the femur
as it is held in adduction and extension . Postoperatively, pillows under the thigh are
forbidden. Within a few days of surgery, the patient should be taught to lie prone for 15
minutes three times a day to stretch out any early flexion contracture and to actively
adduct the residual limb to prevent abduction contracture. Active extension of the
residual limb while flexing the opposite thigh to the chest is also effective. Excessive
wheelchair use, which encourages contractures, is discouraged by early walking with
crutches or a walker.
An alternative approach may be used in anticipation of prosthetic use by vigorous
transfemoral amputees. A unilateral hip spica is applied in the operating room
immediately following wound closure. Application is easily done by lifting the patient by
the opposite leg. The benefits are analogous to those achieved by postoperative casting of
transtibial amputees. The hip is aligned to discourage contractures, distal constriction
edema from bandaging is avoided, and the wound is protected from shear and direct
pressure, thereby reducing pain. At the first cast change, a pylon and foot may be added
to convert it to a preparatory prosthesis.
At the short transfemoral level, flexion contracture of up to 25 degrees may be
accommodated by prosthetic alignment, but hip extensor power, needed for good
prosthetic knee stability, is compromised. As one progresses distally to the midthigh
level, it is increasingly difficult to compensate prosthetically for a hip flexion
contracture. Even then, the resulting cosmesis of the prosthesis will leave something to
be desired. More than 15 degrees of hip flexion contracture will require a marked
compensatory increase in lumbar lordosis that, even if available, may lead to low back
pain.
When prescribing a prosthesis in cases with significant flexion contracture of the hip or
knee, the patient and family must be forewarned of the relatively grotesque appearance
of the prosthesis. Otherwise, if the patient and family do not understand the rationale for
this initial fitting in the hope that prosthesis usage will tend to decrease the contracture,
they may be very dissatisfied with the prosthesis and reject it.
In children, knee and hip flexion contractures can be stretched out by ignoring their
presence and fitting the patient with conventional alignment techniques. Spontaneous use
will usually stretch the contractures without other special treatment.
Contractures also occur in upper-limb amputations. Limitation of glenohumeral
abduction and forward flexion is common in short transhumeral amputations. Elbow
flexion contracture occurs readily in a short transradial case. Either can be easily
prevented by instituting range-of-motion exercises as soon as postoperative pain has
subsided at 5 to 7 days. Gentle muscle-strengthening exercises begun at 2 to 3 weeks
postoperatively are also helpful. If contractures become fixed, even an extensive program
of stretching may be ineffective and require selective release of contracted muscles to
allow fitting of a prosthesis.

Chronic Wound Sinus


The patient who appears with a small adhesive bandage on his wound with minimal
drainage has a problem that may or may not be related to one of the many conditions
mentioned above. This small opening may only lead to a superficial suture abscess, or it
may be a sinus related to a bone spur or low-grade, localized osteomyelitis. Since a sinus
is likely to become inflamed or infected, it is useful to know that it is present. A good
way to determine this is to probe the opening with a malleable metal probe or a flexible
polyethylene intravenous catheter after antiseptic skin preparation. Radiographs will help
to determine bone involvement. A sinus is best managed surgically during a benign,
nonacute interval. A sinogram followed by excisional surgery can be curative.

