NPTEL C OURSE ON

M ATHEMATICS IN I NDIA :
F ROM V EDIC PERIOD TO M ODERN TIMES
Lecture 21
Ll
avat of Bh
askar
ac
arya 2

M. S. Sriram
University of Madras, Chennai.

Outline

Applications of right triangles, continued.

S
uc probems

Construction of a quadrilateral: Discussion on earlier

confusions

To find the second diagonal, given the four sides and a

diagonal of a quadrilateral

Cyclic quadrilaterals

Value of , area of a circle, surface area of a sphere, volume

of a sphere

A rational right triangle

Verse 140:

1  a2
n , hypotenuse
As in Br
ahmasphut.asiddh
anta: Side = a, upright =
n
2

1  a2
+
n
.
It
is
obviously
true.
But
how
to
get
this?
=
2 n
Gan.esa Daivaj
na explains in his Buddhivil
asin commentary.
Let side = a. Let hypotenuse - upright = n. Let upright = x.
a2 + x 2 = (x + n)2 = x 2 + n2 + 2xn


1 a2
a2 n 2
=
n .
x=
2n
2 n


1 a2
Hypotenuse = x + n =
+n .
2 n

Or given the hypotenuse a, and an assumed number n. Then by a similar rule

2an
in Verse 142, the upright is 2
, and the side is found to be
n +1
n upright - Hypotenuse =

2an2
a(n2 1)
a=
.
2
n +1
(n2 + 1)

Bamboo problem

Suppose a bamboo of height a , standing vertically, is broken at

height x, and the tip falls to the ground at a distance b from the
root of the bamboo. A right triangle is now formed with the side
b, upright x and hypotenuse h = a x. Verse 147 states that the
2
2
upright , x = 21 (a ba ) and the hypotenuse , h = 21 (a + ba ) :
vMa;Za;a;g{a;mUa;l+.a;nta:=+BUa;a;ma;va;ga;eRa

vMa;Za;ea:;d
x ;ta;~tea;na :pxa;Ta;gyua;ta;ea;na;Ea

vMa;Za;ea ta;d;DeRa Ba;va;taH k

+:mea;Na vMa;Za;~ya Ka;Nqe (rua;a;ta;k+:ea;a;f:+.pea

Bamboo problem
The square of the ground intercepted between the root and
the tip is divided by the (length of the ) bamboo, and the
quotient severally added to , and subtracted from , the
bamboo: the halves (of the sum and difference) will be the
two portions of it representing hypotenuse and upright.
Here
h + x = a.
Also
h2 = x 2 + b 2 .
h2 x 2 = b 2 .

b2
h2 x 2
=
.
h+x
a


b2
1
So, from Sankraman

. a, upright x = 2 a a , Hypotenuse, h


2
= 21 a + ba . This is essentially Ganes.as explanation of the result.
hx =

Example
Example in Verse 148.

ya;
a;d .sa;ma;Bua;
a;va :vea;NuaH d;nta;pa;a; a;Na;pra;ma;a;Na;ea
ga;Na;k! :pa;va;na;vea;ga;a;de ;k+:de;Zea .sa Ba;+;aH

Bua;
a;va nxa;pa;a;ma;ta;h;~tea;Svea;va l+.+;a;~ta;d;g{
Ma

k+:Ta;ya k+:a;ta;Sua mUa;l+.a;de ;Sa Ba;+;aH k+.=e+Sua 156

If a bamboo, measuring 32 cubits and standing upon
level ground, be broken in one place by the force of the
wind and the tip of it meets the ground at 16 cubits; say
mathematician at how many cubits from the root it is
broken.

Bamboo problem: Solution

20
a=32
a-x

x
12

20
b=16



1
b2
x =
a
2
a


1
256
1
x =
32
= (32 8) = 12
2
32
2
h = a x = 32 12 = 20

Snake-Peacock problem
Snake -Peacock Problem in Verse 150 :
A;a;~ta
///// .~ta;}Ba;ta;le ;
a;ba;lM ta;d
u ;pa;a:= k

+:a;q+.a; a;Za;Ka;Nq+.a ;a;~Ta;taH

//////
.~ta;}Ba;ea na;nd;k+.=+ea;a;. C
/////" +.ta;a;~:a;gu
/// a; a;Na;ta;~ta;}Ba;pra;ma;a;Na;a;nta:=e
x ;;a;
a;hM ;
a;ba;l+.ma;a;v.ra:$a;nta;ma;pa;ta;t,a
d