POSTPROSTHETIC COMPLICATIONS

Painful Residual Limb


In this section we will be dealing with causes of residual-limb pain other than phantom
pain. Pain in a residual limb can have as many causes as pain in an intact limb. Taking an
adequate history and performing a physical examination continue to be appropriate, with
inspection, palpation, performance tests, radiography, and other imaging studies used as
necessary. Since all persons with acquired amputations have phantom-limb sensation,
there is a tendency for patients, families, and physicians not familiar with amputees to
consider all pain in the residual limb to be phantom pain. In fact, chronic phantom pain is
very rare and presents a specific syndrome of a totally preoccupying pain in a stocking-
glove distribution. Another equally poor presumption is that all pain problems are related
to a poorly fitting prosthesis, and this results in the making of many unnecessary new
limbs.
Preamputation traumatic disruption of the interos-seus membrane and proximal
tibiofibular joint, with resultant hypermobility of the fibula, can be a cause of pain in the
transtibial amputee. Ertl has recommended distal tibiofibular synostosis to prevent or
treat this hypermobility. Fusion of the proximal tibiofibular joint is a much simpler
procedure that does not require shortening of the residual limb or disturbance of the
otherwise satisfactory distal tissues.
A common site of discomfort and skin breakdown in a transtibial amputation is over the
distal-anterior part of the tibia. This is commonly due to inadequate contouring
(beveling) of the tibia at the time of amputation. Although this can often be corrected by
local socket relief, with or without injection of the local bursa with steroids, surgical
revision may be required.
Symptomatic spurs from ectopic bone formation of the transected bone may be generated
in one of two ways. One is by surgical extension of periosteal stripping onto bone that is
to be retained . The periosteum should therefore be disturbed as little as possible on any
bone that one anticipates keeping. In addition, the approach to the fibula should be extra-
periosteal to avoid fibular regeneration. Widespread ectopic bone formation also occurs
when the trauma leading to amputation has resulted in wide stripping of periosteum from
the bone that is to be retained. This can be quite massive and may lead to considerable
discomfort in the residual limb. Before proceeding to revision, the surgeon should
determine exactly those portions that are contributing to discomfort and not disturb all
ectopic bone just because it is present. Following any bone transection, the soft tissues
should be copiously washed to remove minute bone fragments.
If the fibula is inadvertently left longer than the tibia, the resulting distal bony
prominence may be weight bearing and tender. Socket modification should be attempted,
but surgical revision is often necessary. In very short transtibial residual limbs, if the
fibular head and shaft are unduly prominent or hypermobile, the fibular remnant may
require complete secondary resection . This complication is prevented by routine primary
excision of the fibular remnant if amputation is close to the tibial tubercle. In the
transtibial amputee, torn knee ligaments may result in painful instability while wearing
the standard patellar tendon-bearing (PTB) prosthesis. Depending on the degree of
instability, it may be controlled by using a supracondylar-suprapatellar or supracondylar
prosthesis or a PTB prosthesis with a thigh corset.
In transfemoral amputations, if a dynamically balanced myodesis has not been
performed, the femur may drift anterolaterally through the soft tissue to present its distal
end subcutaneously . This will produce local tenderness and even ulceration with or
without use of a prosthesis. In the absence of ulceration, prosthetic modifications
including socket relief over the bony prominence or anterior filling-in of the socket just
above the prominence may be effective. If simple socket adjustments do not produce
relief, surgical revision, including myodesis, may be necessary. Pain-producing bone
spurs may develop at the cut end of the femur and require similar socket relief or
excision . Adventitious bursae develop over bony prominences and occasionally need
treatment beyond socket relief.
Transfemoral amputees may complain of a burning sensation in the ischial weight-
bearing area, particularly in the early phases of using a quadrilateral socket. With the
increasing utilization of ischial containment sockets and the advent of flexible socket
materials, pressure discomfort over the ischium is less common. Nonetheless, the
residual limb should be carefully examined at each visit for areas of local inflammation
secondary to excessive pressure.
Neuroma formation is a natural consequence of nerve section, and all amputees will
therefore have several neuromas. If nerves are divided at a level that avoids both
inclusion in the wound scar and weight-bearing or other significant pressure from the
prosthesis, they will rarely be symptomatic. If a symptomatic mass is suspected of being
a neuroma, direct manipulation should produce a Tinel's sign with a tingling discomfort
in the peripheral nerve patterns of the missing portion of the limb. If a neuroma is
incidentally found by palpation in an asymptomatic residual limb, the amputee should be
reassured that it is a normal finding and does not require corrective surgery. Firm fibrous
nodules that are only locally sensitive are probably not neuromas. The treatment of
neuromas should usually begin with socket accommodation. If this approach is
unsuccessful after several attempts, the neuroma should be moved to a deeper site, either
by proximal division under moderate tension or by placing the nerve end in bone. This is
certainly the case when the neuroma is directly over bony prominences where pressure
from use with or without a prosthesis is unavoidable, such as in the hand at the
metacarpal heads or at the neck of the fibula. In the case of a very short transtibial limb
with a symptomatic peroneal neuroma, the neuroma can be easily deafferented by
removal of peroneal nerve proximal to the knee through an incision posterior to the distal
portion of the biceps femoris muscle.
In some transtibial amputees who have had traumatic disruption of the interosseus
membrane and subluxation of the proximal tibiofibular joint, there may be ill-defined
pain related to fibular hypermobility producing pressure on the peroneal, tibial, and sural
neuromas. Ertl advocated a distal tibial fibular fusion to correct this problem and provide
an "end-bearing" bone. It is easier to simply fuse the proximal tibiofibular joint and not
shorten the residual limb or disturb its distal soft tissues.
In dysvascular patients, a healed skin wound may be associated with considerable
ischemia of the underlying muscles and result in intermittent claudication during
walking. In these cases, there will be no signs of inordinate prosthetic pressures, and the
pain will occur regularly when the patient walks a specific distance. Medication may be
prescribed, but the amputee should be assured that refabricating the prosthesis will not
help.
Whenever late pain occurs in a limb amputated because of tumor, local recurrence is a
possibility. The proper course of action depends upon the type of tumor and may range
from radiation or chemotherapy to amputation at a higher level. Consultation with an
oncologist is essential before proceeding.

Adherence of Skin to Bone


In any residual limb, but especially at the transtibial level, the adherence of skin to bone
or the application of split-thickness skin grafts directly to bone may rapidly lead to pain
and ulceration when a prosthesis is used. This occurs because skin without underlying
soft tissue has little resistance to direct or shear forces imposed by the prosthesis. In an
attempt to avoid revision, the amputee can be taught to mobilize tissue by gentle
persistent fingertip massage on a daily basis over several weeks as a routine part of self-
care. A gel socket may be useful. A nylon sheath should be provided to reduce shear
forces. If a transtibial amputation stump continues to show skin breakdown despite
competent socket adjustments, other methods may be helpful. The addition of a rotator
unit will decrease rotational shear forces. Partial unloading of the transtibial level by the
addition of knee joints and a long thigh corset or the use of ischial weight bearing may be
necessary to allow continued ambulation.
Surgical revision is done as a last resort and will usually require only a local wedge
excision, including a small length of bone. In the case of adherent split-thickness skin
grafts, often a relatively small area of adherent split graft can be excised, with primary
closure effected by advancement of surrounding skin and subcutaneous tissue once
muscle atrophy has resulted in relative skin redundancy at 10 to 12 months . Amputation
to a higher anatomic level is rarely indicated.
Other sites where split-thickness skin grafts may not stand up to prosthetic use is over the
adductor longus tendon in the groin, at socket brims over the biceps tendon in the
antecubital fossa, and in the anterior axillary fold in relation to transhumeral sockets.
Skin stretching, either by traction or by tissue expanders, is probably the best way to
develop enough normal skin to eliminate large areas of split-skin grafts. To cover the
adductor tendon region in the groin, however, it is usually sufficient to swing a small flap
distally from the abdomen downward or proximally from the thigh.

Insensitive Skin
Amputees with diminished sensation in the residual limb are seen quite commonly. The
largest group are diabetics, but other neurologic disorders such as my-elomenigocele,
Hansen's disease, and alcoholic neuropathy are also seen. These patients are not deterred
by pain from continuing to walk on a locally ischemic or ulcerated residual limb and
must be taught to remove their prostheses at regular intervals for skin inspection,
especially during the early phases of prosthetic use. Areas of skin blanching and/or
erythema should be noted by the prosthetics team for prompt corrective action. Multiple
short periods of daily ambulation will usually allow gradual skin adaptation. The
presence of insensate but otherwise normal skin on the residual limb should not be
considered an indication for more proximal amputation. It does, however, demand
precise prosthetic fitting and attentive follow-up care.