;a;ta;yRa;k
,
.sa ta;~ya;ea;pa;a:=

;a;[a;prMa b.rUa;
a;h ta;ya;ea;
a;bRa;l+.a;t,a k+:a;ta;a;ma;tea .sa;a;}yea;na ga;tya;ea;yRua;a;taH

A snakes hole is at the foot of a pillar, 9 cubits high,

and a peacock is perched on its summit. Seeing a
snake at the distance of thrice the pillar gliding towards
his hole, he pounces obliquely upon him. Say quickly at
how many cubits from the snakess hole they meet,
both proceeding an equal distance.

Snake-Peacock problem: Solution

B
27-x

9
x
A

27-x
D

Snake - Peacock problem

AB = 9 cubits, AC = 3 9 = 27 cubits. Let AD = x, CD = 27 x = BD. Now
BD 2 AD 2

AB 2

92

(27 x + x)(27 x x)

81

81

24

12

(27 x) x

27 (27 2x)
81
27 2x =
27
2x = 27 3
x

Snake, Peacock meet at distance x = 12, from the hole.

Lotus problem
Lotus probem in Verse 154 :

.sa;Kea :pa;
+a;ta;n}.a:*.
a;na;~Ta;a;na;ma;DyMa Bua:$aH k+:ea;a;f;k+:Na;Ra;nta:=M :pa;+a;dx;Zya;m,a

na;l:H k+:ea;a;f:=e+ta;a;n}

/ / / /.a;tMa .~ya;a;d;a;ta;ea.Y;}Ba;ea va;dE;vMa .sa;ma;a;na;a;ya :pa;a;na;a;ya;ma;a;na;m,a
154

Friend, the space between the lotus (as it stood) and the spot
where it submerged, is the side. The lotus as seen (above water) is
the difference between the hypotenuse and upright. The stalk is the
upright, for the depth of water is measued by it. say, what the depth
of the water is.
C
B

d
a+d
A

Lotus Problem

Lotus problem: Solution

AC : original position of the lotus = a + d . BC = a : portion
above water. AB = d : portion inside water = Depth of water.
Due to wind the lotus is swept and assumes the position
AD = a + d . (So it is just submerged at D). Suppose BD = b is
given. Find d (Depth of water).
Solution :
(a + d )2 = d 2 + b 2 , or d =

b 2 a2
.
2a

Example in Verse 153.

a = 1 span =

1
2

cubit. b = 2 cubits. d =

22 1/4
15
.
=
1
4
2 2

Apes problem
vxa;[a;a:;d
;~ta;Za;ta;ea;. C
" +.ya;a;. C+.ta;yua;gea

va;a;pya;Ma k+:
a;paH k+:ea.Y;pya;ga;a;t,a

o+
*+:a;ya;a;Ta :pa:=+ea du+tMa (rua;a;ta;pa;Ta;a;t,a
.$a;a;tEa;vMa .sa;ma;ta;a ta;ya;ea;yRua;a;ta:=+
a;pa

*.a;d, du+ya;a;t,a
:pra;ea:
*+:a;ya ;
a;k+:a:

:pra;ea:
*+:a;ya;ma;a;nMa ;
a;k+:ya;d,

;
a;va;d
////// :pa;a:=+(ra;ma;ea.Y;a;~ta
///// ga; a;Na;tea ;a;[a;prMa ta;d;a;. a;[va mea
;n,a :vea;a;tsa

From a tree, a hundred cubits high, an ape descended

and went to a pond, two hundred cubits distant; while
another ape, vaulting to some height off the tree,
proceeded with a velocity diagonally to the same spot.
If the space traveled by them be equal, tell me quickly,
learned man, the height of the leap, if thou have
diligently studied calculation.
Solution given in (earlier) Verse 154.

Solution of Apes problem

;
a;d
ea;a;./ /
/
C
" +.a;ta;sMa;yua;tMa ya;t,a .sa:=+ea.Y;nta:=M .tea;na ;
a;va;Ba;a;a:$a;ta;a;ya;aH
;a;na.*+;ta;a;l+.

ta;a;l+.ea;a;./ /
/
C
" +.tea;~ta;a;l+.sa:=+ea;nta:=:*+a;a
o+
*+:a;ya;ma;a;nMa Ka;lu l+.Bya;tea ta;t,a

The height of the tree multiplied by its distance from

the pond, is divided by twice the height of the tree,
added to the space between the tree and the pond: the
quotient will the measure of the leap.
A
x
D
a

Ape Problem

Solution of Apes problem

This is essentially the same as the Two ascetics problem in

Brahmasphut
.asiddhanta.
BD = a = Height of the tree; BC = b = Distance between tree
and pond. Let the leap be x = AD
Given that
BD + BC = a + b = AD + AC = x + AC = x +
x+

q
(a + x )2 + b2

(a + x )2 + b2

a2 + b2 + 2ax + x 2

(a + x)2 + b 2 .

= a+b
= (a + b x )2 = x 2 + (a + b)2 2x (a + b)
= x2
2

+ (a + b)2 2x (a + b) = x 2 + a2

+b + 2ab 2x (a + b).
ab
=
2a + b

Two bamboo pillars: Segments and Perpendicular

Verse 159.
B
D
E

p
A

x1

x2

Two bamboos and perpendicular at the junction

Two bamboos of heights AB = a, CD = b. Distance between
them = AC = d . Top of each bamboo joined by string to the
bottom of the other. p = EF is the perpendicular from the
intersection of the strings at E to the base AC at F . Find p and
the segments AF = x1 , FC = x2 .

Segments and Perpendicular

From similar triangles,

EF
p
FC
x2
x2
= =
=
=
AB
a
AC
x1 + x2
d

EF
p
= =
CD
b


1 1
+
=
p
a b

Similarly,

p=
Also x1 =
.

AF
x1
x1
=
=
AC
x1 + x2
d
d
x1 x2
= =1
d
d

ab
a+b

pd
ad
bd
=
. Similarly, x2 =
b
(a + b)
(a + b)

Example
Example Verse 160.

15
10
6
3

2
5

An example
Given Bamboos; 15, 10. Distance: 5. Then p =
x1 = 3, x2 = 2.

15 10
= 6.
15 + 10

Triangles and quadrilaterals

In Verse 161. It is stated: In any rectilinear figure, one side
cannot be greater than the sum of the other sides.
Verse 163,164: Given the segments and the perpendicular
(altitude) in terms of the two sides and the third side (base). Also
it is stated that:
Area =

1
Base Altitude
2

Verse 166. Case of a triangle with an obtuse angle.

d;Za;sa;a;d;Za;pra;ma;Ea

Bua:$a;Ea ;
a:a;Bua:$ea ya:a na;va;pra;ma;a ma;h;a

A;ba;Dea va;d l+.}ba;k

M ta;Ta;a ga; a;Na;tMa ga; a;Na;ta;k+:a;Zua ta:a mea 166

In a triangle, wherein the sides measure ten and

seventeen , and the base nine, tell me promptly, expert
mathematician, the segments, perpendicular, and area.

Negative seqment
2

c
is 21. This cannot be subtracted from
Here, the quotient b 2a
the base; wherefore the base is subtracted from it : (
) . (One of ) the segment
is negative , that is to say, in the contrary direction.
(
). The two segments are
found 15 and 6(negative) . Perpendicular is 8 and the area is 36.

BUa:+.na;a na .~ya;a;t,a A;sma;a;de ;va BUa:=+pa;na;a;ta;a

+.Na;ga;ta;a.Y;ba;a;Da;a ;
a;d;gvEa;pa:=+a;tyea;nea;tya;TRaH

The negative segment is shown by the dotted line.

Obtuse triangle

A;nea;na

Construction of a quadrilateral and its area

Verse 167.
.sa;vRa;d;ea;yRua;a;ta;d;lM .. a;tuaH+a;~Ta;tM
////// a ba;a;hu;a;Ba;
a;vRa:=+
a;h;tMa

mUa;l+.ma;~.Pu+.f;P+.lM :pra:$a;a;ya;tea

.~.pa;;mea;va;mua;
a;d;tMa

.. a ta:;d
;teaH
;
a:a;ba;a;hu;k
e 167

Half the sum of all the sides is set down in four places
and the sides are severally subtracted. The remainders
multiplied together, the square root of the product is the
area, inexact for quadrilateral, but pronounced exact for
triangle.
Bhaskara, Area of quadrilateral,
A=

(s a)(s b)(s c)(s d ), s =

(a + b + c + d )
2

is Inexact in a quadrilateral, but exact for a triangle (by putting

one of the sides =0).

Construction of a quadrilateral
Verse 169-172:
. a;tua;BRua:$a;~ya;a.Y;a;na;ya;ta;Ea ;
a;h k+:Na;ERa k+:TMa
ta;ta;ea.Y;a;sma;n,
/ / / / / a ;a;na;ya;tMa :P+.lM .~ya;a;t,a
:pra;sa;a;a;Da;ta;Ea ta;. C
" +.va;Na;Ea ya;d;a d
///
a;d;ta:=;a na .~taH 169
;Ea .~va;k+:a;pa;ta;tva;a;

.tea;Svea;va ba;a;hu;Sva;pa:=+Ea . a k+:Na;Ra;va;nea;k+:Da;a [ea:a;P+.lM ta;ta;(

a 170

l+.}ba;ya;eaH k+:NRa;ya;ea;nERa;k
M .sa;mua; a;+Zya;a;pa:=+a;n,a k+:Ta;m,a
:pxa;. C+.tya;a;na;ya;ta;tvea.Y;
a;pa ;a;na;ya;tMa . a;a;
a;pa ta;tP+.l+.m,a 171

.sa :pxa;. C+.k;H ;

a;pa;Za;a;. a;ea va;a ga;Na;k+:ea ;a;na;ta:=+Ma ta;taH
ya;ea na :vea; a:a . a;tua;ba;Ra;h;Ea [ea:a;~ya;a.Y;a;na;ya;ta;Ma ;a;~Ta;
/ / /  a;ta;m,a 172

Since the diagonals of a quadrilateral are indeterminate how

should the area be in this case, determinate? The diagonals
found as assumed by the ancients do not answer in another
case. with the same sides, there are other diagonals; and
the area of the quadrilateral is accordingly manifold.

Construction of a quadrilateral
For in a quadrilateral, opposite angles being made to
approach, contract their diagonal as they advance
inwards. While the other angles receding outwards
lengthen the diagonal. Therefore it is said that with the
same sides there are other diagonals.
How can person, neither specifying one of the
perpendicular nor the either of the diagonals, ask the
rest? Or how can he demand a determinate area, while
they are indefinite?
Such a questioner is a blundering devil(pisaca). Still
more so is he, who answers the question. For he
considers not the indefinite nature of the lines in a
quadrilateral figure.

Construction of a quadrilateral
D

a1

a2

a
A quadrilateral

AB, AD, CD, CB are the sides. To specify D, we should be given

or DB = D1 : one of the diagonals. Later
p (or equivalently B AD)
if d , D1 , a are known, p can be
q found. Similarly, if p, d are known,
a1 , a2 are known, and D1 =

p 2 + a22 .

Finding the second diagonal

Determination of the second diagonal given the four sides and one diagonal in
Verses 181-182 :

I+.;ea.Y:a k+:NRaH :pra;Ta;mMa :pra;k+:pyaH ya;~:ea tua k+:Na;eRa;Ba;ya;taH ;a;~Ta;te

/ / /  a yea
k+:Na ta;ya;eaH [ma;a;a;ma;ta:=+Ea . a ba;a;hU :pra;k+:pya l+.}ba;a;va;ba;Dea :pra;sa;a;Dyea 181
x +:a;ta;sMa;yua;ta;~ya
A;a;ba;a;Da;ya;ea;=e+k+:k+:k
u +:p~Ta;ya;eaH ya;t,a .~ya;a;d;nta:=M ta;tk
l+.}bEa;k+.a;va;gRa;~ya :pa;dM ;
a;d
;ta;a;yaH k+:Na;eRa Ba;vea;t,a .sa;vRa;. a;tua;BRua:$ea;Sua 182

In the figure, first a diagonal is assumed. In the two triangles

situated on each side of the diagonal, tis diagonal is made
the base of each; and the other sides are given; the
perpendiculars and segments must be found. Then the
square of the difference of two segments on the same side
being added to the square of the sum of the perpendiculars,
the square root of the sum of those squares will be the
second diagonal in all quadrilaterals.

Determination of the second diagonal

D

C
H

p1

p2
H

b
D1

Determination of the second diagonal

In the figure, BD is a diagonal. To find the other diagonal AC. p1 , p2
are perpendicular to the first diagonal BD = D1 can be determined.
DH = D1c and HB = D1b : segments associated with p1 . DH = D1d
and H B = D1a : segments associated with p2 . Extend AH to G such
that H G = CH = p1 . Clearly, CG is perpendicular to H G.
CG = H H = DH DH = D1c D1d

. Then the second diagonal AC = D2 is given by

AC 2 = AG2 + CG2 = (p1 + p2 )2 + (D1c D1d )2

Example
Example: d = 68, a = 75, c = 51, b = 40, D1 = 77..
D1 +
DH = D1c =

DH =

D1

(c 2 b 2 )
(512 402 )
91 11
77 +
77 +
77 + 13
D1
77
77
=
=
=
= 45
2
2
2
2

(a2 d 2 )
(752 682 )
143 7
77
77
77 13
D1
77
77
=
=
=
= 32.
2
2
2
2
DH = D1d = 32, D1c D1d = 13.
p1 =

Similarly, p2 = 60.

2
b 2 D1b
=

402 322 = 8

52 42 = 24

AC 2 = (p1 + p2 )2 + (D1c D1d )2 = 842 + 132 = 7225 = 852

AC = 85

(852 = (84+1)2 = 842 +284+1 = 842 +169 = 842 +132 )

Construction of a cyclic quadrilateral

Bhaskara gives the method to construct a cyclic quadrilateral
beginning with two right triangles in Verses 191-192 : Same as

the construction in Brahmasphut

.asiddhanta.

c 1a 2
c1

a1

c2

b1

a2

b2

c 1b 2
a 1b 2

b 1b 2

a 1a 2

b 1a 2

c 2a 1

b 2a 1

a 2a 1

c 2b 1

a 2b 1

b 2b 1

Triangles used to construct a cyclic quadrilateral

Construction of a cyclic quadrilateral

c 2b 1
a 2b 1

b 1b 2
c 1b 2

c 1a 2

a 1a 2

a 1b 2
c 2a 1

A cyclic quadrilateral constructed from 4 right triangles

Another cyclic quadrilateral with same sides

Another cyclic quadrilateral can be constructed from the four right triangles, by
interchanging the sides c2 b1 and c1 b2 :
c 1b 2

a 1b 2
b 1b 2
b 1a 2
a 2b 1

c 2b 1

a 1a 2
C

Another cyclic quadrilateral from the same 4 right triangles

Here one diagonal AC = a1 b2 + a2 b1 .
(other diagonal)2

=
=
=

(a1 a2 + b1 b2 )2 + (b1 a2 a1 b2 )2
(a21 + b12 )(a22 + b22 )
c12 c22 .

Other diagonal BD = c1 c2 .
We may also note that in this construction, the diagonal BD is the diammeter
of the circle.

Circle
After triangles and quadrilaterals, Bh
askara discusses Circles .
He has many new things to say regarding circles.
Verse 201.

a ;
a;va;Ba;e
v.ya;a;sea Ba;na;nd;a;a;+;a;h;te
Ka;ba;a;Na;sUa;yERaH :pa;a:=+a;DaH .sua;sUa;[maH
d;a;
a;vMa;Za;a;ta.:ea ;
a;va;h;tea.Y;Ta ZEa;lE :H
.~TUa;l+.ea.Y;Ta;va;a .~ya;a;d, v.ya;va;h;a:=+ya;ea;gyaH 207
When the diameter of a circle is multiplied by 3927 and
divided by 1250, the quotient is nearly the
circumference: or multiplied by 22 and divided by 7, it is
the gross circumference adapted to the practice.

Ratio of circumference and diameter

Circumference
3927

= 3.1416
|{z}
Diameter
1250
Near
Rough value: =

22
.
7

In his Buddhivilasini,
Gan.esa Daivaj
na explains the value
.

3927
1250

for

Inscribed hexagon

a12
r
2

Side of an inscribed hexagon = r . Circumference 6r .

Inscribed dodecagon
Side of an inscribed dodecagon (12 sides), a12 is obtained as follows:
(r h)2 +

 r 2
2

r 2 + h2 2rh +

= r 2.
r2
= r 2.
4

r2
=0
4

3
1p 2
2
4r r = r
r.
h=r
2
2
h2 2rh +

r2
a212 = h2 + .
4)
(
2

1
3
= r 2 {2 3}.
+
a212 = r 2
1
2
4
s

1
3
d 669.87
a12 = r 2 3 = d

.
2
4
100
Gan.esa gives

a12 d

673
.
100

Circumference 12a12


12 673
d.
100

Better value of

In this manner, he says if we have a polygon of 384 sides.

(384 = 12 32 = 12 25 ).
!

98683
d.
Circumference
100

3927
98683

.
100
1250

(check: 98683 1250 392673 392700).

Area of a circle, Surface area and Volume of a Sphere

Area of a circle, Surface area and Volune of a Sphere in Verse
203 :

vax :a;[ea:ea :pa;a:=+a;Da;gua; a;Na;ta;v.ya;a;sa;pa;a;dH :P+.lM ya;t,a

[ua;NNMa :vea;dE :+:pa;a:= :pa;a:=+taH k+:ndu ;k+:~yea;va .$a;a;l+.m,a
ga;ea;l+.~yEa;vMa ta;d;
a;pa . a :P+.lM :pxa;;$Ma v.ya;a;sa;a;na.*+M
:Sa;
a:*.+:BRa;M Ba;va;a;ta ;a;na;ya;tMa ga;ea;l+.ga;BeRa ;Ga;na;a;K.ya;m,a 203

In a circle, a quarter of the diameter multiplied by the

circumference is the area. That multiplied by four is the
net all around the ball.This content of the surface of the
sphere, multiplied by the diameter and divided by six, is
the precise solid, termed cubic, content within the
sphere.

Area etc.

d 2
Circumference Diameter
=
.
4
4
Surface area of a sphere = Circumference Diameter
= d 2 = 4r 2 .
4
)2
= r 3 .
Volume of a sphere = Circumference (Diameter
6
3

Area of a circle =

Gan.esas derivation for the area of a circle

...

... ...

r = Diameter
2

Combine
...

Rectangle with sides:

Area =

diameter
Circumference
and
.
2
2
1
Circumference Diameter.
4

Surface area of a sphere

- Vasan

Surface area of a sphere. Siddhantas

aya
a.
. iroman.i - Goladhy
R sin

Divide hemisphere into 24 strips.

Area of strip = 2R sin R.
R
R =
2 24

i = i
2 24
R sin i Given in table.

Area of hemisphere

Area of hemisphere = 2

X


R sin i (R).

Bhaskara carries out the sum explicitly using the 24 Rsine values
from the table and reports the measure of the hemisphere to be
2R 2 . (Actually, half the product of the circumference and the
diameter). Yuktibh
as.
a proves that the area of the hemisphere is
2R 2 by integration: essentially
Z

2 sin d = cos | 2
0
0

Volume of a sphere

Volume of the cone bit (Fig.68) = 31 Area height = 13 A R.

Then Volume of sphere = 13 Area of sphere R = 13 4R 3 .
Relation among chord, sara and diameter, as in
Br
ahmasphut. asiddh
anta and Gan.itas
arasangraha.

References
1.H.T.Colebrooke, Algebra with Arithmetic and Mensuration from
the Sanskrit of Brahmagupta and Bhaskara, London 1817; Rep.
Sharada Publishing House, New Delhi, 2006.
2. Bhaskar
acaryas Ll
avat with Colebrookes translation and
notes by H.C.Banerji, Second Edition,The Book Company,
Calcutta, 1927; Rep. Asian Educational Series, New Delhi, 1993.
3.Ll
avat of Bhasakar
ac
arya II: Ed. with Bh
askaras V
asan
a and
Buddhivil
asan of Gan.esa Daivaj
na by V.G.Apte, 2 Vols., Pune,
1937.
4.Ll
avat of Bhasakar
ac
arya , A Treatise of Mathematics of Vedic
Tradition, Tr. by K.S.Patwardhan, S.M.Naimpally and S.L.Singh,
Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 2001.

Thanks!

Thank You