Poor Fit
After a variable period of use, most amputees find that prosthetic fit can no longer be
effectively adjusted by further socket padding and additional stump socks. With an
excessive number of sock plies, usually 10 to 15, the socket/residual-limb interface is
disturbed, as manifested by a reduction in rotational control and an increased tendency to
piston. In these cases, the prosthesis no longer fits properly, and a new socket is needed
promptly if dangerous, costly skin breakdown is to be avoided. On the other hand, many
problems are easily corrected with minor sock or socket adjustments. All team members
should therefore be aware of the signs of both loose and tight socket fit, especially at the
transtibial level. Evaluation of a residual limb for prosthetic pressures is exactly the same
as evaluation of a foot for shoe fitting. One looks for areas of prolonged erythema after
walking in the prosthesis, erythema in abnormal places, callus or bursa formation, and
local tenderness under erythematous areas.
Relative socket looseness will commonly cause excessive direct and shear forces over the
tibia and fibula, fibular head, tibial tubercle, and distal end of the patella as the residual
limb enters the socket too deeply. This problem is usually related to residual-limb
volume decrease by atrophy or weight loss. Relative socket tightness will cause direct
tibial tubercle pressure on the patellar tendon bar and verrucous hyperplasia of the limb
end due to loss of distal contact. This problem is often related to wearing excessive sock
plies or due to weight gain. Pressure and shear forces result in inflamed and/or ulcerated
areas of skin in either case.
Another transtibial problem of fit related to distal circumferential shrinkage is usually
associated with ill-defined pain in the residual limb. In this case, the amputee has good
suspension at the socket inlet but relative freedom of motion distally so that the residual
limb moves inside the socket like a clapper in a bell and strikes the anterior socket wall
each time the knee is extended during swing phase. There is no sign of inordinate
prosthetic pressure, but it may be noted, during donning or doffing of the prosthesis, that
while there is a snug fit proximally, there is room distally for an examining finger or that
a soft insert feels loose. A weight-bearing radiograph of the residual-limb/socket
interface is useful to confirm the presence of a distal void. Often, the same situation leads
to choking. This problem may sometimes be corrected by filling in the socket
posteriorly.
Lower-limb edema resulting from renal and/or cardiac disease will adversely affect
socket fit. If these amputees are unable to use their prosthesis for any reason, such as any
sudden change in their health, it may be impossible to get the socket back on. It is
extremely important that they have appropriate shrinker socks to wear in bed. If they are
admitted for treatment of their underlying condition, compression of the residual limb
should be started promptly while in the hospital rather than being neglected for a period
of several days. The edema can become relatively chronic, and resumption of ambulation
can be very difficult as one struggles to shrink the residual limb again.

Bony Overgrowth in Children


The traumatic transosseous child amputee may experience rapid growth in length of the
residual limb to the point where the bone grows through the skin. This is appositional
bone growth and is not related to physeal growth, even though bony overgrowth usually
ceases when physeal growth ceases. It is often seen in the humerus, fibula, tibia, and
femur in that order of relative frequency . This may occur several times during childhood
and is easily treated by resection of sufficient bone to allow coverage with an adequate
soft-tissue envelope. Caps, plugs, chemical cautery, or electrocautery have not proved to
be consistently useful in controlling overgrowth. Proximal epiphysiodesis is con-
traindicated since this has no influence on distal appositional bony overgrowth and will
lead to unnecessary shortening.
Degenerative Arthritis
Since most people who sustain amputations are middle-aged to elderly, some will have
arthritis of the joints proximal to the site of amputation. Superimposed ambulation with a
prosthesis may put more strain on the proximal joints, thereby contributing to arthritis
pain. Arthritis of the hip joint in the transfemoral amputee may be alleviated to some
degree since the trans-femoral socket bypasses the hip joint by utilizing a portion of the
pelvis for weight bearing. Also, the lightest-possible prosthesis should be fabricated to
require less forceful contractions of the muscles crossing the hip joint, thus reducing joint
compression forces. If pain is not relieved, a total-hip arthroplasty should be considered
to maintain function in a prosthesis user. Likewise, transtibial amputees with significant
symptomatic hip joint arthritis should not be denied the benefits of hip joint arthroplasty
if it is otherwise indicated. Weight-bearing pain in the knee secondary to femo-rotibial
joint arthritis may be partially relieved by the addition of knee joints and a thigh corset to
allow shared weight bearing between the residual limb and the thigh. Patellofemoral
arthritis has not proved to be a major concern. In cases of internal derangement of the
knee joint, arthroscopic evaluation and surgery should be considered.

Fracture
Although uncommon, fracture in a residual limb following amputation does occur
sufficiently often to warrant a careful design of treatment methods to allow an early,
effective return to prosthesis use. By applying current knowledge of the gait cycle and
energy expenditure in lower-limb amputees, certain goals in the treatment of late
residual-limb fracture become clear. The general principles of fracture management,
however, remain the same as in any other individual, but a different approach is allowed
due to the reduction in distal limb segment mass and lever arm length.
A combined American and Canadian study produced 90 cases with sufficient information
to provide both epidemiologic data and some specific recommendations for management.
The average age at injury was 50 years, with a fall while wearing the prosthesis as the
usual cause of injury. It was notable that knee joints and a thigh corset did not prevent
supracondylar fractures in transtibial amputees, nor did a hip joint with a pelvic belt
prevent fractures about the hip in transfem-oral amputees.
One important goal in the treatment of intertrochanteric fractures that applies to both
transtibial and trans-femoral amputees is the restoration of a normal neck-shaft angle to
restore hip abductor function. Although manipulation and casting often suffice in two-
part intertrochanteric fractures, those amputees with unstable fractures are best served by
open reduction and internal fixation. Displaced femoral neck fractures in both groups
may be managed either by reduction and internal fixation or by endoprosthetic
replacement. Excision of the femoral head alone will lead to an unstable gait. Instead,
femoral endoprosthetic replacement or total-hip arthroplasty may be undertaken based on
the same criteria as in any patient with otherwise intact limbs.
Because of the small residual-limb mass and lever arm length in transfemoral amputees,
most nondis-placed peritrochanteric fractures and shaft fractures can be successfully
managed by non-weight bearing alone or minispica casts after appropriate manipulation
of malaligned fractures.
In transtibial amputees, preservation of knee motion and restoration of limb alignment,
especially in more proximal femoral fractures, are paramount. Patients with stable
supracondylar femoral fractures can be mobilized rapidly by the use of the cast-brace
technique . Unstable supracondylar fractures should be fixed primarily, if possible, to
preserve knee motion. Severely comminuted supracondylar fractures unsuitable for
fixation may be managed by casting with or without preliminary skeletal traction and/or
manipulation . Moderate malunion or loss of length at the transtibial level is easily
compensated by prosthetic adjustment, but an effort should be made to avoid flexion
contracture of the knee, which is much less compensable . In displaced intra-articu-lar
fractures of the knee, joint congruity should be restored as accurately as possible.
In this study, transtibial amputees were more likely to resume the use of their prosthesis
than were trans-femoral amputees due to lesser energy demands. Operative scars did not
interfere with the fitting or use of prostheses. Only 25% required a prosthesis
modification following fracture, and all of these were transtibial amputees. Proximal
revision of amputations through the fracture site was not found to be necessary or
desirable.
Fractures of residual upper limbs are very rare. It is recommended that humeral fractures
be treated by splinting. If delayed union or nonunion ensues, open reduction, internal
fixation, and bone grafting should be considered, especially in transradial amputees.
Fractures about the elbow may be managed by open or closed methods so long as
treatment is designed to maintain elbow range of motion. In summary, good results in the
management of fractures of residual limbs may be expected if they are treated with the
same care and expertise accorded fractures occurring in intact limbs.
NURSING INTERVENTATION
The major goals of the patient may include relief of pain ,absence of
altered sensory perception , wound healing , acceptance of altered
body image ,resolution of grieving process, independence in self
care ,restoration of physical mobility ,and absence of complications .
RELIEVING PAIN
Surgical pain can be controlled effectively with opoid analgesic ,non
pharmaceutical intervention or evacuation of haematoma or
accumulated fluid . Pain may be incisional or may be caused by
inflammation ,infection and pressure on bony prominence or
hematoma muscle spasm may add to the patient discomfort.

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi