Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Road
Drainage
Manual
A Guide to the Planning, Design,
Operation and Maintenance of Road
Drainage Infrastructure
COPYRIGHT
State of Queensland (Department of Transport and Main Roads) 2010
Copyright protects this publication. Except for the purposes permitted by and subject to the conditions
prescribed under the Copyright Act, reproduction by any means (including electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, microcopying or otherwise) is prohibited without the prior written permission of the
Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads. Enquiries regarding such permission should be
directed to the Road & Delivery Performance Branch, Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads
Reprinted with
corrections 2003
FEEDBACK
Your feedback is welcomed. Please send to <mr.techdocs@tmr.qld.gov.au>.
TRADEMARKS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Terms mentioned in this document that are known or understood to be trademarks, whether registered
or not, have been identified. Where trademarks have been confirmed as registered in Australia, this
has been indicated by the addition of the symbol, otherwise the symbol is used. While all care
has been taken to identify trademarks, users should rely on their own inquiries to determine trademark
ownership. Use of a term in this document as a trademark should not be regarded as affecting the
validity of any trademark.
DISCLAIMER
This publication has been created for use in the design, construction, maintenance and operation of
road transport infrastructure in Queensland by or on behalf of the State of Queensland.
Where the publication is used in other than the departments infrastructure projects, the State of
Queensland and the department give no warranties as to the completeness, accuracy or adequacy of the
publication or any parts of it and accepts no responsibility or liability upon any basis whatever for
anything contained in or omitted from the publication or for the consequences of the use or misuse of
the publication or any parts of it.
If the publication or any part of it forms part of a written contract between the State of Queensland and
a contractor, this disclaimer applies subject to the express terms of that contract.
March 2010
ii
FOREWORD
This Road Drainage Manual (2nd Edition) provides guidance in the planning, design, operation
and maintenance of road drainage infrastructure in all urban and rural environments for the
Department of Transport and Main Roads, Queensland.
Road drainage is an important element of the road environment and therefore must be
considered in all planning, design, construction and maintenance projects. The appropriate
management of stormwater about the road environment is vital to user safety, longevity of the
road asset and protection of the environment. This demands a holistic and multi-disciplinary
approach to the road drainage planning and design activity in order to satisfy both hydraulic and
environmental requirements in determining an appropriate drainage solution at a cost acceptable
to the community.
The information within this guide is sufficient to undertake normal daily work. Competent
planners, designers and engineers shall apply the requirements within this document in an
intelligent way. However, it is expected that when situations arise that cannot be resolved
using this guide, the subject will be examined in more detail using relevant experts. Noncompliance with the requirements and intent of this manual must be considered a design
exception and will require appropriate technical certification and approval by Department of
Transport and Main Roads, Queensland.
Ian Reeves
General Manager (Engineering and Technology)
24 March 2010
March 2010
iii
IMPORTANT INFORMATION
The requirements of this document represent Technical Policy of the department and contain
Technical Standards. Compliance with the departments Technical Standards is mandatory for
all applications for the design, construction, maintenance and operation of road transport
infrastructure in Queensland by or on behalf of the State of Queensland.
This document will be reviewed from time to time as the need arises and in response to
improvement suggestions by users. Please send your comments and suggestions to the feedback
email provided previously.
This document is approved for use by:
24 March 2010
D. A. Hicks
Chair of Steering Committee and Director (Road Planning & Design)
24 March 2010
A. D. Krosch
A/Executive Director (Design, Environment & Stewardship)
And the General Manager (Engineering & Technology) by his signature of the Foreword.
March 2010
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
As of March 2010
Chapter
Issue
Date
Acknowledgements
Mar 10
Framework
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Data Collection
Appendix 4A Data Collection Checklist
Hydrology
Appendix 5A Pipe Flow Charts
Appendix 5B - Worked Examples
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Basins
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
Mar 10
4
5
10
11
12
13
14
Glossary
Mar 10
References
Mar 10
March 2010
v
March 2010
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Content Owners of this new edition wish to acknowledge the effort of the various authors
(both internal and external to the department) and members of the steering committee
involved with the first release. Much of their work exists in this edition.
The on-going development and maintenance of the manual is the responsibility of the Road
Engineering Standards Section (E&T), under the guidance of the following steering
committee:
Member
Role
Mr D Hicks
Director (Road Planning &
Design)
Mr M Whitehead
Principal Engineer (Road
Design Standards)
Dr W Weeks
Director (Hydraulics)
Mr R Stone
Director (Environment and
Heritage)
Ms K Mahony
Principal Environmental
Officer (Southern)
Mr T Smith
Manager (Design
Services)
Ms T Graham
Aurecon
Mr P Woods
Aurecon
Key technical authors / contributors to the development of this edition are: Mr Mike
Whitehead, Dr William Weeks, Mr Juan Carlos Delgado, Mr Wayne Huntley, Mr John
Blurton, the Urban Stormwater Quality Management Working Group (USQMWG) and
Environmental Soil Solutions Australia.
The department would also like to acknowledge the Department of Environment and
Resource Management for their approval to reference and use parts of the Queensland Urban
Drainage Manual (QUDM) issued in 2008.
March 2010
vii
March 2010
viii
Chapter 1
Framework
Chapter 1
Framework
March 2010
Chapter 1
Framework
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 1
Framework
Table of Contents
1.1
1.2
1.3
Introduction
1.5
1.6
1-1
1.1.1
1-1
1.1.2
1-2
1.1.3
1-2
1.1.4
1-3
1.1.5
1-4
Limits of Manual
1-5
1.2.1
General
1-5
1.2.2
Hydrology / Hydraulics
1-5
1.2.3
Environmental Design
1-7
1.2.4
1-7
1.2.5
1-8
1.4
1-8
Introduction
1-8
1-9
1.4.1
Introduction
1-9
1.4.2
1-9
1.4.3
1-10
1.4.4
Community Engagement
1-10
1.4.5
Impacts on Landowners
1-11
Guiding Principles
1-12
1.5.1
1-12
1.5.2
1-13
1.5.3
1-13
1.5.4
Economic Considerations
1-13
1.5.5
Maintenance
1-14
Drainage Issues
1-14
1.6.1
1-14
1.6.2
Urban Drainage
1-14
March 2010
iii
1.6.3
1.7
Climate Change
March 2010
iv
Chapter 1
Framework
1-15
1-16
Chapter 1
Framework
Chapter 1
Framework
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1
March 2010
1-1
Chapter 1
Framework
1.1.2
Applicability of this
Manual
1.1.3
Surveyors;
Environmental scientists / engineers;
Geologists / geotechnical engineers;
and
Construction
personnel.
maintenance
1-2
Importance of Road
Drainage
1.1.4
Chapter 1
Framework
Road
Environmental
March 2010
1-3
1.1.5
Chapter 1
Framework
Purpose of Chapter(s)
Sets the context and limitations of this
manual
Defines the general design requirements
(including considerations, controls, criteria
& standards) for planning and design.
Defines the base drainage requirements
for strategic planning (road route
strategies & road link plans) and
development applications.
Defines strategic and project data.
Establishes importance of data collection
and retrieval. Describes the data
collection process and identifies sources
of data.
Describes the processes for determining
and analysing hydrologic data to quantify
specific design criteria.
Describes the design methodology and
process to be followed for drainage
components.
Provides guidance for understanding
environmental assessments and the
consideration of requirements in design.
Framework
Design Requirements
Data Collection
Hydrology
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
March 2010
1-4
Title of Chapter
Chapter 1
Framework
Hydraulic design:
General
1.2.2
Hydrology / Hydraulics
Civil
of
and
consultants
must
be
Engineering
prequalified with the department in the
prequalification category of Hydraulic
Design (HD) before providing any drainage
advice or undertaking any drainage design
or review on behalf of the department.
Hydrology:
o RAIN (Departmental software)
Hydrology:
o RAIN (Departmental software)
o RORB
March 2010
1-5
o RAFTS
o URBS
o WBNM
o Bureau of Meteorology (BoM)
website
Hydraulic design:
o Hydraulics package within 12d
Model
o HEC-RAS
o MIKE 11
o PC DRAIN
o DRAINS
o EXTRAN, SWMM, UDD
o CULVERT
(Departmental
software) (refer Section 1.2.2.5)
o CulvertMaster & FlowMaster
Hydraulic design - 2D Modelling:
o SOBEK, DELFT-FLS
o MIKE FLOOD, MIKE 21
o TUFLOW
o SMS
Multi-purpose:
o Drainage Design Assistant (DDA)
Basic Tools
Water quality:
Chapter 1
Framework
o MUSIC
o AQUALM
The department may allow pre-qualified
consultants to use other software packages,
but use of any other software package must
be approved in writing by Director
(Hydraulics),
Hydraulics
Section,
Engineering & Technology Division.
Refer also to Sections 1.2.2.5, 1.2.2.6 and
1.2.2.7.
March 2010
1-6
1.2.2.6 Other
Tools
Computer
Based
Chapter 1
Framework
of
1.2.3
Environmental Design
While
this
manual
promotes
environmentally sustainable drainage, it
does not give guidance on all relevant
environmental design considerations and
criteria. Project specific details as defined
in environmental approvals, licences and
permits will need to be incorporated. Refer
also Chapter 2.
1.2.4
Catchment Hydrology in
Rural Areas
branched catchments;
mixed land use catchments;
situations where a catchment may be
inundated by another catchment;
situations where the catchment may
overflow into an adjacent catchment;
March 2010
1-7
Chapter 1
Framework
Hydraulics Section or
consultant
Simple Departmental
Region or District
Complex - Hydraulics Section
or consultant
Simple Departmental
Region or District
Complex - Hydraulics Section
or consultant
Over 25 km2
10 km2 to 25 km2
Permissible Designer
Note: The Region/District may elect to refer simple designs to consultants or Hydraulics Section.
1.2.5
Catchment Hydrology in
Urban Areas
March 2010
1-8
with
limited
Introduction
Chapter 1
Framework
Introduction
1.4.2
Cultural
March 2010
1-9
March 2010
1-10
Chapter 1
Framework
1.4.3
1.4.4
Community Engagement
Chapter 1
Framework
1.4.5
Impacts on Landowners
March 2010
1-11
Chapter 1
Framework
1.5.1
Drainage Infrastructure
and Land Use
March 2010
1-12
flood heights;
in
adjoining
land
1.5.2
Assessment of Future
Development
1.5.3
Chapter 1
Framework
considerations
infrastructure.
relating
to
drainage
1.5.4
Economic Considerations
The
provision
of
road
drainage
infrastructure is typically a consideration of
the desired level(s) of flood immunity.
March 2010
1-13
1.5.5
Maintenance
March 2010
1-14
Chapter 1
Framework
1.6.1
1.6.2
Urban Drainage
Chapter 1
Framework
1.6.3
March 2010
1-15
March 2010
1-16
Chapter 1
Framework
Chapter 1
Framework
March 2010
1-17
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Chapter 2
General Design
Requirements
March 2010
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Revision Register
Issue/
Rev
No.
1
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Table of Contents
2.1
Introduction
2-1
2.1.1
Definitions
2-1
2.1.2
2-1
2.1.3
Immunity Criteria
2-2
2.1.4
2-2
2.2
Road Locality
2-3
2.3
Design Considerations
2-4
2.3.1
2-4
2.3.2
Geometric Considerations
2-4
2.3.3
Geographic Considerations
2-6
2.3.4
Environmental Considerations
2-8
2.3.5
2-9
2.3.6
Maintenance Considerations
2-13
2.3.7
Safety Considerations
2-14
2.3.8
2-15
2.4
Design Controls
2-17
2.5
Design Criteria
2-17
2.5.1
Introduction
2-17
2.5.2
2-18
2.5.3
2-26
2.5.4
2-27
2.5.5
2-29
2.5.6
2-29
2.5.7
2-29
2.5.8
2-29
2.5.9
Environmental Criteria
2-30
2.6
2-31
2.7
2-32
March 2010
iii
2.8
2.7.1
2-32
2.7.2
Excessive Flooding
2-33
2 2.
March 2010
iv
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2-33
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.1
Introduction
2.1.1
Definitions
2.1.2
Determining and
Understanding
Requirements
March 2010
2-1
March 2010
2-2
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.1.3
Immunity Criteria
2.1.4
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.2
Road Locality
March 2010
2-3
2.3
2.3.1
Design
Considerations
(a) Geometric
Identifying Design
Considerations
(c) Environmental
March 2010
2-4
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
(b) Geographic
2.3.2
Geometric Considerations
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2-5
higher
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
erosive
2.3.3
Geographic
Considerations
March 2010
2-6
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-7
March 2010
2-8
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.3.4
Environmental
Considerations
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.3.5
Selection of Drainage
Infrastructure
March 2010
2-9
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Floodway
Bridge
Culvert
March 2010
2-10
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Navigation.
Structures crossing
rivers where boat traffic needs to be
considered must allow for specified
clearances for this traffic.
Soil conditions.
Particular soil
conditions, such as marine mud or
acid sulphate soils for example may
be a problem and this can affect the
selection of drainage structures.
Fauna and fish movement. This is
an important consideration in many
locations.
2.3.5.2 Bridge, Culvert or Floodway
There are a number of factors and issues
that need to be considered in the selection
March 2010
2-11
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Structure
Bridges
Culverts
Floodways
March 2010
2-12
Advantages
Disadvantages
Subject to abrasion
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.3.6
Maintenance
Considerations
March 2010
2-13
2.3.7
Safety Considerations
March 2010
2-14
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.3.8
Staged Construction of
Roads
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-15
March 2010
2-16
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.4
Design Controls
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.5
Design Criteria
2.5.1
Introduction
March 2010
2-17
2.5.2
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
levels
and
Backwater
periods
March 2010
2-18
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-19
the
appropriate
March 2010
2-20
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Waterway
barrier
works
development approvals (2009) issued by
Queensland Fisheries (part of Department
of Employment, Economic Development
and Innovation). Document is available <
http://www.dpi.qld.gov.au/documents/Fishe
ries_Habitats/FHMOP008-Fish-HabManage.pdf >, correct as of January 2010.
Development applications, as required
under the Act, must be submitted to
Queensland Fisheries for approval.
The department is currently working with
Queensland
Fisheries
to
develop
requirements and self-assessable codes for
the design, construction and operation of
drainage structures.
Updates regarding
requirements will be issued either as a
Planners and Designers Instruction or
directly as an update to this manual.
2.5.2.7 Erosion and Sediment
Control
One of the most important environmental
concerns for road drainage is erosion and
sediment control.
This should be
considered in all situations, and appropriate
assessment and mitigation measures must
be supplied. Scour at drainage structures
can be a serious environmental problem as
well as providing a risk of structure failure
and possible road embankment failure.
March 2010
2-21
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-22
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-23
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-24
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-25
2-26
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.5.3
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.5.4
Longitudinal Drainage
Criteria
March 2010
2-27
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
March 2010
2-28
2.5.5
2.5.6
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.5.7
2.5.8
March 2010
2-29
Location
ARI
50 years
Diversion channels
50 years
10 years
10 years
1 year
1 year
2-30
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.5.9
Environmental Criteria
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Location
ARI
Major System
includes all above and
below ground
components
50 or 100
yearsA
50 years
Diversion channels
50 years
10 years
10 years
Sediment basins
2 years
1 year
1 year
2.6
hydrologic
March 2010
2-31
2.7
Extreme Rainfall
Events
2-32
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.7.1
Erodible Soil
Environments
2.7.2
Excessive Flooding
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
2.8
Self Cleaning
Sections
March 2010
2-33
March 2010
2-34
Chapter 2
General Design Requirements
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning &
Development Control
March 2010
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Issue/
Rev
No.
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Table of Contents
3.1.
Introduction
3-1
3.2.
Strategic Planning
3-1
3.3.
3.2.1.
Introduction
3-1
3.2.2.
Flood Immunity
3-1
3.2.3.
Community Impacts
3-3
3.2.4.
3-5
Development Control
3-5
3.3.1.
Introduction
3-5
3.3.2.
Departmental Impacts
3-6
3.3.3.
Development Impacts
3-7
3.3.4.
System Augmentation
3-9
3.
March 2010
iii
March 2010
iv
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning and Development
Control
3.1. Introduction
This chapter addresses two departmental
functions that are important in the preplanning of a road corridor or link and the
on-going stewardship of a road with respect
to drainage.
The first is concerned with strategic
planning and the major drainage
considerations required when developing
strategies and plans for state controlled
roads and roads within the Auslink
network. The second is concerned with the
possible effects on road drainage systems
due to the development of the road and
external environments (refer Section 2.2).
Introduction
3.2.2.
Flood Immunity
March 2010
3-1
March 2010
3-2
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
3.2.3.
Community Impacts
3-3
March 2010
3-4
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
(Hydraulics),
Hydraulics
Section,
Engineering & Technology Division.
3.2.4.
Acceptance of a Lower
Standard
Introduction
March 2010
3-5
3.3.2.
Departmental Impacts
March 2010
3-6
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
impacts need
mitigated.
to
be
determined
and
3.3.3.
Development Impacts
Urbanisation
increases
stormwater
discharge by increasing the impervious area
in a catchment and by improving the
channel conditions. The combination of
these two factors increases the volume of
runoff and the peak discharge and changes
the time the peak discharge occurs, both of
which may affect the existing road
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
drainage.
Furthermore, urbanisation
generally provides artificial flow paths and
can reduce the floodplain storage by the
filling of depressions and so on. These
aspects also increase the flood discharge.
Any increase in discharge will most likely
affect the flood immunity of the road as it
would have been designed for less runoff.
The impacts to departmental drainage
structures
(located
downstream
of
development) can be the increased chance
of overtopping the road and/or increased
outlet velocities.
These factors inturn
increase the risk of scour, water quality
problems and safety concerns. Also, the
increased discharge will most likely
increase the peak water levels at that
location, increasing the level of flooding.
Urbanisation or development downstream
of departmental drainage structures may
change the condition of the outlet channel
(in the external environment). Change or
improvement in the channel will most
likely change the tailwater level at the
structure. If the channel can drain the
stormwater away more quickly than before
the changes were made, the tailwater at the
structure will drop. This can change the
operation of the culvert and in turn could
mean increased outlet velocities. If the
channel capacity is reduced or restricted,
the tailwater at the structure will increase
which will reduce the capability of the
culvert which will typically increase
flooding on the upstream side of the
structure.
Where development is planned that may
affect the departments drainage systems,
the development should be reviewed to
ensure that the existing operation and
conditions of departmental owned /
controlled drainage structures is not
adversely affected.
March 2010
3-7
diversion channels;
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
March 2010
3-8
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
3.3.4.
System Augmentation
March 2010
3-9
(immunity
and
environmental)
requirements is the responsibility of the
department
while
any
additional
augmentation to the infrastructure required
to adequately handle any additional
hydrologic, hydraulic and/or environmental
conditions caused by the development
should be met by the developer.
March 2010
3-10
Chapter 3
Strategic Planning & Development Control
Chapter 4
Data Collection
Chapter 4
Data Collection
March 2010
Chapter 4
Data Collection
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 4
Data Collection
Table of Contents
4.1
Introduction
4-1
4.2
Types of Data
4-1
4.3
4.2.1
Strategic Data
4-2
4.2.2
Project Data
4-4
4.2.3
Sources of Data
4-5
Environmental Assessment
4-6
4.3.1
Vegetation
4-6
4.3.2
Fauna
4-7
4.4
4-7
4.5
Field Inspections
4-8
4.6
Rainfall
4-8
4.7
Flood Data
4-9
4.8
4-10
4.9
Waterway Characteristics
4-11
4-12
4.11 Topography
4-12
4.12 Soils
4-13
4.12.1
Natural Soils
4-13
4.12.2
4-14
4-14
4.14 Survey
4-15
4.14.1
Aerial Imagery
4-15
4.
March 2010
iii
March 2010
iv
Chapter 4
Data Collection
Chapter 4
Data Collection
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.1
Introduction
and
sources
of
4.2
Types of Data
4-1
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.2.1
Strategic Data
(e.g.
irrigation schemes.
Type 4 Private or Public Utility Plant
(PUP) such as:
communications systems;
municipal services;
trunk distribution systems for oil,
gas, water and effluent;
land-use
water
based
town
planning
urban
and
rural
drainage
management plans, initiated under
State Government Legislation.
Type 2 Naturally Occurring Events such
as:
storm event data;
flooding event data;
abnormal highest astronomical tide
event data; and
storm surge event data.
March 2010
4-2
Chapter 4
Data Collection
flood levels;
inundated areas;
floodway performance;
and
March 2010
4-3
March 2010
4-4
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.2.2
Project Data
characteristics
and
water quality;
sedimentation issues;
soils data;
erosion history;
vegetation constraints;
acceptable time of inundation;
fauna habitats;
downstream conditions;
service installations; and
obstructions.
Specific project and routine maintenance
inspections provide opportunities to obtain
data and to review the in service
performance
of
the
infrastructure.
Inspections should have similar objectives
to those outlined in Section 4.2.1.2 for
inspections following extreme events, and
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.2.3
Sources of Data
topographic maps;
documentation obtained during the
environmental assessment process;
existing design drawings;
geotechnical investigations;
survey records;
aerial photographs;
published references (e.g. Australian
Rainfall & Runoff);
previously published reports and
investigations
(i.e.
Feasibility
Studies);
Concept and Link Studies;
Acid Sulphate Soils maps;
vegetation maps;
flood maps; and
various electronic data sources (eg
geospatial data).
data is available from various
departmental sources, from land
owners and organisations such as:
Bureau
of
(Commonwealth);
Meteorology
March 2010
4-5
port authorities;
industry organisations; and
environmental groups including
catchment management groups and
river trusts.
Table 4.2.3 has been prepared to indicate
the type of data available from each of these
external organisations.
4.3
Environmental
Assessment
4.3.1
Vegetation
March 2010
4-6
Chapter 4
Data Collection
External
Organisation
1, 2, 6, 9
1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9
7, 9
2, 4, 6, 7
2, 6
2, 3
2, 3, 6, 8
2, 4, 6, 7,
2, 3, 6, 8
2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10
2, 3, 6, 11
1 = Bureau of Meteorology
2 = Department of Environment and
Resource Management
3 = Department of Employment, Economic
Development and Innovation
4 = Queensland Rail
5 = Historical Societies
6 = Local Authorities
7 = Port Authorities
8 = Environment Groups
9 = Local Residents
10 = Service Providers
11 = Web based data sites
of
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.3.2
Fauna
4.4
March 2010
4-7
Chapter 4
Data Collection
through
4.5
Field Inspections
March 2010
4-8
soil types
level
of
adjacent
4.6
Rainfall
potential.
Both vary with geographic
position and with the time of year. Thus,
rainfall distribution, seasonality and
intensity must be considered in order to
determine flow rates and the potential for
erosion. For more detailed explanations,
reference may be made to Australian
Rainfall and Runoff, A Guide to Flood
Estimation, Vol 1 (AR&R) (IEAust 2001).
(a) Rainfall Distribution
The distribution of median annual rainfall
across Queensland is shown in Figure 4.6.
The rainfall isohyets shown in the figure are
generally parallel to the coast except where
topographic features modify the pattern. In
particular, significantly higher rainfall
occurs between Ingham and Cooktown,
Proserpine and Sarina, and north and south
of Brisbane where there are high ranges
aligned perpendicular to the main onshore
winds.
(b) Rainfall Seasonality
Rainfall is summer dominant throughout
the state but the volume of rain that falls
during the other months varies considerably
between regions. South of the Tropic of
Capricorn and east of a line between
Emerald and Mitchell there is a significant
winter peak in many years.
(c) Rainfall Intensity
Rainfall intensity varies with the type of
rainfall event (such as advective, cyclonic
or frontal) but is generally higher during the
summer months than the winter months.
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.7
Flood Data
water stains;
photographs or videos;
anecdotal evidence.
Sources of historic flood data can include
landowners, local authorities, Queensland
Rail (e.g. design drawings often highlight
peak flood levels), Department of
Environment and Resource Management,
and the Bureau of Meteorology.
All data obtained must be evaluated for
accuracy and correlated across different
sources where possible. This is particularly
true with respect to anecdotal evidence of
flood heights provided by individuals as:
the observations did not coincide
with flood peak;
there was a lack of visibility (night
time flood);
a significant time (years) has elapsed
since the observation; and
personal observations can change as
time passes.
March 2010
4-9
Chapter 4
Data Collection
March 2010
4-10
4.8
Chapter 4
Data Collection
width of flow;
possible backwater from downstream
impacts, such as rivers or weirs;
obstacles to flow.
4.9
Waterway
Characteristics
cross section
flow depth;
bed slope
channel form
Channel form relates to the geomorphic
characteristics of the channel and notes
should be made of the following issues:
Is the waterway
meandering?
straight
or
where
March 2010
4-11
4.10
March 2010
4-12
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.11
Topography
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.12
Soils
with
local
March 2010
4-13
4-14
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.13
Existing Infrastructure
Chapter 4
Data Collection
4.14
Survey
and
patterns
of
March 2010
4-15
land-use.
Historical photographs and imagery can
also be a valuable source of information in
relation to assessing historic flood heights,
flow patterns, and waterway characteristics.
Care must be taken in the assessment,
where the date and time of the capture is
not known. Field inspections should be
used to confirm the currency of existing
information.
March 2010
4-16
Chapter 4
Data Collection
Appendix 4A
Data Collection Checklist
Appendix 4A
Data Collection
March 2010
4A
Chapter 4A
Data Collection Checklist
4A
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 4A
Data Collection Checklist
4A
Contract/Project Number:
Each section must be considered for applicability to project. Sub-components should be
checked when data is collected or noted as not applicable to project.
4A.1
Environmental Assessment
Item
Check
4A.2
Vegetation Coverage
Item
Check
4A.3
Item
Check
March 2010
4A-1
4A.4
Field Inspections
Item
4A
Chapter 4A
Data Collection Checklist
Check
4A.5
Rainfall
Item
Check
Statistical data
Historical records
4A.6
Flood Data
Item
Check
March 2010
4A-2
4A.7
Appendix 4A
Data Collection Checklist
Item
Check
4A.8
Waterway Characteristics
Item
Have the following geometric characteristics been obtained?
Check
Cross section
Bed slope
Channel form
Are there any other signs of erosion or deposition of material? If so, what type
of material is evident?
March 2010
4A-3
4A
4A.8
Chapter 4A
Data Collection Checklist
Item
Check
Backwater effects (that is, inundation by downstream water levels, which may
drown out or control upstream water levels)
4A.9
4A
Item
Check
Local Authorities
Management
(formerly
4A.10
Topography
Item
Check
Local Authorities
4A.11
Soils
Item
Check
March 2010
4A-4
4A.12
Appendix 4A
Data Collection Checklist
Existing Infrastructure
Item
Check
Industrial pipelines
Irrigation infrastructure
March 2010
4A-5
4A
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Chapter 5 5
Hydrology
March 2010
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Reference
Section
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
March 2010
ii
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Table of Contents
5.1
Introduction.......................................................................................... 5-1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.7.2
5.7.3
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.9.1
5.9.2
5.9.3
5.11
5.12
March 2010
iii
March 2010
iv
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Chapter 5
Hydrology
5.1
Introduction
land use;
vegetation coverage;
water flow paths;
areas of
storage;
water
inundation
and
5.2
Rainfall
March 2010
5-1
5.3
Rainfall - Runoff
Relationship
March 2010
5-2
Chapter 5
Hydrology
5.4
Chapter 5
Hydrology
3000
2500
Discharge - m3/s
2000
1500
1000
500
0
03 Mar
04 Mar
05 Mar
06 Mar
07 Mar
08 Mar
09 Mar
10 Mar
11 Mar
12 Mar
13 Mar
14 Mar
Time
700
600
Several ARI
events shown
Discharge - m /s
500
Synthetic Hydrograph
400
300
200
100
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Time - hours
5.5
Rational Method
Qy k C y I tc , y A
Where:
Qy = flow rate, Q (m3/s) for an ARI
of y years;
k = a conversion factor. k = 0.278
when A is km2 and 0.00278 when A is
hectares (ha);
Cy = runoff coefficient, C
(dimensionless) for an ARI of y
years;
March 2010
5-3
5.7
Time of Concentration
5.7.1
General
5.6
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Catchment Area
March 2010
5-4
Chapter 5
Hydrology
5.7.2
Rural Catchments
tc
FL
A Se
0.1
0.2
Where:
tc = time of concentration (min);
March 2010
5-5
Equal Area
Slope
Natural Stream
Profile
Chapter 5
Hydrology
5.7.3
Urban Catchments
March 2010
5-6
Chapter 5
Hydrology
March 2010
5-7
Chapter 5
Hydrology
March 2010
5-8
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Inlet Time
(minutes)
Location
Road surfaces and paved areas
10
13
5-9
Chapter 5
Hydrology
System
Development Category
Rural Residential, Residential Low Density
For the roof, downpipes and pipe connection system from the building to
the kerb and channel or a rear-of-allotment drainage system (Figure
5.8.3.2(a)).
Residential Medium and High Density, Commercial, Industrial and
Central Business
For the roof and downpipe collection pipe to the connection point to the
internal allotment drainage system abutting the building (Figure 5.8.3.2(b)).
Time to point
A (minutes)
Note: The flow time from point A (Figures 5.7.3.2 (a) & (b)) through the internal allotment pipe system to
the kerb and channel, street underground system or rear of allotment system for the more intense
developments noted should be calculated separately.
March 2010
5-10
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Nomograph
for
5-11
107 nL
S
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Where:
t = overland sheet flow travel time
(mins);
L = overland sheet path length (m);
n = Hortons roughness value for the
surface;
S = slope of surface (%).
Table 5.7.3.3(a) - Recommended Maximum Length of Overland Sheet Flow
5
Surface Condition
Assumed Maximum
Flow Length (m)
20
50
100
200
Figure 5.7.3.3 - Overland Sheet Flow Times Shallow Sheet Flow Only
March 2010
5-12
Paved surface
0.015
0.0275
Poorly grassed
surface
0.035
Average grassed
surface
0.045
Densely grassed
surface
0.060
Chapter 5
Hydrology
S
n
Where:
V = velocity in pipe (m/s);
March 2010
5-13
Chapter 5
Hydrology
5
Figure 5.7.3.4 - Kerb and Channel Flow Time using Mannings Equation
Grass swales
Flow travel times along grassed swales can
vary significantly depending on flow depth
and vegetation. Swale roughness, n should
be determined from the vegetation
retardance charts presented in Appendix
8A.
5.7.3.7 Estimate of Kerb, Pipe and
Channel Flow Time
For checking or preliminary design
purposes, an overall flow time can be
determined from Figure 5.7.3.7. The chart
may be used directly to determine
approximate travel times along a range of
rigid channel types and, with the
application of multiplier for a range of
loose-boundary channel forms.
March 2010
5-14
Chapter 5
Hydrology
NOTES:
1. Flow travel time (approximate) may be obtained directly from this chart for:
kerb-and-gutter channels
stormwater pipes
allotment channels of all types (surface and underground)
drainage easement channels (surface and underground)
2. Multiplier , should be applied to values obtained from the chart as per:
grassed swales, well maintained and without driveway crossings - = 4
blade-cut earth table drains, well maintained and no driveway crossings - = 2
natural channels - = 3
March 2010
5-15
5.8
50
50
50
G - Skewness Factor;
F2 - Geographical Factor; and
March 2010
5-16
Chapter 5
Hydrology
5.9
Runoff Coefficient
Chapter 5
Hydrology
5.9.1
Rural Catchments
Average
Recurrence
Interval
(years)
Rural
Coefficient
Urban
Coefficient
0.8 C50
0.80 C10
0.8 C50
0.85 C10
rainfall intensity;
0.8 C50
0.95 C10
10
0.8 C50
1.00 C10
20
0.9 C50
1.05 C10
50
1.0 C50
1.15 C10
100
1.05 C50
1.20 C10
storage
or
other
characteristics; and
detention
5.9.2
Urban Catchments
Notes:
1. C50 determined for rural catchments using
Table 5.9.1(a)
2. C10 determined using method described in
Section 5.9.2
3. Where runoff coefficients calculated using
the above table exceed 1.00, they should be
arbitrarily set to 1.00
March 2010
5-17
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Characteristic
Rainfall
Intensity
Catchment
Relief
Catchment
Storage
Ground
Characteristics
(C ) = 0.3 I50 + 4
Very steep slopes >
15%
(10)
Well defined water
courses, negligible
storage.
(10)
Grazing land and
open forest
(40)
Notes:
Catchment storage is defined as; a catchments ability to detain or temporarily hold water within
a streams adjacent floodplain. Water will slowly drain after flood water recedes.
Example:
Determine C50 for a Rainfall Intensity of 40 mm/h over a catchment with the following
characteristics:
Catchment Relief Hilly with average slopes 4-8%;
Catchment Storage - Well defined system of small watercourses with little storage capacity;
Ground Characteristics - Open forest.
C 50
16 5 10 40
0.71
100
March 2010
5-18
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Development Category
Fraction
Impervious
(fi)
Central Business
1.00
Commercial, Local
Business, Neighbouring
Facilities, Service
Industry, General
Industry, Home Industry
0.90
0.90
0.70 to 0.90
0.45 to 0.85
0.40 to 0.75
Rural Residential
Open Space & Parks etc.
5.9.3
0.1 to 0.2
0
Notes:
1. The designer should determine the actual
fraction impervious for each development.
Local governments may specify default
values.
2. Typically for Urban Residential High
Density developments:
- townhouse type development fi =
0.70
- multi-unit dwellings>20 dwellings per
ha
- highrise residential development fi =
0.90.
3. In Urban Residential Low Density areas fi
may vary depending upon road width,
allotment size, house size and extent of
paths, driveways etc.
Adjustment Factors
March 2010
5-19
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Intensity
(mm/h)
1
I10
Fraction Impervious fi
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
0.90
1.00
39-44
0.44
0.55
0.67
0.78
0.84
0.90
45-49
0.49
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.55
0.64
0.72
0.81
0.86
0.90
0.60
0.68
0.75
0.83
0.86
0.90
0.65
0.72
0.78
0.84
0.87
0.90
65-69
0.71
0.76
0.80
0.85
0.88
0.90
70-90
0.74
0.78
0.82
0.86
0.88
0.90
0.00
50-54
55-59
60-64
5
1
I10
C10
Land
Description
Dense bushland
Soil permeability
Soil Permeability
Soil Permeability
Intensity
(mm/h)
1
I10
High
Med
Low
High
Med
Low
High
Med
Low
39-44
0.08
0.24
0.32
0.16
0.32
0.40
0.24
0.40
0.48
45-49
0.10
0.29
0.39
0.20
0.39
0.49
0.29
0.49
0.59
50-54
0.12
0.35
0.46
0.23
0.46
0.58
0.35
0.58
0.69
55-59
0.13
0.40
0.53
0.27
0.53
0.66
0.40
0.66
0.70
60-64
0.15
0.44
0.59
0.30
0.59
0.70
0.44
0.70
0.70
65-69
0.17
0.50
0.66
0.33
0.66
0.70
0.50
0.70
0.70
70-90
0.18
0.53
0.70
0.35
0.70
0.70
0.53
0.70
0.70
March 2010
5-20
5.10
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Figure 5.10.1 - Examples of Rural Catchments that may be subject to Partial Area Effects
March 2010
5-21
March 2010
5-22
Chapter 5
Hydrology
CA C i Ai i C p A p
tc
Where
C = overall coefficient of runoff with
Ci and Cp being the coefficients for
the impervious and pervious areas
respectively.
A = overall area with Ai and Ap being
the impervious and pervious areas
respectively (ha).
ti = time of concentration from
impervious area (min).
tc = time of concentration for the
catchment (min).
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Figure 5.10.2 - Examples of Urban Catchments that may be subject to Partial Area Effects
Source: QUDM (NR&W 2008)
5.11
Progressive
Catchments
March 2010
5-23
Chapter 5
Hydrology
7
9
Catchment C
8
Catchment A
Road
5
3
Catchment B
10
March 2010
5-24
5.12
Previous Methodology
tc
8.5 L
Ch A 0.1 S e
0.4
Ch
R 0.166
n
Chapter 5
Hydrology
tc
L
60 V
March 2010
5-25
Chapter 5
Hydrology
Figure 5.12.2 - Table 3.5 from previous MR Road Drainage Design Manual
March 2010
5-26
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
March 2010
5A
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
Reference
Section
5A
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
5A
5A-1
5A
March 2010
5A-2
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
5A
5A-3
5A
March 2010
5A-4
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
5A
5A-5
5A
March 2010
5A-6
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
5A
5A-7
5A
March 2010
5A-8
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
Appendix 5A
Pipe Flow Charts
5A
5A-9
Appendix 5B
Worked Examples
Appendix 5B 5B
Worked Examples
March 2010
Appendix 5B
Worked Examples
5B
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 5B
Worked Examples
Solution
We need to use the Rational Method formula to solve this - Q50 = k x C50 x I50 x A
We have determined that A = 6km2, therefore k = 0.278. Therefore we need to determine C50
and I50.
Because I50 is required to determine C50, we need to calculate this first.
March 2010
5B-1
5B
Appendix 5B
Worked Examples
Step 1. To determine I50, we firstly need to calculate tc for the catchment. To do this, use
Bransby-Williams formula.
tc
FL
A0.1 S e0.2
We have already determined that A = 6km2 (therefore F = 58.5) & the length of the catchment
as L = 1.9km, therefore we need to calculate Se
To calculate Se, use Equal Area Slope method.
Plot the stream profile. Set Point A as datum. Mark distances and heights relative to Point A.
5B
Using the above area, calculate the right ordinate of a triangle, which has the equivalent area.
Formula is [Area x 2 / length of stream]
March 2010
5B-2
Appendix 5B
Worked Examples
5B
Formula is [Se = Equal Area Ordinate / Length of Stream x100]
tc
58.5 1.9
6 0.1 2.47 0.2
Step 2. Now we can determine the rainfall intensity for the ARI 50, 20 and 10 year storm
events, each with a duration of 78 minutes.
Firstly we need the Rainfall Intensity Table (IFD table) for the site (refer Section 5.8). Using
the departments RAIN program, the following IFD table was obtained.
March 2010
5B-3
Appendix 5B
Worked Examples
5B
We can see from the table that 78min falls between the standard durations of 1 and 1.5 hours.
Therefore we need to interpolate the required intensities.
Duration
Intensity ARI 50
1 hr (60 min)
88.73
69.33
88.73 69.33
90 60 90 78 69.33 77.09
Therefore I50 = 77.1mm/hr
Interpolating for the ARI 20 and 10 year events, we get I20 = 64.8mm/hr & I10 = 55.8mm/hr
March 2010
5B-4
Appendix 5B
Worked Examples
Step 3. The last variable to determine is Cy the runoff coefficient. Refer to section 5.9.
Using Table 5.9.1(a), we get C50 (it is important to note that this table only establishes C50 and
not C20 or any other coefficient).
Intensity
27.1
Catchment Relief
Catchment Storage
10
Ground Characteristics
40
C50 =
To determine Cy for the other ARIs, use the factors given in Table 5.9.1(b).
ARI
5B
Coefficient
10
0.8 C50
20
0.9 C50
Therefore:
C20 =
C10 =
End of Example
March 2010
5B-5
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Chapter 6
Approach to 6
Drainage Design
March 2010
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Table of Contents
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.5.7
6.5.8
Overtopping............................................................................................ 6-8
6.5.9
Maintenance........................................................................................... 6-8
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
March 2010
iii
March 2010
iv
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
6.1
Overview
March 2010
6-1
6.2
Geometric Design of
Drainage
Infrastructure
March 2010
6-2
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
6.3
Computer Modelling
of Drainage Solutions
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
6.4
Preliminary Selection
Decisions
March 2010
6-3
potential
for
accumulation of);
debris
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
(incl.
environmental constraints;
geotechnical considerations;
need to allow for the passage of large
fauna; and
stream flow activity.
In the case of an active or permanent
stream, building a bridge will be easier and
will have less impact on the environment.
6.5
Bridges
6.5.1
Overview
March 2010
6-4
and
waterway
bridge geometry;
road grade and hydraulic clearance;
span lengths and pier location;
scour protection;
overtopping of the road; and
maintenance requirements.
6.5.2
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Factors
Decision
Bridge
Significant
catchment
Floodway
Culvert Type
Waterway
geometry
Flat topography
Fauna passage
Stream alignment
Road alignment
Geomorphology
Culvert Location
Sensitive flora or
fauna
Fish passage
Permanent stream
Soil type
Limited available
width
Steep gradient
Velocity
Channel shape
Type of Bank
Protection (where
velocities are
considered
excessive)
Soil types
Flow velocity
Available space
Rainfall
Water quality
Low erodible soils
Outlet velocities
Soil type
Erosion risk rating
Environmental
Sensitivity
March 2010
6-5
6.5.3
March 2010
6-6
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
6.5.4
Bridge Geometry
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
scour protection;
6.5.6
overtopping; and
maintenance requirements / access.
6.5.5
requirements
(where
conditions
navigational requirements
relevant); and
for
pier
(where
required permits.
Where practical, bridge piers should be
located away from the low flow channel.
Large-scale turbulence caused by bridge
piers located within low flow channels can
adversely affect fish passage and can cause
bed and bank erosion.
March 2010
6-7
6.5.7
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Scour Protection
6.5.8
Overtopping
6.5.9
Maintenance
6.6
March 2010
6-8
6.7
Open Channels
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
Local
authorities
or
government
departments may provide the designer with
specific drainage requirements through
programs such as:
(a) Soil conservation plans;
(b) Master drainage plans; and
(c) Various environmental waterway plans.
Velocity control and protection of channel
bed and banks are key elements in open
channel design (refer Sections 6.8 and 6.9).
Open channels should be designed with
consideration of water quality issues. High
flow velocities, often found in lined and
artificial channels, cause high velocities that
increase the risk of scour and transport of
pollutants. Open channels can be designed
as swales to allow the collection of
pollutants before they can enter receiving
waters.
Where open channels are part of a drainage
design, the design needs to be completed
early in the design process to assist in
determining headwater and tailwater levels
used for cross drainage design.
6.8
March 2010
6-9
6.9
Longitudinal Drainage
March 2010
6-10
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
maintenance
vegetation.
of
the
proposed
6.10
Location
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
been
impacts,
impact
is
6.11
Water Quality
March 2010
6-11
Chapter 6
Approach to Drainage Design
accessed
for
March 2010
6-12
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Chapter 7
Environmental
Consideration and
7
Design
March 2010
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Table of Contents
7.1
Introduction.......................................................................................... 7-1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.5.2
7.5.3
7.5.4
7.5.5
7.5.6
7.5.7
7.6.2
7.6.3
7.6.4
7.6.5
March 2010
iii
March 2010
iv
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and
Design
7.1
Introduction
7.2
General
Environmental Duty
7.3
Environmental Values
and Water Quality
Objectives
March 2010
7-1
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
7.4
Pollution Control:
Water Quality
of
the
March 2010
7-2
7.4.1
Establishing Pollution
Control Requirements
control
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
March 2010
7-3
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Table 7.4.1.1 - Examples of Water Quality Trigger Values for Typical Pollutants (ANZECC
2000)
Location and Ecosystem Type
Pollutants
TN
TP
Turbidity
Salinity
(Og/l)
(Og/l)
(NTU)
(S/cm)
Upland river
250
20
2-25
30-350
Lowland river
500
50
6-50
125-2200
350
10
1-20
20-30
Wetlands
no data
no data
no data
no data
Estuaries
300
30
0.5-10
n/a
Marine
120
25
0.5-10
n/a
Upland river
150
10
2-15
20-250
Lowland river
200-300
10
2-15
20-250
350
10
2-200
90-900
Wetlands
350-1200
10-50
2-200
90-900
Estuaries
250
20
1-20
n/a
Marine
100
10-15
1-20
n/a
Upland river
450
20
0-20
120-300
Lowland river
1200
65
10-20
120-300
350
10
10-100
300-1500
Wetlands
1500
60
10-100
300-1500
Estuaries
750
30
1-2
n/a
Marine
230
20
1-2
n/a
Upland river
no data
no data
1-50
100-5000
Lowland river
1000
100
1-50
100-5001
1000
25
1-100
300-1000
Wetlands
no data
no data
no data
no data
Estuaries
1000
100
0.5-10
n/a
Marine
1000
100
0.5-10
n/a
Tropical Australia
TN = Total Nitrogen
TP = Total Phosphorus
NTU = Notional Turbidity Units
S/cm = Conductivity of water in micro siemens per centimetre
March 2010
7-4
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
March 2010
7-5
March 2010
7-6
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Typical Pollutants
Source Details
Atmospheric
deposition
Traffic
exhausts
Hydrocarbons (Including
PAH (polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons), MTBE
(Methyl Tertiary Butyl
Ether), Pb, Cd, Pt, Pd, Rh
Traffic wear
and corrosion
Leaks and
spillages (e.g.
from vehicles)
Hydrocarbons,
phosphates, heavy metals,
glycol, alcohols
Roofs
Litter / animal
faeces
Bacteria, viruses,
phosphorus, nitrogen
Vegetation /
landscape
maintenance
P, N, herbicides,
pesticides, fungicides,
organic matter
Soil erosion
Sediment, P, N,
herbicides, pesticides,
fungicides
Cleaning
activities
Hydrocarbons and
various chemicals
Pavement
Sediment
March 2010
7-7
March 2010
7-8
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
are
March 2010
7-9
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
March 2010
7-10
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Figure 7.4.1.4(b) - Desirable Design Ranges for Treatment Measures and Pollutant Sizes
(adapted from Wong (1999)).
March 2010
7-11
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Filter Strips
Buffer Zones
Grassed
Swales
Constructed
wetlands
Area
Served
(ha)
Slope
Head
Require
ment
Soil Type
Capital
Cost
Mainten
ance
Cost
<1
Note 1
Low
NA
Moderate
Moderate
>2
>40
Note 1
High
NA
High
Moderate
High
Low
NA
High
Moderate
NA
Moderate
Note 1
Low
Moderate
High
NA
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
Low
Moderate
>5
Note 1
Low
All
High
Moderate
High
<2
can be
designed
larger
<2
Note 1
High
Generally
housed in
concrete
High
Moderate
High
Note 1
Low
All
Moderate
Low
Note 1
<5%
Low
Low
All
Sand to
sandy
loam
Moderate
Low
<2
Moderate
Low
Note 1
Low
Moderate
Loam to
clay
feasible in
sand to
sandy
loam
High
Moderate
<15
<20
40
Note 1
General Configuration
Outlet structures
include weirs or outlet
pipes. Energy
dissipater at both basin
inlet and outlet to
control velocities
Min filtration depth of
400 mm on
recommended filtration
time. Energy dissipater
at inlet.
Requires Considerable
Land. Length of strip
generally>6 m.
Recommended min
length of 30 m. Bottom
width between 0.6 m to
2.5 m recommended
Water
>5
Note 1
Low
High
Moderate
quality
Moderate
ponds
Source: Derived from: NSW EPA (1997) and Mudgeway et al (1997).
Note: 1 - From 0 - 5% slope preferred but the range can be extended beyond 5%. Buffer zones should only be extended beyond
5% with careful design.
March 2010
7-12
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Coarse
Sediment
Fine
Sediment
Phosphorous
TP
Nitrogen
TN
Oil &
Grease
Bacteria
Litter
Oil Grit
Separators
50-75
10-50
0-10
0-10
50-75
0-10
10-50
Gross
Pollutant
Trap
60-100
20-30
20
20
10-20
0-10
50-75
Trash
Rack
10-50
0-10
0-10
0-10
0-10
0-10
10-50
Note: These percentages are indicative only and appropriate design procedures should be followed.
Derived from: NSW EPA (1997) and Mudgeway et al (1997).
Phosphorous
SS
org. sol.
TP
P
P
50-75 10-66
64
18
60-90 35-80
80
57
5-95 50-79
74
66
62
Buffer strip
Grassed
Swales
Nitrogen
TN
org.N sol.N
10-35
19
40-70
55
50-73
62
Cu
Cd
Fe
60-80
35-70
70
50-90
70
Sample Size
6 studies
6 studies
53
10 studies
1 studies
95
4-25
15
Zn
70-90 24-62
83
45
-110-0 65-90 10-80 20-60
>0
74
53
40
100
80
Pb
-5-22
9
7 studies
25
Legend: SS = Suspended Solids. Shading denotes median value. Source Mudgeway et al (1997).
SS
40-98
81
Phosphorous
org. sol.
TP
P
P
-3397
50
39-98 0-80
69
51
Nitrogen
TN
Pb
Zn
Cu
Cd
Fe
13-90
50
9-94
72
9-95
68
0-71
51
0-75 -9-43
59
25
20
org.N sol.N
32
40
17
0-69 20-70
44
30
Sample Size
6 studies
90-95
93
6 studies
Legend: SS = Suspended Solids. Shading denotes median value. Source Mudgeway et al (1997).
March 2010
7-13
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
7.5
Water Quality
Treatment Devices
and Design Guidelines
7.5.1
Filter Strips
7.5.1.1 Description
Filter strips are grassed or vegetated areas
used to control polluted runoff from the
pavement surface or other disturbed areas
within the road corridor as shown in Figure
7.5.1. Flow over filter strips is usually
shallow sheet flow. They are generally
located adjacent to regions where there is a
sensitive receiving environment (e.g. water
course or wetland). They can treat runoff
containing sediments, heavy metals and
other pollutants.
Advantages of filter strips include:
increase rate of infiltration, which
can reduce and delay storm run-off;
high removal rates of pollutants;
March 2010
7-14
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
March 2010
7-15
AR 2 / 3 S o
n
1/ 2
VA
Where:
Q = design runoff rate (m/s);
R = hydraulic radius = A/P;
A = cross-sectional area (m);
P = wetted perimeter (m);
So = longitudinal bed slope (m/m);
n = Mannings roughness coefficient;
and
V = average velocity (m/s).
Suggested Mannings n values are 0.20
for regularly mown areas and 0.25 for
natural grasses or infrequently mown areas.
A minimum width of 15 m is recommended
for water quality enhancement.
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
design
considerations
March 2010
7-16
7.5.2
Grassed Swales
7.5.2.1 Description
Grassed swales are grassed-lined flow
paths, often running adjacent to a road
pavement, which provide an alternative to
concrete kerbing and guttering. They can
also be used in road medians and verges. If
properly maintained, grassed swales can
reduce runoff volumes, attenuate storm
flows, enhance infiltration and improve
water quality.
Water quality enhancement occurs mainly
through the removal of coarse sediments
and
attached
particulates.
The
improvement in water quality is achieved
by increased settling, filtration by swale
vegetation and some removal of soluble
pollutants through infiltration into the
subsoil. Pollutants such as hydrocarbons
may be digested and processed by soil
micro-organisms within the swale.
Advantages of grassed swales include:
increase infiltration, thereby reducing
and delaying storm runoff;
retain particulate pollutants close to
the source;
enhance aesthetic appeal; and
reduce construction costs as grassed
swales are relatively inexpensive to
construct.
Disadvantages of grassed swales include:
limited removal of fine sediment and
dissolved pollutants;
require considerable land areas
compared with kerb and channel;
may interfere with driveways in
higher density development;
less effective for concentrated flows
and high flow depths;
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
March 2010
7-17
design
considerations
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Horner et al (1994);
Schueler et al (1992); and
Standing Committee on Rivers and
Catchments (1991).
7.5.3
Trash Racks
7.5.3.1 Description
Trash racks can be installed in drainage
channels or outlets to trap litter and other
gross pollutants. They generally comprise a
series of vertical or horizontal steel bars
which form a physical barrier to objects
larger than the bar spacings. An example of
a trash rack is shown in Figure 7.5.3.1(a).
Trash racks can be designed to be
perpendicular, angled or staggered to the
direction of flow. They can be located
either on-line or off-line. With an online arrangement, trash racks are placed
within an existing channel or drainage
system. With an off-line arrangement, a
flow diversion mechanism is installed,
which directs low and medium flows into
the trash rack while high flows bypass the
trash rack.
March 2010
7-18
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
existing
Q
H 1.26
Lr
2/3
Where:
H= rack height (m);
Q= design flow (m/s); and
Lr= length of rack (m).
v2
h k
2g
Figure 7.5.3.1(b) - Trash Rack and
Pollutants
and
A
k 1.45 0.45 n
A
g
An2
A2
g
March 2010
7-19
Where:
h = headloss through the trash rack
(m);
k = rack coefficient;
v = average velocity through rack
(m/s) = Q/An.
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81
m/s2);
An = net area through bars (m); and
Ag = gross area of racks and supports
(m).
5. Trash racks have the potential to
exacerbate upstream flooding if
blocked. Hydraulic analysis should be
carried out to investigate impacts
arising from the rack being 50% and
100% blocked. The trash rack should
be assessed for the ARI 2 year, 5 year,
50 year and 100 year flood events.
7.5.4
Proprietary Devices
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
7.5.4.1 Description
capital costs;
construction materials;
March 2010
7-20
(e.g.
installation procedures;
drainage design criteria:
o head loss
o crossfall
o hydraulic capacity
maintenance procedures such as:
o access
o frequency and cost
o spills
o disposal of pollutants
o inspection of control device.
7.5.5
Constructed Wetlands
7.5.5.1 Description
Constructed wetlands are structures built
with predominantly natural materials to
reproduce the physical, chemical and
biological processes of natural wetlands.
They are used to remove a range of
pollutants, including suspended solids,
nutrients, heavy metals and other toxic or
hazardous compounds.
Their pollutant
trapping efficiency varies with the type of
pollutant, being moderate for oil and
grease, moderate to high for sediments and
nutrients.
Wetlands typically comprise an upstream
inlet zone, a shallow macrophyte zone and
a high flow bypass channel. The upstream
inlet zone consists of a relatively deep,
open water body or sediment basin with
some fringing aquatic vegetation. The
downstream macrophyte zone is a more
permanent shallow water body with
extensive vegetation. The bypass channel
is used to protect the macrophyte zone from
scour and vegetation damage (Healthy
Waterways WSUD Technical Design
Guidelines (2006)).
Advantages of wetlands include:
potentially achieve high sediment
and nutrient retention efficiencies;
be incorporated into the road
corridor, thereby providing improved
habitat and visual amenity in
disturbed areas; and
potentially be retrofitted into existing
sediment ponds / or detention basins.
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
March 2010
7-21
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
wetland
pre-
Department
of
Land
and
Water
Conservation (NSW) 1998, is relevant to
these five design steps.
1.
Wetland Location
and
the
riparian
receiving
March 2010
7-22
maintenance requirements.
2.
Wetland Size
Pre-Treatment Measures
Outlet Structure
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Low costs
maintenance.
and
requires
low
Committee
7.5.6
Buffer Zones
7.5.6.1 Description
Buffer zones are areas that are left
undisturbed to provide some filtering and
trapping of sediment (and therefore some
heavy metals). Buffer zones are usually
established upstream of sensitive receiving
environments, such as natural wetlands,
streams or bushland. Buffer zones preserve
the existing vegetation and landscape, may
be used as habitat corridor for wildlife and
contribute to preserving biodiversity. They
may require fencing to exclude traffic and
to prevent damage to the vegetation.
Advantages of a buffer zone include:
Applicable to all development areas;
Able to reduce runoff volume by
30% to 50% more than grass filter
strips; and
March 2010
7-23
4. Fencing
have the
mosquitoes;
7.5.7
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
7.5.7.1 Description
A water quality pond is a relatively deep
open body of water, possibly with littoral
macrophytes (reeds). Wet basins achieve
pollutant removal through sedimentation.
Their pollutant removal efficiency depends
on the stormwater residence time and the
amount of runoff detained in the basin.
Pollutant removal efficiency increases with
longer residence times and greater utilised
storage volumes.
Advantages of water quality ponds
include:
can be used to trap coarse sediments
and associated pollutants;
have the potential for stormwater reuse;
have a potentially high aesthetic or
recreational value;
provide habitat for wildlife; and
March 2010
7-24
potential
to
breed
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
7.6
Fauna Passage
7.6.1
7-25
7.6.2
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
7.6.3
7.6.4
7.6.5
March 2010
7-26
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Specific
characteristics
and
requirements for the species of
concern (i.e. movement patterns,
habitat range);
Relevant Authority
Department of Employment, Economic
Development and Innovation (was
Primary Industries And Fisheries QLD)
Department of Environment, Water,
Heritage and the Arts
Department of Environment and
Resource Management (was QLD
Environmental Protection Agency)
Relevant legislation
Fisheries Act 1994 (QLD),
Fisheries Management Act 1991
(Commonwealth)
Environmental Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
(Commonwealth)
Nature Conservation Act 1992
(QLD),
Environmental Protection Act 1994
(QLD),
Nature Conservation (wildlife
management) Regulation 2006,
Nature Conservation (wildlife)
Regulation 2006
* For a complete list of species and communities that are protected under the environmental
protection
agency
can
be
obtained
from
the
EPBC
website
http://www.environment.gov.au/epbc/about/lists.html#species (as of May 2009)
March 2010
7-27
Chapter 7
Environmental Consideration and Design
Small pipe
<0.5m dia
Large pipe
>0.5m dia
Small box
culvert <1.2m
high
Large box
culvert <1.2m
high
Bridge
underpass
Small mammal
Medium mammal
Large mammal
Semi-arboreal
mammal
Arboreal mammal
(large only)
Bats
(adapted roof
structure)
(adapted
roof
structure)
Reptile
Bird
Amphibian
Introduced predator
March 2010
7-28
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Chapter 8
Open Channel
Design
8
March 2010
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Table of Contents
8.1
Introduction
8.1.1
Open Channels
8-1
8-1
8.2
General Considerations
8-2
8.3
8-2
8.4
8-3
8.4.1
Stream Dynamics
8-3
8.4.2
8-4
8.4.3
Fundamental Equations
8-4
8.4.4
8-9
8.4.5
Energy Principles
8-11
8.4.6
Hydraulic Jump
8-14
8.4.7
Hydraulic Drop
8-20
8.5
8-20
8.6
Backwater
8-20
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.6.1
Tidal Waters
8-21
8.6.2
Downstream Tributary
8-24
Tailwater Levels
8-24
8.7.1
Tailwater Effects
8-24
8.7.2
8-25
8-26
8.8.1
Design Methodology
8-26
8.8.2
Channel Transitions
8-29
8.8.3
8-30
8.8.4
8-30
Grassed Channels
8-31
8.9.1
8-31
8.9.2
8-32
8-33
8.10.1
General
8-33
8.10.2
8-33
March 2010
iii
8.10.3
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8-36
8-36
8-36
March 2010
iv
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8.1
Introduction
8.1.1
Open Channels
March 2010
8-1
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
channel
other
ecologically
programs.
8.2
design
sustainable
General
Considerations
March 2010
8-2
8.3
Local Authority
Requirements
8.4
8.4.1
Fundamentals of Open
Channel Flow
Stream Dynamics
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
bridges.
8.4.1.2 Governing Parameters
All streams are governed by the same basic
parameters:
(a) Geological Factors
soil conditions
(b) Hydrological Factors
rainfall
(c) Geometric
channel slope and crossfall
(d) Hydraulic
fluid properties
(e) Vegetation
Native vegetation in channels / along
banks
8.4.1.3 Velocity Distribution
The flow velocities within a stream are not
uniformly distributed across the cross
section. This is due to friction along the
channel bed, banks and free surface.
The velocity of water particles near the bed
and banks (planes of highest friction) is the
slowest while the highest velocity is
typically found just below the free surface
in the deepest part of the flow.
Figure 8.4.1.3 illustrates the velocity
distribution across channel flow. To map
water particles of equal velocity, isovels are
drawn (isovels trace equal velocity similar
to contour lines tracing equal ground
height).
roadway embankments;
cross drainage culverts;
floodways; and
March 2010
8-3
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
March 2010
8-4
8.4.2
8.4.3
Fundamental Equations
Q V A
Where:
Q = flow rate (m3/s);
V = average velocity (m/s); and
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2).
This equation also forms the basis of the
theory behind the Continuity Equation.
The theory allows simple analysis over
changes in the channel irrespective of cross
section, slope or roughness. The theory
assumes no addition to or subtraction from
the flow between the 2 sections being
considered (i.e. Q1 = Q2).
The Continuity Equation is:
Q1 V1 A1 V2 A2 Q2
The formula most commonly used for the
calculation of steady, uniform flow in open
channels is Mannings Equation. This
equation is used to determine the velocity
of flow at a specific point in the channel,
and therefore the variables in the equation
must be representative of the point being
assessed.
Mannings Equation is:
2
R S
n
3
Where:
V = average velocity (m/s);
R = hydraulic radius (m);
S = slope of energy line (m/m); and
n = Mannings roughness coefficient.
The hydraulic radius is given by:
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
A
P
Where:
A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2);
8-5
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
1. Closed Conduits
(a) Concrete pipe
(b) Corrugated metal pipe or pipe-arch (small corrugation)
(i) plain or unpaved
(ii) paved invert-full flow
25% circumference paved
50% circumference paved
Fully paved
0.013
0.024
0.021
0.018
0.012
0.030-0.033
0.012
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.016
0.016-0.020
0.022-0.027
0.022-0.025
0.022-0.025
0.025-0.030
0.030-0.035
0.025-0.030
0.030-0.040
0.028-0.033
0.035-0.050
0.08-0.12
0.05-0.08
0.07-0.11
0.10-0.14
Source: Based on Bureau of Public Roads, 1965. Item 1(b) and 1(c) have been added based on values
recommended by Maccaferri in their publications.
March 2010
8-6
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Main Channel
1.
2.
0.0300.035
0.0350.05
0.0350.05
0.050.07
0.060.08
Add 0.01
0.02
Add 0.01
0.02
3.
Mountain Streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush
along banks submerged at high stage
(a)
Bottom, gravel, shingle and few boulders
0.040.05
(b)
Bottom, shingle with large boulders
0.050.07
Adjacent Flood Channels
1.
Pasture, no Brush
(a)
Short grass
(b)
High grass
0.0300.035
0.0350.05
Cultivated Areas
(a)
No crop
(b)
Mature row crops
(c)
Mature field crops
0.030.04
0.0350.045
0.040.05
3.
0.050.07
4.
0.060.08
5.
0.100.16
6.
0.150.20
7.
0.040.05
0.060.08
2.
9.
0.100.12
0.120.16
0.120.16
March 2010
8-7
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
n = 0.03
n = 0.04-0.045
n = 0.05-0.06
8
n = 0.07
n = 0.08
Notes:
1) Increase in n value with an increase in grass, weeds, shrubs and trees.
2) In general, growth of trees in photographs tends to look denser than when seen on a site
inspection.
3) Except for n = 0.03, roughness is for bank full flood heights and/or floods in upper branches of the
trees.
4) Use photographs with caution. Use in conjunction with Table 8.4.3(b)
Figure 8.4.3(b) - Natural Streams in Queensland
March 2010
8-8
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Average length of
vegetations (mm)
Degree of
retardance
Examples
Thick
Thick
280 to 610
Thick
150 to 250
Thick
50 to 150
Thick
Less than 50
Fair
Fair
280 to 610
Fair
150 to 250
Fair
50 to 150
Fair
Less than 50
Notes:
1. Thickness of vegetation has an important bearing on retardance, possibly more important than species.
2. Vegetal retardance curves have been based on tests in experimental channels.
3. Values of n = 0.15 plus have been used for fields of standing sugar cane.
4. Refer to Appendix 8A for nomographs using different vegetal retardances.
Source: Based on Soil Conservation Handbook (DPI 1978) and Rouven et al., (1981)
8.4.4
Application of
Fundamental Equations
March 2010
8-9
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
for
specific
Q V . A rewritten as V Q
8-10
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
QTotal V A AA VB AB
Review of the calculations shows that each
section has a different average velocity.
While an average velocity can be calculated
using QTotal and the cross sectional area of
the whole channel (AA + AB), the different
velocities across the channel represents
reality reasonably well.
8.4.5
Energy Principles
March 2010
8-11
V2
H (z d )
2g
Where:
H = total energy head (m);
z = height of channel bed above
some reference datum (m), known as
elevation head;
2g
8-12
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
H ( z d cos )
V2
2g
Where:
= slope angle of channel bed; and
= coefficient accounting
velocity distribution.
for
V
V
( z1 d 1 ) 1 ( z 2 d 2 ) 2 h L
2g
2g
Where:
hL = head loss (m).
This relationship is best illustrated in Figure
8.4.5.1
Es y
V2
2g
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Figure 8.4.5.2 - Specific Energy Curve (Source: Franzini & Finnemore (1997))
March 2010
8-13
Fr
V
gL
Where:
V = velocity of flow (m/s);
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81
m/s2); and
L = characteristic length (m).
The characteristic length (L) in open
channel flow is equal to the hydraulic
depth, which is defined as the cross
sectional area of flow divided by the
surface width of flow. Using either the
hydraulic depth or flow rate for the stream,
there are two commonly used forms of the
above equation:
March 2010
8-14
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Fr
g A
and Fr Q B
gA
3
Where:
A = cross sectional area of flow
normal to direction of flow (m2);
B = width of flow at surface (m); and
Q = flow rate (m3/s).
These equations are valid for irregular
channel / stream sections.
Froudes Number indicates the state of
flow. Critical Flow occurs when Fr = 1.
When Fr is greater than 1, the flow is
supercritical, and when it is less than 1 the
flow is subcritical. When Fr is close to 1 (>
0.9 but < 1.1) the flow state is unstable and
waves appear on the water surface.
Design is recommended to achieve a
Froude Number less than 0.9 (subcritical
flow).
8.4.6
Hydraulic Jump
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Q2
y A
gA
Where:
Q = discharge (m3/s);
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81
m/s2);
A = area of cross section (m2); and
= depth to the centre of gravity to
cross section (m).
March 2010
8-15
March 2010
8-16
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
using
rectangular
Rectangular Channels
The following equation was developed to
calculate the sequent depth (y2) in a
rectangular channel:
y2 1
1 8 Fr2 1
y1 2
OR
y2
y1
2
1 8F 1
2
r
Where:
Fr V1
gy1
(rectangular section)
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Fr
Energy Dissipated
Characteristics
Undular
1.0 1.7
< 5%
Weak
1.7 2.5
5 15%
Oscillating
2.5 4.5
15 45%
Unstable avoid
Steady
4.5 9.0
45 70%
Strong
> 9.0
70 85%
8
y2 1
1 8 Fr2 1
y1 2
Fr V1
gy1
Fr
March 2010
8-17
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8
Source: Brater et al. (1996)
8.4.6.4 Sequent
Depth
Sloping
Channels (SO > 10%)
While the effect of the weight of water in
the jump is negligible for horizontal
channels (So 10%), it is essential to
consider it in the analysis of hydraulic
jumps in sloping channels (So > 10%).
Thus, the momentum equations for
horizontal channels cannot be applied to
jumps on channels having a bed slope
March 2010
8-18
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
y2
y1
Fr1
V1
gA
March 2010
8-19
of
Hydraulic
March 2010
8-20
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8.4.7
Hydraulic Drop
8.5
Erosive Velocities in
Natural Streams
8.6
Backwater
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Silt
Sand
Gravel
Clay
Rocks
Velocity (m/s)
Fine
Coarse
6 mm
0.6 to 0.9
25 mm
1.3 to 1.5
100 mm
2.0 to 3.0
Soft
0.3 to 0.6
Stiff
1.0 to 1.2
Hard
1.5 to 2.0
8.6.1
150 mm
2.5 to 3.0
300 mm
3.5 to 4.0
Tidal Waters
tide levels;
March 2010
8-21
March 2010
8-22
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
MSL
(Mean Sea-Level) The average level of the sea over a long period (preferably 18.6
years) or the average level which would exist in the absence of tides.
HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide) / LAT (Lowest Astronomical Tide) These are
the highest and lowest levels which can be predicated to occur under average
meteorological conditions and any combination of astronomical conditions. These
levels will not be reached every year. HAT and LAT are not the extreme levels
which can be reached, as storm surges may cause considerably higher and lower
levels to occur.
MHWS (Mean High Water Springs) Long term average of the heights of two
successive high waters during these periods of 24 hours (approximately once a
fortnight) when the range of tide is greatest, at full and new moon.
MLWS (Mean Low Water Springs) The long term average value of two successive
low waters over the same periods are defined for MHWN
AHD (Australia Height Datum) This Datum has been adopted by the National Mapping
Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping is to be referred.
Figure 8.6.1.1 - Tidal Planes
March 2010
8-23
8.6.2
Downstream Tributary
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8.7
Tailwater Levels
8.7.1
Tailwater Effects
March 2010
8-24
widely.
Drainage structures with low
tailwater levels will most likely be
controlled by inlet conditions and can have
high outlet velocities, therefore erosion can
be an issue. A high tailwater level typically
means the channel does not drain the
stormwater away quickly. This is common
where drainage channels are reasonably
defined with mid-to-high banks, allowing
the channel to contain most stormwater
flows.
Drainage structures with high
tailwater will most likely be controlled by
outlet conditions and can have low outlet
velocities, therefore high headwater levels
(afflux) can be an issue.
8.7.2
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8-25
8.8
8.8.1
Design Methodology
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
300 mm A;
8-26
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
(determines
y
2
by yX 2
2 y 2 yX b
2
y
2
AR 3 S f
Where:
A = by + Xy2 ; and
R = y/2
So is used to approximate Sf (Friction
Slope)
(d) Substitute b in equation with function
from (b) and solve for y.
(e) With y, calculate b using function from
(b).
Channel geometry can now be determined
and freeboard added.
(f) Calculate Froude Number for channel
section / flow and together with
velocity and depth of flow, check that
conditions are acceptable where the
designed channel discharges into an
existing channel etc.
8.8.1.3 Vegetated
Channels
or
Bare-earth
March 2010
8-27
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
March 2010
8-28
AQ
Vmax
AR 3 S o
Q
n
A 5 3 S 12
o
P
Qn
A b yX y ; and
P 2y X 2 1 b
Rearrange expression for A to isolate b:
A
yX
y
P 2y X 2 1
A
yX
y
ay 2 by c 0
b b 2 4ac
y
2a
Solving a quadratic equation gives 2 roots.
Substitute roots (y) into:
A
yX
y
8.8.2
Channel Transitions
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
0.5
0.7
1.0
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
15
20
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.2
2.8
2.8
2.5
2.4
2.3
2.2
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.3
0.5
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
15
20
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.0
0.9
Notes:
1. Assume the following species under average
conditions will provide the fraction of cover indicated:
- Kikuyu, Pangola and
well maintained Couch species 1.0.
- Rhodes grass, poorly maintained
Couch species - 0.7
- Native species, tussock grasses - 0.5
2. Applies to surface consolidated, but not cultivated
March 2010
8-29
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
Where:
hb = channel bend head loss (m);
B = channel width (m);
Figure 8.8.2 - Maximum Rates of
Contraction and Expansion
V 2 V 2
ht C u 1 2
2g 2g
Where:
ht = transition head loss (m);
Cu = transition energy loss coefficient
(dimensionless);
V1 = average flow velocity upstream
of transition (m/s);
V2 = average flow velocity
downstream of transition (m/s).
Table 8.8.2 gives contraction and expansion
coefficients (Cu) for use in this formula.
8.8.3
2 B V 2
hb
2
R
g
c
March 2010
8-30
Contraction
Expansion
Coefficient
Cu
Coefficient
Cu
(i) Gradual
channel
transition
0.1
0.3
(ii) Straight
through
bridge
transition
0.3
0.5
(iii) Square
edged abrupt
transition
0.6
0.8
8.8.4
Superelevation in Channel
Bends
R
hsup 2 log e o
Ri
V 2
2 g
Where:
hsup = superelevation of the water
surface across the channel (level
difference) (m);
V = average flow velocity (m/s);
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81
m/s);
Ro= outside radius of bend (m);
Ri = inner radius of bend (m).
8.9
Grassed Channels
8.9.1
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
March 2010
8-31
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
and
8.9.2
Reinforced Grassed
Channels
March 2010
8-32
8.10
8.10.1 General
These channels are typically lined with
concrete, riprap or rock mattresses / gabions
and are highly resistant to erosion. Design
velocities may be as high as 5 m/s, much
higher than those for grassed channels.
Smaller cross-sections than those for
grassed channels are possible to take the
same discharges, as side slopes of 1 on 1
are practical. Channels with hard facings
should be considered where the width is
limited within the road environment.
Other considerations for channels with hard
faced linings include the provision of:
contraction and expansion joints to
minimise the risk of cracking and
seepage and potential undermining;
step irons (or similar device), for
access / safety reasons, where the
channel side slope is steeper than 1
on 2 and the channel depth exceeds
0.9 m;
pressure relief weep holes in
impermeable linings both within the
channel invert and within the channel
side slopes. Weep holes should be
90 mm diameter at 1.8 m maximum
centres (depends on detailed design
(structural) requirements);
lateral protection against surface
flows undermining the side slopes.
A minimum hard faced strip of width
0.45 m on both sides at the top of the
channel is recommended;
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
March 2010
8-33
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
March 2010
8-34
Vegetation
Cover:
In
some
installations, long-term stability is
best achieved by having the gabion
and mattress structures covered with
vegetation. When this form of bank
stabilisation is placed under a widespan bridge, light and rainfall
restrictions can limit or prevent
vegetation cover, thus resulting in a
reduction of the expected life span of
the structure; and
Damage by Sediment: In channels
that transport large quantities of
coarse, bed-load sediment, the
expected design life of gabion and
rock mattress structures can be
reduced due to damage to both the
plastic and galvanised wire coatings.
Site specific designs need to be completed
for every gabion or mattress application
using design recommendations from the
suppliers of proprietary products.
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
March 2010
8-35
March 2010
8-36
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
8.11
Channel Drops
8.12
Baffle Chutes
Chapter 8
Open Channel Design
March 2010
8-37
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance Curves
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance
Curves
8A
March 2010
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance Curves
8A
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance Curves
8A
March 2010
8A-1
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance Curves
8A
March 2010
8A-2
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance Curves
8A
March 2010
8A-3
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance Curves
8A
March 2010
8A-4
Appendix 8A
Vegetal Retardance Curves
8A
March 2010
8A-5
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
8B
March 2010
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
8B
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Stream Data
Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
Ht of channel bed is 110.60 m
Channel is regular and considered a little rough with a lot of trees and weeds along the
banks.
Ht = 111.80 m
sides are
1 on 1
2.5m
Solution
We need to determine the velocity of flow using Mannings formula first, then the flow rate
using the fundamental equation and finally, determine Froudes number to describe the state of
flow. (Refer Sections 8.4.3, 8.4.4 and 8.4.5)
Mannings equation is:
R 0.667 S 0.5
V
n
Where R is the hydraulic radius, determines as cross sectional area of flow (A) divided by the
wetted perimeter (P). Also, S is the slope of the energy line which we dont have, therefore we
can use the bed slope (So) to approximate S.
March 2010
8B-1
8B
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Step 5. All variables have now been determined, therefore calculate velocity.
0.750.667 0.0080.5
V
0.07
V = 1.06 m/s
8B
Step 6. Using fundamental equation Q = V.A, we can now determine the flow rate in the
channel.
Q = 1.06 x 4.44
= 4.71 m3 /s
Step 7. To determine the state of flow, we calculate Froudes number.
Fr Q B
gA
3
We have determined that Q = 4.71m3/s, A = 4.44m2 and g is acceleration due to gravity (taken
as 9.81m/s2), therefore we need to calculate B, the width of flow across the surface.
March 2010
8B-2
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Therefore:
Fr 4.71 4.9
9.81 4.44
3
Fr = 0.36
End of Example
8B
March 2010
8B-3
8B
March 2010
8B-4
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Stream Data
Discharge / flow rate = 17.86 m3/s
Bed slope about the site is 1.2%
Ht of channel bed is 65.10 m
Max depth of flow is 2.0 m
Mannings n = 0.06.
d = ?? m
sides are 1
on 1
8B
4m
Solution
To solve for d, we need to use Mannings formula and develop a Stage-Discharge curve.
R 0.667 S 0.5
V
n
A Stage-Discharge curve plots discharge against depth of flow. Therefore several iterations
using Mannings formula are required for several depths of flow.
March 2010
8B-5
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Step 1. Using the maximum channel depth of 2.0m, calculate stream velocity and flow rate.
Calculate the cross sectional area of the flow, wetted perimeter and hydraulic radius:
Using Q/VA,
Q=25.33 m3/s
This flow is greater than the known discharge therefore we know that the channel can easily
carry the flow.
Step 2. Now, using the same method, re-calculate stream velocity and flow rate for several
lesser depths (suggest using even increments).
8B
Depth
Velocity
Discharge
1.50
8.25
8.24
1.00
1.83
15.07
1.00
5.00
6.83
0.73
1.48
7.42
0.50
2.25
5.41
0.42
1.02
2.29
Step 3. Now draw the Stage-Discharge curve for this site / channel (refer next page).
Step 4. From the curve, we can now read of the flow depth for our design flow of 17.86m3/s.
Step 5. Now we can use the depth to calculate flow area, then Q=V.A to determine the average
flow velocity.
A = 1.622 + 1.62 x 4 = 9.10 m2
March 2010
8B-6
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Stage-Discharge Curve
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
End of Exercise
8B
March 2010
8B-7
8B
March 2010
8B-8
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
Stream Data
Bed slope about the site is 0.8%
d = 1.2m
A
sides are
1 on 1
d = 2.1m
B
d = 1.0m
C
4m
3m
n values
A = 0.07
B = 0.035
C = 0.06
2m
Solution
To solve for Q, we need to use Mannings formula for each sub section of stream:
8B
R 0.667 S 0.5
V
n
After calculating V for each sub-section, use Qtotal = VA x AA + VB x AB + VC x AC to determine
total flow rate.
March 2010
8B-9
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
It is important to remember that that water - water boundary between sub-sections A & B does
not contribute any length to the wetted perimeter.
Now,
VA
Using
Q/VA ,
QA = 6.90 m3/s
AB = 7.39 m2
PB = 4.83 m
RB = 1.53 m
Now,
VB
8B
Using
Q/VA,
QB = 25.09 m3/s
AC = 3.50 m2
PC = 4.41 m
RC = 0.79 m
Now,
VC
Using
March 2010
8B-10
Q/VA,
QC = 4.47 m3/s
Appendix 8B
Worked Examples
End of Exercise
8B
March 2010
8B-11
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Reference
Section
9.2.1, 9.2.6,
9.7.2,
9.7.3, 9.15
& 9.16
January 2013
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
M
Whitehead
Jan
2013
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Table of Contents
9.1
9.2
Introduction
9-1
9.1.1
Overview
9-1
9.1.2
Constructability
9-2
9.1.3
Computer Programs
9-2
General Requirements
9-2
9.2.1
9-2
9.2.2
9-3
9.2.3
9-3
9.2.4
9-3
9.2.5
9-3
9.2.6
9-4
9.2.7
9-10
9.2.8
9-16
9.2.9
Multiple Barrels
9-17
9.2.10
9-17
9.2.11
Splay Pipes
9-17
9.3
9-18
9.4
Location of Culverts
9-20
9.5
Allowable Headwater
9-21
9.6
9-22
9.7
9-22
9.7.1
9-22
9.7.2
9-22
9.7.3
9-24
9.7.4
9-24
9.7.5
Stock Underpass
9-26
9.8
9-26
9.9
9-27
9.9.1
9-29
9.9.2
9-29
January 2013
iii
9.10
9.11
Hydraulic Calculations
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9-29
9.10.1
Control at Inlet
9-29
9.10.2
Control at Outlet
9-30
9.10.3
Determination of Tailwater
9-33
Design Procedure
9-33
9.11.1
Hydraulic Design
9-33
9.11.2
Practical Design
9-40
9.12
9-40
9.13
Blockage of Culverts
9-41
9.14
9-42
9.15
9-42
9.16
9-45
9.17
9-45
9.18
Inlet Structures
9-45
9.19
Managing Sediment
9-45
9.20
Safety
9-46
9.20.1
9-46
9.20.2
Barriers to Flow
9-46
9.20.3
9-46
January 2013
iv
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.1
Introduction
9.1.1
Overview
January 2013
9-1
9.1.2
Constructability
9.1.3
Computer Programs
January 2013
9-2
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.2
General Requirements
9.2.1
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Skew
Number
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5
January 2013
9-3
Target Outlet
Velocity (m/s)
Rock
4.5
Stones 150
mm
diameter or larger
3.5
Gravel 100 mm or
grass cover
2.5
1.2 - 2.0
1.0 1.5
9.2.6
Structural and
Configuration
Requirements of Culverts
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-4
pipe diameter
culverts).
(excluding
box
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-5
January 2013
9-6
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
culvert.
Further advice in relation to
structural requirements can be obtained
from the Director (Bridge Design). Advice
in relation to inspections can be obtained
from Director (Bridge Asset Management).
It is highly recommended to replace steel
culverts greater than 15 years of age.
Departmental experience has shown that
these structures do not generally last much
longer than 15 to 20 years and structural
failure of these types of culverts can occur
quickly.
The requirement for inspection may be
relaxed if a pre-2004 culvert is assessed as
hydraulically deficient when compared to
the projects performance and capability
requirements. In this instance, the culvert
should be replaced to improve hydraulic
capability and this would remove the
requirement for structural inspection.
However if it is intended to retain the
existing structure and simply modify it to
meet project performance (hydraulic)
requirements, then the inspection/decision
to retain process is required.
exceptions
to
this
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-7
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-8
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
requirements
for
January 2013
9-9
9.2.6.10
Aluminium Culverts
January 2013
9-10
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.2.7
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Longitudinal Crack
January 2013
9-11
January 2013
9-12
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
According
to
the
Unified
Soil
Classification, these soils range from
SC/CL to CH and are not necessarily
restricted to high plasticity CH clays.
Therefore
particular
design
and/or
construction considerations need to be
adopted to avert damage to culverts where
expansive soils are exposed to significant
long term moisture changes.
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-13
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-14
Q103A
Q104A
Q105
Q106
AS2870-1996
BRE-IP 4/93
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
ripping,
scarifying
and
then
compacting the soil with moisture
and/or density control.
These processes are carried out to a depth
beyond the level of seasonal moisture
variation within the soil. The areas to be
treated would be under the aprons and 1 m
beyond the cut-off wall of the apron.
Control
of
Foundation
Moisture
Fluctuations - Moisture Stability
January 2013
9-15
January 2013
9-16
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.2.8
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
the
coefficients
as
manufacturers.
provided
by
9.2.9
Multiple Barrels
January 2013
9-17
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.3
January 2013
9-18
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9-19
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-20
9.4
Location of Culverts
9.5
Allowable Headwater
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-21
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.6
Preliminary Selection
of Culvert Size
January 2013
9-22
9.7
Requirements for
Fauna Passage
9.7.1
9.7.2
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-23
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Minimum
Small mammals
0.5m
Medium mammals
0.5m
Large mammals
1.2m
>1.2m
Microchiropteran bats
>1.2m
Reptiles
0.5m
9.7.3
Considerations for
Terrestrial Passage
January 2013
9-24
9.7.4
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-25
9.7.5
Stock Underpass
January 2013
9-26
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.8
Selection of Culvert
Type
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Concrete
Box
Culverts
(Normal
cover)
Concrete
Box
Culverts
(Saltwater
Cover)
Concrete
Pipes
Steel
Corrugated
Arch1&2
Steel
Helical
Pipe1&2
Aluminium
Helical
Pipe2
Saltwater
Aggressive soil
(e.g. Low pH, high
chloride high
sulphate)
Invert in fresh
water for
prolonged periods
N/A
Not
economic
Typical condition
(i.e. none of
above)
N/A
Not
economic
9.9
Typical Culvert
Operating Conditions
governed by whether
operating under:
the
culvert
is
Inlet control; or
Outlet control.
The hydraulic capacity of the culvert may
vary considerably depending on the type of
control.
Figure 9.9 shows eight typical conditions
under which culverts may operate.
January 2013
9-27
9
Source: Bureau of Public Roads (1965)
January 2013
9-28
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.9.1
9.9.2
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.10
Hydraulic Calculations
January 2013
9-29
January 2013
9-30
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
H Hv He Hf
and
V = mean velocity of flow in the
culvert barrel (m/s);
Where:
Hv = velocity head (m)
V2
2g
ke
V2
2g
19.6n 2 L V 2
2g
R 1.33
V1
2g
V
2g
WS = water surface
SSo = slope of culvert
W.S
.
V1
He
Energy Lin
e
Hydraulic G
rade Line
HW
h1
Hf
Hv
LS
LSo
dhcc
W.S
.
ho2
DATUM
9
H
HW
S
dhcc
LS
LSo
TW
+D
ho = Greater of hdc c+
D and TW
2
Source : Austroads (1994)
January 2013
9-31
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Coefficient ke
(1 k e
19.6n 2 L V 2
)
2g
R 1.33
January 2013
9-32
HW H h0 LS 0
Where:
ho = adopted tailwater depth (m);
L = length of culvert (m); and
So = slope of culvert barrel (m/m).
The various components of this equation
are illustrated in Figure 9.10.2(b).
The tailwater level (ho) to be adopted is TW
if TW > D, otherwise the greater of:
TW, or
dc D
2
Where:
dc = critical depth (m); and
D = diameter or height of culvert
(m).
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.11
Design Procedure
January 2013
9-33
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
YES
10
A
Figure 9.11 - Culvert Design Flow Chart
January 2013
9-34
A
AHW
B
D
dc
Fr
HWi
HWo
h0
ke
L
Q
S0
TW
Vmax
V0
No
9.11.1.1
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
and
any
9.11.1.2
AQ
Vmax
Where:
Q = design discharge (m3/s); and
Q
3.6 H 0.5
January 2013
9-35
January 2013
9-36
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
loss
d c 0.467 Q
B
If dc
HW0 H h0 LS 0
Now check HWo against AHW and if HWo
is greater than AHW, try another size until
both HWi and HWo are acceptable (< AHW).
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Vo Q
Where:
Q = design discharge per culvert
barrel / cell (m3/s); and
January 2013
9-37
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
Vo Q
Where:
Figure 9.11.1.7(a) Flow Area for Box
Culverts
Area R 2 when y = D
or
Area R 2 1 R 2 sin
2
Where:
R = internal radius of pipe (m); and
= angle in radians
Figure 9.11.1.7(b) provides guidance in
determining flow area for pipes.
January 2013
9-38
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.11.1.9
Fr Q B
gA
3
Where:
B = 2 y D y
refer Figure 9.11.1.9
January 2013
9-39
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-40
9.12
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.13
Blockage of Culverts
January 2013
9-41
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.14
Consideration of
Large or Extreme
Events
9.15
Culvert Outlet
Protection
9
Figure 9.13 - Flood Water Flowing into
Box Culverts
January 2013
9-42
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
(soil
and
January 2013
9-43
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
January 2013
9-44
9.16
Special Energy
Dissipation Structures
at Culvert Outlet
9.17
Self Cleaning
Culverts
9.18
Inlet Structures
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.19
Managing Sediment
Sediment
deposits
within
culverts,
especially multi-cell culverts, can cause
significant operational and maintenance
problems.
Occasionally sediment traps (basins) are
constructed upstream of culverts. In these
cases, an access ramp for maintenance must
be provided to allow de-silting of the trap.
In critical areas, or for long culverts where
maintenance is extremely difficult, a small
sediment trap / weir can be constructed at
the inlet to divert low flows to just one or
two culvert cells. This will allow the flow
to enter the remaining cells only during
high flows.
January 2013
9-45
9.20
Safety
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9.20.2.3
Noise Fencing
9.20.2.2
9-46
to
January 2013
machinery
Chapter 9
Culvert Design
9
Figure 9.20.3 - Fencing Around Pipe Inlet
January 2013
9-47
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
March 2010
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
Reference
Section
9A
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Steering
Committee
Date
Mar
2010
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
March 2010
9A-1
9A
March 2010
9A-2
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
9A-3 Inlet Control Headwater depth for Corrugated Metal Pipe (CMP) and Structural
Plate Corrugated Steel Pipe (SPCSP) culverts
March 2010
9A-3
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
March 2010
9A-4
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
Note: Q is Discharge per culvert cell
9A-5 Outlet Control - Head for concrete box culverts flowing full (n=0.012)
March 2010
9A-5
9A
Note: Q is Discharge per culvert cell
9A-6 Outlet Control - Head for concrete pipes flowing full (n=0.012)
March 2010
9A-6
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
March 2010
9A-7
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
9A8 Outlet Control Head for Structural Plate Corrugated Steel Pipe (SPCSP) flowing
full (n=0.0328 to 0.0302)
March 2010
9A-8
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
9A-9 Outlet Control Head for Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch (CSPA) flowing full (n=0.024)
March 2010
9A-9
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
Note: N = no. of pipes and Q/N = Discharge per pipe
9A-10 Outlet Control Head for Structural Plate Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch (SPCSPA)
flowing full (n=0.0327 to 0.0306)
March 2010
9A-10
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
March 2010
9A-11
9A
March 2010
9A-12
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
March 2010
9A-13
9A
March 2010
9A-14
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
Appendix 9A
Design Nomographs
9A
9A-15 Critical Depth in a Structural Plate Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch (SPCSPA)
March 2010
9A-15
Appendix 9B
Design Form
Appendix 9B
Design Form
9B
March 2010
Appendix 9B
Design Form
Reference
Section
9B
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 9B
Design Form
9B
March 2010
9B-1
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
9C
March 2010
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
9C
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Step 1.
Collect Design Data. Use the hydraulic calculation form given (Appendix 9B Design Form)
and fill out the known information. From the above information, this include: design flow, road
and culvert heights, length, slope and maximum allowable velocity.
The shoulder height can be calculated based on the Centreline height, road crossfall and traffic
lane width.
10.0m Road Width
100mm
Freeboard
5.0m
5.0m
Traffic Lane
Traffic Lane
Shoulder Height
3%
470mm
Pavement
Thickness
125.65m
3%
March 2010
9C-1
9C
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
9C
6.25
March 2010
9C-2
50
0.695
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
125.50 m
0.0065
15.6
1.55
123.85m
123.75m
2.5
Step 2.
Select a Trial Culvert (Refer to Section 9.11.1.2)
Firstly, determine an indicative waterway area of culvert(s) based on Q and Maximum
allowable velocity
A = Q/V
A = 6.25 / 2.5
A = 2.50m2
Use area to select one initial culvert configuration that meets area required. Size and fit culvert
to channel / road.
It is required to use a RCP Culvert.
At this stage and based on preliminary considerations given above, a RCP Culvert 1200 will
not be adequate as height of barrel will not fit between bottom of pavement thickness and invert
level of culvert at inlet. That is:
9C
Step 3.
Design Discharge for Trials (Refer to Section 9.11.1.3)
For multiple cells culvert determine Q per cell:
Q per cell = 6.25 / 3 = 2.08 m3/s (3/1050 RCP)
March 2010
9C-3
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Step 4.
Determine Inlet Control Headwater Depth (Refer to Section 9.11.1.4)
Analyse Culvert assuming inlet control.
Use nomograph 9A-2 to determine HW/D and then calculate HWi
Q = 2.08 m3/s, D = 1050, reading from nomograph HW/D = 1.33
HWi = HW/D x D = 1.33 x 1.05 = HWi = 1.40m < AHW (1.55m)
Step 5.
Determine Outlet Control Headwater Depth (Refer to Section 9.11.1.5)
Analyse Culvert assuming outlet control.
Select Entrance Loss Coefficient. Per job description above, Culvert Entrance Type to be square
edge with headwall, therefore ke = 0.5 (Refer to Table 9.10.2 Culvert Entry Loss Coefficient).
Determine Head (H) for RCP culvert flowing full from nomograph 9A-6
Plot L = 15.6m on ke = 0.5, plot D = 1050 and draw a line
Locate pivot on turning line
Plot Q = 2.08 m3/s and draw line crossing pivot on turning line to Head Line
Read off H = 0.50m
Determine Critical depth in a pipe, dc from nomograph 9AB.13, read off dc = 0.81m
Calculate (dc + D) / 2 = (0.81 + 1.05) / 2 = 0.93m
Determine Tailwater. TW was earlier determined as 0.695m from Stage Discharge curve.
Determine ho , which is the greater of TW=0.695m and (dc + D) / 2 = 0.93, therefore ho = 0.93m
Calculate Length x Slope = 15.6m x 0.0065m/m = 0.101m
9C
Determine HWO = H + ho - LSo = 0.5 + 0.93 0.101 = HWO = 1.33m < AHW (1.55m)
Step 6.
Determine the controlling Headwater (HW) (Refer to Section 9.11.1.6).
That is, assess larger between HWi = 1.40m and HWO = 1.33m
Therefore 3/1050 RCP culverts are operating under Inlet control.
March 2010
9C-4
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Step 7.
Calculate outlet velocity Inlet control pipe (Refer to Section 9.11.1.8)
Determine relationship of Part Full pipe (Qp) and Full flow pipe (Qf) = (Qp / Qf)
Using nomograph 9A-11, determine Qf and Vf read Qf = 2.4 m3/s and Vf = 2.5 m/s
Qp / Qf = 2.08 / 2.4 = 87%
Using nomograph 9A-12 read 87% on the axis x to discharge and obtain the following factors:
71.5% depth of flow, therefore y = 1.05 x 71.5% = 0.75m = y
112% velocity part full, therefore Vp = 2.75 x 112% = 3.08m/s = Vp
Step 8.
Calculate Outlet Flow Energy (Refer Section
Calculate Froude Number
Fr
Voutlet
g A
In order to calculate Froude Number, we need to calculate Area and Top width of flow.
Q per cell = 2.08 m3/s
A o = Q / Vo
Ao = 2.08 / 3.08
Ao = 0.67 m2
B 2 y D y
9C
Fr
3.08
9.81 0.67
0.95
March 2010
9C-5
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Step 9.
Design Check (Refer to Section 9.11.1.10)
Outlet velocity = 3.08 m/s greater than Allowable stream velocity = 2.5 m/s. Should this culvert
be chosen, it is recommended to determine a suitable type of Erosion control measure.
Step 10.
Design a Culvert outlet protection as detailed in Section 9.15. (Also refer to Culvert Outlet
protection example shown further in this Appendix).
Discussion.
This example required a reinforce culvert pipe (RCP) to be designed.
Two different combination of RCPs size have been sought in this example. This included 4/900
RCP and 3/1050 RCP respectively. (Refer to attached design form)
Hydraulic performance of both culvert trials for the 50 year ARI design event indicates that
culvert will be operating under inlet control condition. Additionally, outlet velocity for both
trials, will be exceeding Maximum Allowable Stream Velocity at culvert outlet.
During the detailed design, apron and headwall structures need be determined in order to
establish their impact on the channel geometry and any potential impact on the tailwater by any
increase on the channel width in the vicinity of the culvert.
A further analysis needs to be undertaken to consider the likelihood of blockage (Section 9.13)
and determine the impacts on the culvert performance. That is, as the headwater increases and
the design rate is exceeded, what the consequences and impacts are to the culvert, roadway and
adjacent land
9C
March 2010
9C-6
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
9C
March 2010
9C-7
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Step 1.
First determine a suitable type of control measure by calculating Froude Number:
Fr
Voutlet
g A
In order to calculate Froude Number, it is needed to calculate Area and Top width of flow.
Q per cell = 4.5 m3/s / 2 = 2.25 m3/s
Ao = Q / Vo
Ao = 2.25 / 2.97
Ao = 0.76 m2
B 2 y D y
9C
Fr
2.97
9.81 0.76
1.15
Fr = 1.16
Since Fr < 1.7, a rock pad will be suitable.
March 2010
9C-8
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Step 2.
Determine stone size and length of pad from Figure 9.15 (a) as shown below:
2.97
1200
Step 3.
Determine upstream and downstream width based on 5:1 expansion ratio. (Refer to Figure 9.15
(b)):
L = 12.0m
9C
L/5
W1 = 4.9m
W2
L/5
1
5
March 2010
9C-9
9C
March 2010
9C-10
Appendix 9C
Worked Examples
Appendix 9D
Structural Assessment / Decision Process
Appendix 9D
Structural
Assessment /
Decision Process
9D
January 2013
Appendix 9D
Structural Assessment / Decision Process
9D
January 2013
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Initial Release.
Authorised
by
Date
M
Whitehead
Jan
2013
Appendix 9D
Structural Assessment / Decision Process
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES
YES
A Level 2
inspection may
escalate to Level 3
Combined engineering /
management process /
decision
Document data /
process / decision
Is culvert suitable to be
retained?
YES
NO
YES
9D
Document data /
process / decision
Document data /
process / decision
Document data /
process / decision
NO
January 2013
9D-1
Appendix 9E
Structural Failure Risk Assessment
Appendix 9E
Structural Failure
Risk Assessment
9E
January 2013
Appendix 9E
Structural Failure Risk Assessment
9E
January 2013
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Initial Release.
Authorised
by
Date
M
Whitehead
Jan
2013
Appendix 9E
Structural Failure Risk Assessment
Risk
High
Medium
Low
Recommended Action
Replace structure
Monitor structure
No action required at this stage
Risk
High
Recommended Action
Replace structure
Low
No action required
January 2013
9E-1
9E
Appendix 9E
Structural Failure Risk Assessment
Risk
High
Medium
Low
Recommended Action
Replace structure
Monitor structure
No action required
Risk
High
Medium
Low
Recommended Action
Replace structure
Monitor structure
No action required
* - RCBC culverts greater than 1800mm (in width) but less than 3.0m2 in waterway area
are to be included.
The above Risk Rating tables are combined and shown diagrammatically in the chart below.
9E
January 2013
9E-2
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
10
March 2010
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Reference
Section
10
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Table of Contents
10.1
Introduction
10-1
10.2
Additional Considerations
10-1
10.3
10-1
10.4
Environmental Factors
10-2
10.5
Hydraulic Design
10-2
10.6
10.7
10.5.1
Floodway Terminology
10-2
10.5.2
10-4
10.5.3
10-4
10-8
10.6.1
Time of Submergence
10-9
10.6.2
Time of Closure
10-9
10.6.3
10-9
10.6.4
10-11
10.6.5
10-12
Floodway Protection
10-13
10.7.1
Types of Protection
10-13
10.7.2
10-13
10.7.3
10-14
10
10
March 2010
iii
10
March 2010
iv
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
10.1
Introduction
10.3
10.2
Additional
Considerations
March 2010
10-1
10
10
10.4
Environmental Factors
March 2010
10-2
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
10.5
Hydraulic Design
free flow; or
submerged flow.
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
10
March 2010
10-3
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Where:
H h
C
Q C f LH s
C
f
1.5
V2
= Specific Head
2g
On Figure 10.5.2;
Where:
10
Calculate
March 2010
10-4
H
l
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
10
Figure 10.5.2 - Discharge Coefficients for Flow over Floodways
March 2010
10-5
10
March 2010
10-6
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
CASE A
CASE B
March 2010
10-7
10
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
10
Find
the
tailwater
level
corresponding to the design flood
discharge from the rating curve for
the unrestricted channel.
Select a headwater level slightly
above the tailwater level in (a), say
0.1 m above, and calculate the flow
over the road and through each
culvert and/or bridge with this
headwater - tailwater combination.
Add these flows together to obtain
a total flow, say Q1.
March 2010
10-8
10.6
Time of Submergence
/ Closure
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Flood immunity;
AATOS.
time of
useful by
useful to
upgrading
d = depth of inundation
v = flow velocity
g = gravity (9.81m/s2)
March 2010
10-9
10
10
10-10
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
March 2010
10-11
10
10
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Step 1.
Determine the ARI of the flood for which
the stream crossing is trafficable, i.e.
floodway with or without culvert or bridge.
Step 2.
Determine the times of closure ty for a
series of floods greater than the trafficable
capacity flood, and the ARIs of each of
these floods.
Estimate tmax by extrapolating a graph of
time of closure versus ARI or by estimating
the probable maximum flood for the
catchment. It should be noted that the
probable maximum time of closure cannot
be disregarded in the calculation of the
AATOC.
Step 3.
Calculate the probability FT(t) of the road
being closed for each ARI y year flood:
FT(t) = 1 1/y
Step 4.
Using the times of closure, ty and the
probability, FT(t) of the road being closed
for each ARI y year flood, draw the
cumulative probability distribution.
This distribution gives the probability of the
road being closed in any year for less than t
hours.
Step 5.
Determine the probability density function:
fT (t) = FT(t) / t
This is the slope of the line connecting each
point on the cumulative probability
distribution.
Step 6.
Determine AATOC as:
AATOC p t
March 2010
10-12
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Where:
p = area of each rectangle in the
probability density function; and
t = centroidal distance of each rectangle
from the fT(t) axis of the probability
density function.
The same procedure is used for AATOS
except a lower flow is used to derive critical
flood level.
10.7
Floodway Protection
Minimum protection
grassed batters; and
such
as
March 2010
10-13
10
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
10
10-14
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Type 1 Floodway
This type of reinforced concrete floodway
has been constructed in many areas of the
State, particularly in the west.
The
reinforcement selected should not only
satisfy strength requirements, but also
prevent temperature and shrinkage cracks.
Where cut-off walls have been used without
the downstream apron, failures have
occurred.
With a suitable width of downstream apron
and weepholes, the Type 1 Floodway is
recommended as suitable for all crossings
where other than grass protection is
required, cost permitting.
Type 2 Floodway
This is an example of a reinforced concrete
floodway where the tailwater depth is
uncertain but probably quite low (perhaps
700 mm or more below the downstream
edge of the formation when the flood
begins to overtop the road). No adverse
reports are known. Costs are higher than
Type 1 floodways.
Type 3 Floodway
This previously used type is no longer
recommended.
Type 4 Floodway
This is considered by some to be an
improvement on Type 3. The increased use
of stone mattresses and gabions has given
confidence to this type of construction.
March 2010
10-15
10
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Type 5 Floodway
10
March 2010
10-16
Chapter 10
Floodway Design
Type 7 Floodway
This floodway was designed for use in
Western Australia and is described in
Waterways Design (Aust roads 1994).
As the riprap consists of rock with grading
requirements, it may have limited
application in Queensland where supplies
of such rock are scarce where floodways
are constructed.
Further details of the required grading and
riprap thickness may be obtained from the
reference.
10
March 2010
10-17
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
10
A
March 2010
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
10
A
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
Floodway Example
Refer to Chapter 9 - Culverts Design and Chapter 10 Floodway Design.
This example illustrates the principles of floodway design, as described in Chapter 10.
The task for this example is to design a floodway with 20 year trafficability, over a natural open
channel approximately trapezoidal in shape. The floodway would be approximately 90 to 100
m long and for cost reasons, road batters will be grass covered only for protection against scour.
Preliminary Considerations:
Because the batters will be protected by grass only, culverts will be required to build up the
tailwater to not more than 300 mm below the edge of the downstream shoulder when
overtopping of the road first occurs. Allowing for crossfall, there will be a head of 450 mm
and a velocity of about 2.30-2.45 m/s through the culverts if this minimum tailwater is
adopted. Is this acceptable on this job? (This will be answered in the example).
For 20 year ARI trafficability, the floodway level should be at the 20 year unrestricted flood
level to allow the maximum amount of water over the road and save on culvert and overall
costs.
In general it is only in very long floodways with very little velocity in the open channel and/or
where costly protection is unavoidable, that increasing culvert requirements by raising the road,
thus decreasing the flow over the road (to the extreme of a flood free road) may reduce the
overall cost of the job.
Step 1.
List all relevant criteria:
Time of closure: Maximum of 1 day in a 50 year ARI flood. (Calculated hydrograph shows
this maximum only a matter of hours - not included here).
Width of floodway: 10 m.
Road crossfall: 3 %.
10
A
Step 2.
Calculate the rating curve for the unre-stricted channel.
Using open channel hydraulic calculations (as discussed in Chapter 8):
Q50 = 162 m/s @ Ht 322.76 m,
March 2010
10A-1
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
Step 3.
Adopt a road level and calculate the maxi mum allowable depth of water over the road.
Adopt the road level at the unrestricted 20 year ARI flood level and show the cross-sectional
details in figure below.
H d
V2
300mm
2g
The maximum allowable depth of water over the road, y, occurs when H = 0.300 m.
Therefore:
dH
V2
0.68 2
0.3
2g
2 9.8
d = 0.28 m
Step 4.
10
A
Calculate the discharge over the road and through the culverts in a 20 year ARI flood.
The total discharge over the road and through the culverts must equal the discharge in the
unrestricted channel downstream with flow at height 322.58 m.
i.e.
C
Q C f LH 1.5 s
C
f
road)
March 2010
10A-2
(Section 10.5.2 for free flow, tailwater not above crown level of
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
L = length of floodway = 94 m
H = 0.30 m
Therefore:
Q 1.674 94 0.31.5
Q = 25.9 m/s
Discharge through culverts:
QC = Qtot - Q = 130.4 - 25.9 = 104.5 m/s
Therefore, culverts are required to take a discharge of 104.5 m/s operating under a head of 0.30
m and outlet control for this design condition.
Step 5.
Detailed culvert design.
Proceed with the design of culverts to take 104.5 m/s.
Height of culvert opening, D, from:
D = Crown level of road - crossfall - minimum fill above culvert - thickness of deck slab invert level
D = 322.58 - 5 x 0.03 - 0.100 - 0.180 - 320.55 = 1.60 m.
For culvert design:
Outlet control with H = 0.30 m
10
A
March 2010
10A-3
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
Step 6.
Check for culvert requirements when the flood is at the point of overtopping the road.
By trial and error, calculate flow through culvert at point where headwater height is 322.58 m.
Confirm that flow velocity through culvert is less than 2.5 m/s.
Step 7.
Confirm that velocity criteria is met.
Step 8.
Calculate afflux for ARI 50 year flow and confirm that criteria is met.
End of Example
10
A
March 2010
10A-4
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
AATOC Example
The design floods have been calculated for the bridge for a range of probabilities. In this case
the bridge is overtopped for a flood with a discharge of 400 m3/s, so has a flood immunity of
approximately ARI 3 years.
1000
Discharge - m3/s
800
ARI 100 years
ARI 50 years
ARI 20 years
ARI 10 years
ARI 5 years
ARI 2 years
600
400
200
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Time - h
ARI - years
2
TOS - hours
0.0
4.0
10
5.0
20
6.0
50
7.0
100
7.5
10
A
March 2010
10A-5
Appendix 10A
Worked Examples
The average annual times of submergence are calculated as shown in the following, assuming
that the time of submergence for the PMF is 12 hours.
ARI (yrs)
ToS
(hrs)
FT(t)
fT(T)
Area
Area*ToS
0.500
0.667
0.800
0.033
0.133
0.267
10
0.900
0.100
0.100
0.450
20
0.950
0.050
0.050
0.275
50
0.980
0.030
0.030
0.195
100
7.5
0.990
0.020
0.010
0.073
1E+99
12
1.000
0.002
0.010
0.098
AATOS
1.357
End of Example
10
A
March 2010
10A-6
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface
and Subsurface
Drainage Design
11
January 2013
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Reference
Section
11.2.10.7 &
11.2.11
11
January 2013
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
M
Whitehead
Jan
2013
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Table of Contents
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.1.2
11.2.2
11.2.3
11.2.4
11.2.5
11.2.6
11.2.7
11.2.8
11.2.9
11.2.10
11.2.11
11.2.12
11.2.13
11.2.14
11.2.15
11.2.16
11.2.17
11.2.18
11.2.19
11.2.20
11.2.21
11.2.22
11.3.2
January 2013
iii
11
11.4
11
11.3.3
11.3.4
Tyres............................................................................................... 11-37
11.3.5
11.3.6
11.3.7
11.3.8
11.3.9
11.3.10
11.3.11
11.3.12
11.4.2
11.4.3
11.4.4
11.4.5
11.4.6
11.4.7
11.4.8
11.4.9
11.4.10
11.4.11
11.4.12
11.4.13
11.4.14
11.4.15
11.4.16
11.4.17
11
January 2013
iv
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface
Drainage Design
11.1
Introduction
January 2013
11-1
11
11
January 2013
11-2
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11.2
Road Surface
Drainage
Q y k .C y .I tc , y . A (refer Chapter 5)
The contribution to the flow at the kerb or
median channel is given by a modification
of the Rational Formula and is expressed
as:
qy
C y .I tc , y .W
3.6 X 10 6
Where:
qy = contribution per longitudinal
metre of pavement (m/s) for an ARI
of y years;
=
runoff
coefficient
Cy
(dimensionless) for an ARI of y years
(refer Chapter 5);
Itc,y = average rainfall intensity
(mm/h) for design duration of tc and
ARI of y years (refer Chapter 5); and
W = width of contributing cross
section (m).
A runoff coefficient C50 of 0.95 (or higher)
is typical for most road surfaces.
Where the pavement width varies or the
runoff coefficient is different, then total
runoffs or lengths for given runoffs have to
be calculated algebraically.
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-3
11
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Notes:
1. Lane includes auxiliary lanes and any parking lane that has the potential in the future to become used as a through
lane for full or part time.
2. In situations where it is difficult to achieve the required clear width of 2.5 m, the clear width may be reduced to 1.0
m for roads of lesser importance (refer text in Section 11.2.2.1).
Figure 11.2.2.1(a) - Allowable Flow Widths on Roadways ARI 10 year Flood (crosssection views).
January 2013
11-4
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Notes:
1. Refer to Figure 11.2.2.1(a).
2. In situations where it is difficult to achieve the required clear width of 2.5 m, the clear width may be reduced to 1.0
m for roads of lesser importance (refer text in Section 11.2.2.1).
3. At pedestrian crossings check both width and velocity (refer text in Section 11.2.2.1).
4. See Section 11.2.2.2 for allowable widths in Major Storms.
Figure 11.2.2.1(b) - Allowable Flow Widths on Roadways ARI 10 year Flood (plan views)
January 2013
11-5
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Pedestrian Safety #
(a) no obvious danger
(b) obvious danger
Vehicle Safety
11
January 2013
11-6
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
of
2.667
Q 0.375 F g S 0.5 d g
n
Zg
Surface _ width
Depth _ at _ invert
n
0.012
Asphalt pavement:
smooth texture
rough texture
0.013
0.016
Concrete pavement:
float finish
broom finish
0.014
0.016
0.016
0.020
Sprayed Seal
0.018
11
January 2013
11-7
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-8
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-9
11
11
Figure 11.2.4.1 - Median Inlets with Levees.
January 2013
11-10
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-11
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Slope
Machine
Width
11
January 2013
11-12
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-13
11
11
January 2013
11-14
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Where:
De = equivalent pipe diameter (m) of
the batter drain flow area, and
T = top width (m) of flow in the
batter drain.
Figure 11.2.8(b) Catch Bank
January 2013
11-15
11
11
January 2013
11-16
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Revegetation;
Biodegradable blankets in association
with permanent revegetation (the
relevant specification is MRTS03
(TMR 2010c));
Chemical surface stabilisers and soil /
cement treatment (the relevant
specifications are MRTS03 and
MRTS16 (TMR 2010c));
Bank
protection
techniques
commonly associated with bridge
abutments (relevant standards are
MRTS03 and MRTS16 (TMR
2010c) and Standard Drawing 1117
(DMR 2009b) which also shows
other types of protection for bridge
abutments);
Benching to create permanent
drainage lines to reduce surface
drainage (relevant specifications are
MRTS03, MRTS04 and MRTS16
(TMR 2010c));
Kerbs at the top edges of the road
formations diverting runoff from
rainfall on the pavement and
shoulders to batter chutes (relevant
standards are MRTS03 (TMR 2010c)
and Standard Drawing 1033 (DMR
2009b));
Catch drains and catch banks used to
divert water to batter chutes or
completely away from the batter
slope (relevant standards are
specifications
MRTS03
and
MRTS16 (TMR 2010c) and Standard
Drawing 1178 (DMR 2009b)); and
Proprietary batter chutes.
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-17
11
11
January 2013
11-18
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Condition
Inlet Type
Sag
Kerb inlet
Grated
Combination
80%
50%
[See Note 2]
Continuous Grade
(On-Grade)
Kerb inlet
Longitudinal bar grated
Transverse bar grate or longitudinal
bar grate incorporating transverse
bars
Combination
80%
60%
50%
90% [See Note 3]
Notes:
1. This table does not prevent the setting of project specific, alternative blockage factors for site specific inlet
designs. Alternative factors must be specified in design / contract documentation.
2. In a sag, the capacity of a combination inlet should be taken to be the theoretical capacity of the kerb opening,
the grate being assumed to be blocked.
3. On a continuous grade the capacity of a combination inlet should be taken to be 90% of the combined theoretical
capacity of the grate plus kerb opening.
January 2013
11-19
11
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-20
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
HJ = Hydraulic Jump
11
January 2013
11-21
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Figure 11.2.10.2(c) Limiting Condition for a Sag Inlet to Act as an On-grade Inlet
(n=0.013)
Source: QUDM (2008).
11
January 2013
11-22
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-23
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Inflow Capacity
(Figure
Q g BF 1.66.L.h 3 / 2
Where:
Qg = flow into field inlet (m3/s);
BF = blockage factor = 0.5;
1.66 = weir coefficient;
L = weir length (m) (see note below);
and
h = depth of water upstream of inlet
(relative to weir crest) where flow
velocity is low (i.e. velocity head is
insignificant) otherwise use the
height of energy level above the weir
crest (m).
11
Q g BF 0.60. Ag 2 g .h
1/ 2
Where:
Qg = flow into field inlet (m3/s);
BF = blockage factor = 0.5;
0.60 is a constant = (1/Kg)1/2 =
(1/2.75)1/2;
Ag = clear opening area of grate (m2);
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81
m/s2);
h = depth of approaching water
relative to the orifice (m); and
Kg = pressure change coefficient for
the grate.
January 2013
11-24
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Freeboard considerations
January 2013
11-25
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
at junctions.
Consideration should be given to the
placement of an access chamber at an
obstruction or penetration by a conduit or
service, to facilitate the removal of debris.
The maximum spacing for access chambers
is 100 m for pipes less than 1200 mm
diameter and 150 m for pipes 1200 mm or
larger. They should also be located a
maximum of 100 m upstream of the outlet
of all pipes discharging into tidal waters
Standard departmental access chambers
1050 to 2100 mm in diameter are shown on
Standard Drawings Nos 1307 and 1308
(DMR 2009b).
The tops of access chambers in roadways or
paved surfaces should be flush with the
finished surface. Although designed for
wheel loads, the tops of access chambers
should be located away from wheel paths, if
possible, to minimise damage to pavements.
The tops of manholes elsewhere should be
25 mm above natural surface and tapered
down to its surrounds.
11
January 2013
11-26
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-27
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Allowable Change
in Diameter
No change
ONE pipe size
TWO pipe sizes
Notes:
Any reduction must be approved, see Section 11.2.13.
The above recommendations are based upon the
nominal sizes of pipes as manufactured in
accordance with AS 4058-2007.
11
January 2013
11-28
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-29
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Table 11.2.18 Acceptable Flow Velocities for Pipes and Box Sections
Absolute
Minimum [1]
(m/s)
Desirable
Minimum [1]
(m/s)
Desirable
Maximum [2]
(m/s)
Absolute
Maximum [2]
(m/s)
Partially full
0.7
1.2
4.7
7.0
Full
0.6
1.0
4.0
6.0
Flow Condition
Notes:
1. Minimum flow velocities apply to ARI design storm based on selected maintenance period (see Section 2.8), and
apply to all pipe materials.
2. Maximum flow velocities apply to concrete pipes. For other pipe materials, refer to manufacturers advice.
11
300
375
450
20.0
15.0
11.0
0.50
0.40
0.30
525
600
675
9.0
7.5
6.5
0.25
0.20
0.18
750
900
1050
5.5
4.5
3.5
0.15
0.12
0.10
1200
1350
1500
3.0
2.5
2.2
0.10
0.10
0.10
1650
1800
1950
2.0
1.7
1.5
0.10
0.10
0.10
1.4
1.3
1.2
0.10
0.10
0.10
2100
2250
2400
Source: QUDM (2008)
January 2013
11-30
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11.3
Aquaplaning
January 2013
11-31
11
11
January 2013
11-32
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Viscous Aquaplaning
Viscous aquaplaning can occur at
low speeds where the texture of the
road surface is low (i.e. it is tending
towards smooth). It requires minimal
water depth to occur as the
mechanism is dependent on the
viscosity of water, which prevents it
from escaping from under the tyre
footprint. This type of aquaplaning is
most likely to occur during braking,
such as at an intersection or at traffic
signals, and its occurrence can be
exacerbated if the vehicle is running
on tyres with limited or no tread.
Viscous aquaplaning can occur at
water film depths as low as 0.01 mm.
Almost any condition of pavement
wetness, and even the lowest vehicle
speeds, may trigger the onset of a
viscous aquaplaning condition. The
single most important variable which
controls
and
regulates
the
phenomenon is the microtexture at
the tips of the pavement asperities
(Moore, 1975).
Dynamic Aquaplaning
Dynamic aquaplaning is the partial or
full separation of tyre and pavement
which
occurs
under
flooded
conditions. Flooding is said to occur
when the thickness of the water film
on the pavement surface is such that,
at a given speed, the combination of
tyre
tread
and
pavement
macrotexture
is
incapable
of
discharging the bulk water from the
contact patch. It may equally occur
if the tyre is free rolling or locked.
Dynamic aquaplaning will occur
once the vehicle has exceeded a
critical speed (a function of the tyre
pressure), at which time surface
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11-33
11
11
available funding.
It should be taken into account that
pavement surface properties cannot be
developed to compensate for extreme
weather conditions, excess speed and/or
deficiencies in areas such as poor alignment
January 2013
11-34
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
macrotexture
is
(i) Reduce
the
potential
for
aquaplaning by providing drainage
paths for the water to escape from
beneath the tyre, in addition to the
drainage paths provided by the
grooves in the tyre;
(ii) Contribute to friction between the
tyre and road through hysteric
deformation of the tyre (i.e.
providing resistance to the tyre
through deformation of the tyre
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-35
11
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Figure 11.3.3.1 - Schematics of Aggregate Skeletons for Asphalt Mix Types (Source:
Austroads Part 4b)
January 2013
11-36
11.3.4 Tyres
Tyres are beyond the control of the road
designer and therefore not discussed in
detail. However it is important to note that
the minimum legal tread depth in
Queensland is 1.5 mm which represents
approximately 80% wear of the tyre.
Section 11.3.5 shows that tyres at the legal
limit of tread offer little grip at speed and
with minimal water on the surface.
Tyre manufacturers are developing tyres to
improve their wet weather handling. One
such tyre, designed specifically to reduce
aquaplaning potential, is shown in Figure
11.3.4. This tyre has a large central void
and clear channels in the tread to improve
flow to the side of the contact patch.
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-37
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
January 2013
11-38
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
(horizontal
and
January 2013
11-39
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
January 2013
11-40
@ 50km/h
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
@ 70km/h
@90km/h
New Tyre
Tread Depth =
8mm
Worn Tyre
50% Wear
Worn Tyre
Tread Depth =
1.6mm
Where;
D = water film depth above top of
pavement texture (mm) ;
T = average pavement texture depth
(mm) (refer Section 11.3.7.3);
January 2013
11-41
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
D
Figure 11.3.7.1 Aquaplaning Example (Road Surface Contours)
January 2013
11-42
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11-43
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Texture
Depth*
(mm)
0.40.8
0.3-0.5
>0.9
>0.7
0.20.4
Slurry surfacing
0.40.8
>1.5
Spray seals, 7 mm
0.6-1.0
Grooved Concrete
1.2
>0.9
Tyned concrete
0.40.6
0.30.5
Broomed concrete
0.20.4
11
11-44
2.
3.
4.
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Point of Analysis
11
January 2013
11-45
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
5.
11
January 2013
11-46
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11.3.8 Assessment
Aquaplaning Potential
Efforts to quantify the probability of an
accident occurring due to aquaplaning for a
given rainfall intensity and pavement
conditions are made difficult due to the
following factors:
Groups of vehicles following each
other in lanes may pump the lane
dry to varying degrees;
Tyre tread thickness, vertical load
and width vary considerably because
of the many types of vehicles; and
The number of drivers slowing down
or not at the rainfall intensity needs
to be quantified.
Furthermore, there are some non-design
issues that can affect aquaplaning potential,
such as:
Signing for
conditions;
changed
weather
January 2013
11-47
11
11
January 2013
11-48
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
6.94 L n *
I 0.4 S 0.3
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
0.6
Where;
t = overland travel time (min);
L = length of drainage path (m);
n* = surface roughness (similar but
not identical to Mannings n);
I = rainfall intensity (mm/h); and
S = slope of drainage path (m/m).
This equation only applies to planes of flow
which are homogeneous in slope and
roughness.
For any drainage path
consisting of several sub-paths, each with a
different slope, it is recommended to use
the equal area slope for S in the equation.
This gives a reasonable estimation of the
time of flow, however if a more accurate
time is required, designers are referred to
Book 8 of AR&R (IEAust 2001).
January 2013
11-49
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
January 2013
11-50
11.4
Subsurface Drainage
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
pothole
January 2013
11-51
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
behind bridge
illustrated).
January 2013
(not
11
11-52
abutments
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-53
11
(b) Groundwater
A static water table may be lowered by
using either drainage trenches shown in
Figure 11.4.3(c) or a horizontal filter
blanket shown in Figure 11.4.3(d).
The horizontal filter blanket will also act as
an intercepting barrier for capillary
moisture in some situations.
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
Figure 11.4.3(b) - Drainage for Surface Infiltration with Free Draining Layer
January 2013
11-54
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
Figure 11.4.3(e) - Trenches to Intercept Flow through an Inclined Permeable Layer
January 2013
11-55
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Figure 11.4.3(f) - Permeable Filter to Lower the Effect of Head from a Permeable Aquifer
11
11-56
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
January 2013
11-57
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Note: The pavement base course may be more permeable than the subbase.
Relative permeabilities should be considered in locating the drains,
2.
11
3.
January 2013
11-58
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
January 2013
11-59
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
See Note
Note: If invert of median drain is not much lower than pavement layers and/or the possibility of seepage from median
back under pavement exists, a subsoil drain should be considered here.
High Side
Low Side
11
Figure 11.4.6(b) - Subsoil Drains - Low Embankment or Transition from Embankment to
Cut.
January 2013
11-60
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11
January 2013
11-61
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
drains
should
be
11
Figure 11.4.7 - Transverse, Strip Filter Subsurface Drain
January 2013
11-62
qm kAi
Where:
qm = flow rate entering the surface
(m3/s);
k = permeability or infiltration rate
(m/s);
A = area of pavement (taken as one
metre square in this application); and
i = hydraulic gradient, i.e. head of
water divided by length of drainage
path (m/m).
A hydraulic gradient of unity is suggested
for rain falling on a surface. With a
hydraulic gradient of unity the inflow as
calculated from the above equation is equal
to the infiltration rate multiplied by the
surface area of the pavement.
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
11.4.11 Materials
Subsurface drains are manufactured from a
range of materials but all require some form
of perforation to allow subsurface water to
enter the pipe.
Corrugated polyethylene agricultural drain
is the cheapest material. Pipes with a
diameter of 90 mm are regarded as the
minimum for roadwork.
Smooth polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe is
used to convey flows across pavement, or
may be used where longitudinal gradients
are flatter than 0.5%. Since this material is
expensive, herringbone grading of
corrugated pipe is typically applied. Pipe
sizes generally range from 100 mm
diameter to 300 mm diameter.
Surface type
Infiltration
coefficient
Sprayed seal
0.2 0.25
Asphalt
0.2 0.4
Cement concrete
0.3 0.4
Unsealed shoulders
0.4 0.6
January 2013
11-63
11
11
January 2013
11-64
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
k (nm/s)
Trench spacing 3 m
Trench spacing 10 m
Trench spacing 20 m
3 months
3 months
3 months
1 year
1.00
1.00
1 year
1.00
1.00
1 year
10000
1.00
1.00
1000
1.00
1.00
0.93
1.00
0.48
0.93
100
0.94
1.00
0.23
0.65
0.06
0.23
10
0.25
0.68
0.03
0.10
0.00
0.03
1.0
0.03
0.11
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.1
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
k d e m o d e m t 2
L 3 j
2 f m o m
Where:
L = spacing between drains (m);
j = geometrical factor (determined
from Figure 11.4.14(b);
k = saturated permeability (m/s);
de = equivalent depth of drain to
impervious barrier (m). Differs from
d because of convergence of the flow
lines;
d = height of drain above impervious
barrier (m);
January 2013
11-65
11
d e d e mo
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
Figure 11.4.14(a) - Geometry of the Drainage Problem and Effect of Subsurface Drains
11
Figure 11.4.14(b) Equivalent Depth for Convergence Correction
January 2013
11-66
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
qm kAi
Where:
qm = flow rate per unit length of
trench (m3/m);
k = permeability of the aquifer (m/s);
A = area of aquifer (taken as
thickness of aquifer in this
application, since the discharge
required is per unit metre of length);
and
i = slope of the aquifer (when the
piezometric heads within the aquifer
are equal) (m/m).
tan B tan A k a k f
Where:
tan (B) = can be approximated by
W/T (width of the trench divided by
the thickness of the aquifer);
tan (A) = can be approximated by the
slope of the aquifer (shown as s in
Figure 11.4.15;
ka = permeability of aquifer material
(m/s); and
kf = permeability of filter material
(m/s).
January 2013
11-67
11
11
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
hc
10C
eD10
Where:
hc = capillary rise (mm);
C = an empirical constant that
depends on the shape of the grains
and varies from 0.1 to 0.5 cm2 (for
perfect spheres, C = 0.1 cm2); and
January 2013
11-68
Chapter 11
Road Surface and Subsurface Drainage Design
VV
V VV
Where:
VV = total volume of voids (units).;
and
V = total volume (units).
11
January 2013
11-69
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
11
A
March 2010
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
11
A
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Aquaplaning Example
This example describes the process to determine the water film depth at key points along a
design pavement surface and to assess the aquaplaning potential.
The example commences after obtaining the road surface contours over a superelevation
transition section of the road and several drainage paths identified.
The tasks for this example is, given the data below, estimate the water film depth at key points
along the path and assess any aquaplaning potential.
Refer to Section Chapter 11.3.
Project Data
Design speed = 100 km/h;
Surfacing is Dense Graded Asphalt; and
Road surface contours and cross section - refer figures below.
DP3
DP2
DP4
Shoulder
DP1
Shoulder
11
A
March 2010
11A-1
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Step 1.
Review the contour plan. Four drainage paths have been identified:
For drainage path 1 (DP1), this path, while some 26m long, flows from one side to the
other and is not the critical path.
The remaining three paths (DP 2 to 4) all start on one side, travel towards the other side
and then turn to drain off the same side as they started.
The longest path is considered the critical path, therefore drainage path 2 (DP2) will be
analysed.
Extract drainage path profile for DP2:
Ht (m)
Distance
(m)
Start
6.68
0.0
6.05
24.2
5.75
17.7
5.55
10.5
5.40
6.4
5.20
7.2
Point
Step 2.
Calculate the water film depth (D) for the longest drainage path (DP2).
11
A
March 2010
11A-2
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
For Texture Depth T, refer Section and Table 11.3.7.3. For this example, the pavement is dense
graded asphalt, therefore use 0.5mm for T.
The Rainfall Intensity I, adopted for analysis is 50 mm/hr - refer Section 11.3.7.5.
For Drainage Path Length L, and Drainage Path slope S, refer Section 11.3.7.4. The slope to
each point assessed is the calculated Equal Area Slope (Se) as per the procedure shown in
Section 11.3.7.4. Summary of calculations is presented in the following table.
Chainage
Dist
(m)
Ht
(m)
Ht Diff.
Total A
(m2)
EAO
(m)
Se
(%)
6.68
24.2
24.2
6.05
0.63
7.62
0.63
2.60
41.9
17.7
5.75
.30
17.54
.837
2.00
52.4
10.5
5.55
.2
26.97
1.029
1.96
58.8
6.4
5.40
.15
35.31
1.201
2.04
66.0
7.2
5.20
.2
47.79
1.448
2.19
Where:
Total A is the total area under the profile.
EAO is the Equal Area Ordinate.
Se is the Equal Area Slope from the start of path to point of assessment.
With all variables determined, calculate the water film depth at each point:
= 3.68 mm
Summary of calculations for all points assessed:
Chainage
24.2
2.03
41.9
3.08
52.4
3.47
58.8
3.60
66.0
3.68
11
A
March 2010
11A-3
Appendix 11A
Worked Examples
Step 3.
The assessment criteria for aquaplaning potential over drainage path 2 (DP2), is discussed in
Section 11.3.8.
The criteria that applies to this section is a maximum water film depth of 2.5 mm (desirable) to
4.0 mm (absolute).
It can be seen that all three outer wheel path points exceed the desirable limit, but are below the
absolute limit of 4 mm.
Step 4.
Every effort to comply with desirable limits should be made, therefore review of the geometrics
is required - refer Section 11.3.12 and the Road Planning & Design Manual for guidance.
It should be noted that on high speed, wide flat pavements, it can be difficult (near impossible)
to achieve the 2.5 mm desirable limit, however experience has shown that depths of about 3.25
mm are achievable.
End of Example
11
A
March 2010
11A-4
Chapter 12
Basins
Chapter 12
Basins
12
March 2010
Chapter 12
Basins
Reference
Section
12
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 12
Basins
Table of Contents
12.1
Overview
12-1
12.2
Detention Basins
12-1
12.3
12.4
12.2.1
Introduction
12-1
12.2.2
12-2
12.2.3
12-3
12.2.4
12-4
12.2.5
12-8
12-12
12.3.1
Description
12-12
12.3.2
Design Guidelines
12-12
Sediment Basins
12-13
12.4.1
Description
12-13
12.4.2
Design Procedure
12-14
12
12
March 2010
iii
12
March 2010
iv
Chapter 12
Basins
Chapter 12
Basins
Chapter 12
Basins
12.1
Overview
12.2
Detention Basins
12.2.1 Introduction
Detention basins are basins or reservoirs
wherein water is temporarily stored for the
purpose of regulating a flood.
Water can be released from the basin
through its outlet which may be a weir,
culvert or pipe. The storage volume may be
recessed below natural ground level or
above natural ground level with the road
embankment acting as a dam wall.
In road design, a large basin is usually
located in a valley where the road crosses a
watercourse.
Smaller basins are often
located in those small triangular areas of
land isolated by on-ramps and off-ramps,
and occasionally in the centre of major
roundabouts.
There are basically two types of detention
basin: a dry basin and a wet basin.
Between flood events, a dry basin
generally has a dry bed which is often
achieved with the use of a low-flow channel
or pipe system. Thus, these basins can be
used for other land uses such as sporting
activities and open space. Detention basins
generally provide only minimal water
quality improvement.
A wet basin, however, incorporates a
permanent pond and retains some water in
the bed of the basin between flood events.
These basins provide flood attenuation
benefits during a range of flood events and
water quality benefits during more frequent
minor flood flows and regular storms. The
permanent pond within a wet basin may
consist of a lake, wetland or water quality
pond (refer Chapter 7).
Some basins may contain a temporary or
permanent sediment basin.
These are
discussed in detail in Section 12.4. In road
construction, most detention basins are
initially constructed and operated as
temporary sediment basins.
Upon
completion of the road works the basins are
converted into either a permanent, wet or
dry detention basins. Most sediment basins
will have substantial sediment trapping
capabilities, whilst the trapping ability of
March 2010
12-1
12
12
March 2010
12-2
Chapter 12
Basins
Chapter 12
Basins
Vs r 3 5r
Vi
8
(Carroll 1990)
Vs r 2 r
Vi
3
(Basha 1994)
Where:
r is reduction ratio calculated as:
Qi Qo
Qi
Vi
4t c rQi
3
Where:
tc = time of concentration (s)
The above equations are most appropriate
when it is necessary to limit the peak
discharge for only the nominated design
storm, such as the ARI 100 year event. In
those circumstances, where it is necessary
to ensure the post development peak
discharge for each tested storm duration is
not increased, then these equations are
likely to underestimate the required
detention volume.
Vs r 1 2r
Vi
3
(Culp 1948)
Vs
r
Vi
(Boyd 1989)
March 2010
12-3
12
Chapter 12
Basins
in
12
March 2010
12-4
Chapter 12
Basins
March 2010
12-5
12
Chapter 12
Basins
Where:
I n,n 1
inflow
(m3)
volume
Outflow Rating
12.2.4(b)); and
S I O
Where:
S = increment of storage (min);
I = inflow during period (m3/min);
and
O = outflow
(m3/min).
during
period
S S n 1 S I n ,n 1
On t On 1t
2
O t
O t
I n,n 1 S n n S n 1 n 1
2
2
12
March 2010
12-6
Curve
Triangular
Inflow
(Figure 12.2.4(c)).
(Figure
Hydrograph
Step 2
Divide the inflow hydrograph into time
intervals as shown in Figure 12.2.4(c). In
smaller catchments, a time interval of 1
hour or less is often used. It would be rare
to use more than 2 to 4 hour intervals in
non dam size catchments. It is not essential
that the last time interval be equal to the
other intervals.
The routing periods should not exceed
about one quarter of the time to peak. The
larger the number of intervals that are used,
the more the accurate is the answers
obtained, particularly for larger basins.
Step 3
Calculate the volume of outflow from:
Outflow = Oo t
Where:
Oo = outflow discharge (m/s); and
t = unit time interval used in the
routing analysis (seconds).
Chapter 12
Basins
I 0 ,1 S1
O1t
2
Step 4
For a range of heights, read off storage S,
and outflow and calculate and plot the
graphs shown in Figure 12.2.4(e) from the
data obtained in Step 3.
Ot
Ot
I 1, 2 S1 1 S 2 2
2
2
Step 5
Calculate the storage level / time curve
starting at the initial height and working
through the inflow hydrograph as described
below to determine the height at each time
interval using the flow / storage equation:
Ot
Ot
I 2, 3 S 2 1 S 3 3
2
2
12
March 2010
12-7
Chapter 12
Basins
Step 6
Plot the height versus time values from
Figure 12.2.4(f).
This becomes the outflow hydrograph
shown in Figure 12.2.4(g).
Step 7
Convert the heights in Figure 12.2.4(g) to
discharges from the outflow rating curve.
12
March 2010
12-8
Chapter 12
Basins
2.
Fill embankment
height (m)
<3
2.5
3-4.5
4.5-6
3.5
6-7.5
4.5
Stormwater Treatment
Pollution Control
March 2010
12-9
12
12
12-10
Chapter 12
Basins
Spillway Design
Criterion
Spacing of vertical
bars
125 mm (max)
Inclined spacing of
horizontal supports
600 mm (max)1
3 times the
calculated outlet
area
Limiting velocity
through trash racks
Chapter 12
Basins
Notes:
March 2010
12-11
12
Chapter 12
Basins
Due to the absence of a permanent pool, resuspension of sediments may occur during
stormwater events. Therefore the overall
pollutant removal provided by an extended
detention basin is lower and less reliable
than that offered by a constructed wetland
or water quality pond.
12.3
Extended Detention
Basin
12.3.1 Description
An extended detention basin may be
defined as a basin that stores runoff for an
extended period of one to two days to
provide water quality improvement. In
between storm events the basin stays dry.
Most extended detention basins usually
incorporate a water retention embankment
and a water outlet structure that provides a
controlled discharge.
The advantages of extended detention
basins include:
Generally can be constructed at
steeper sites than constructed
wetlands;
Have multiple uses, particularly as
recreational area; and
Detain
flows
and
downstream flood peaks.
12
attenuate
March 2010
12-12
Chapter 12
Basins
gross
(d) Monitoring
Monitoring of an extended detention basin
should be undertaken after large storm
events or every six months to assess the
performance.
Design References
Additional design information may be
obtained from Best Practice Erosion and
Sediment Control (IECA 2008).
12.4
Sediment Basins
12.4.1 Description
A sediment basin is a purpose built dam
usually containing an inlet structure, a
settling pond, a controlled or free-draining
outlet structure, and an emergency spillway.
The settling pond consists of two levels, the
settling zone and the sediment storage zone.
An example of a sediment basin is shown in
Figure 12.4.1.
12
March 2010
12-13
12
Chapter 12
Basins
March 2010
12-14
Chapter 12
Basins
Table 12.4.2(a) - Summary Basin Types, Soil Testing and Selection Criteria
Basin Type
Type C
Rapid settling
of coarse
sediments
Type F
Basin Selection
Soil Tests
Settling Zone
Sediment storage
zone
Aggregate Immersion
or Field Emerson
Aggregate Test:
Clay particles
settle in less than
1 hour.
Slow settling of
fine sediments
Clay particles
settle in less than
5 days.
Aggregate Immersion
or Field Emerson
Aggregate Test:
Flocculated
settlement of
dispersible
soils
Aggregate Immersion
or Field Emerson
Aggregate Test:
Volume [m3] = 10
R(Y%,5-day) Cv Ac
R(Y%,5-day) = Rainfall
over 5 days
Ac= Catchment
Area [ha]
Cv= Volumetric
runoff coefficient
(=1.0 for clayey or
compacted soils, or
= 0.5 for open soils)
Minimum depth =
0.6 metres.
Minimum depth =
0.6 metres.
Minimum length to
width ratio of 2:1.
Soil is not
dispersive.
Type D
Minimum length to
width ratio of 3:1
without baffles.
Equivalent to 50%
of the settling
volume.
Settlement time
typically 36-48
hours.
Soil is dispersive.
Note:
1. Basin selection and/or operation may need to be upgraded to a Type F or D basin if turbidity control is
judged necessary, or if the approved basin fails to achieve the desired water quality objectives.
12
March 2010
12-15
Ab 3400 0.25Q1
Where:
Chapter 12
Basins
Settling
velocity
(m/s)
Basin
surface
area (m2)
0.1
0.007
140
0.05
0.0019
530
0.02
0.00029
3400
12
March 2010
12-16
Vs 10 R y %,5day ) C v Ac
Where:
R y %,5 day
I 1 yr ,5 day 0.28
0.2171 0.0021 Y
Y= design probability (%) of the 5day rainfall depth not exceeding the
calculated value RY %,5 day
Cv = volumetric runoff coefficient:
0.5 for open, loose soil; and
Chapter 12
Basins
12
March 2010
12-17
Chapter 12
Basins
Cross Section
Plan View
Source: Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd
12
March 2010
12-18
Chapter 12
Basins
Table 12.4.2(c) - 1 year, 5-day Rainfall Intensity and 75%, 5 Day Rainfall Depth
12
March 2010
12-19
Chapter 12
Basins
Technical Note:
To construct an inlet chamber, perforate a
suitable length of woven sediment fabric
with approximately 50mm diameter holes at
300mm spacing. These holes should not be
placed within the area of fabric that will be
located directly in front of a piped inlet.
Install the sediment fence across the full
width of the basin approximately 1 to 2
metres from the inlet. The top of the fence
should be level with the crest of the primary
outlet spillway.
The spacing between
support posts should be 0.5 to 1.0 metres
depending on the expected hydraulic force
on the fence.
Source: Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd
Internal baffles:
Internal baffles are used to increase the
effective length to width ratio of the basin
(Figure 12.4.2(c)). If internal baffles are
installed, then a check should be made on
the potential scour velocity.
12
March 2010
12-20
be
0.1
0.007
0.05
0.0019
0.02
0.00029
Chapter 12
Basins
Long Section
Plan View
12
March 2010
12-21
Chapter 12
Basins
12
March 2010
12-22
Chapter 12
Basins
March 2010
12-23
12
12
March 2010
12-24
Chapter 12
Basins
Chapter 12
Basins
March 2010
12-25
12
12
March 2010
12-26
Chapter 12
Basins
Chapter 12
Basins
Agent
Indicative
dosage
Comments
Precautions and
constraints
Gypsum
32 kg/100m
(calcium sulphate)
Alum (aluminium
sulphate)
1.5
8kg/100m
Ferric chloride
1 - 3kg/100m
pH greater than 5 is
required or it might lower
oxygen levels.
Ferric sulphate
1 2.5kg
/100m
pH greater
required.
Stored
in
containers.
than
is
wooden
0.05 0.2kg
/100m
Careful
preparation
needed and adequate
mixing with water body
needed, little pH or salinity
change, might be toxic.
Salt
(sodium
chloride)
5.25m
seawater per
100m
of
fresh water
Flocculation is complete
for some clays with 2000
to 3000 mg/l, little extra
benefit is gained when the
salinity
is
above
10,000mg/L.
Only
used
when
the
sediment basin discharges
directly to sea water. Note:
sea
water
contains
approximately 35,000 mg/L
salt.
Notes:
1. The pH of the water in the basin must be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5 before release
12
March 2010
12-27
12
March 2010
12-28
Chapter 12
Basins
with
sediment
disposal
Trapped sediment can be mixed with onsite soils and buried, or removed from the
site. If sediment is removed from the site,
then it should first be de-watered.
Removed sediment should be disposed of
so as not to cause an erosion hazard.
Step 17: Define final rehabilitation of the
basin area.
Following completion of the road works,
sediment basins may either be back-filled
and revegetated, or retained and converted
into a permanent stormwater treatment
feature or similar beneficial attribute of the
road works.
In rural areas, sediment basins are often
constructed within adjoining properties and
remain as permanent farm dams.
Obviously, negotiations for the temporary
use of the adjoining property and the
retention of the basin must be made with
the land owner during the planning stage of
the road works.
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and
Sediment Control
March 2010
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Table of Contents
13
13.1
Introduction
13-1
13.2
13-1
13.2.1
13.3
13.4
13-2
13-2
13.3.1
Soil Permeability
13-3
13.3.2
13-3
13.3.3
13-4
13.3.4
13-4
Soil Erodibility
13-4
13.4.1
Dispersion
13-5
13.4.2
Slaking
13-5
13.4.3
13-5
13.4.4
13-5
13.4.5
Laboratory Testing
13-5
13.4.6
13-6
13.4.7
13-7
13.4.8
13-7
13.5
13-8
13.6
13-9
13.7
13-10
13.7.1
Rainfall Erosivity
13-10
13.7.2
Soil Erodibility
13-11
13.7.3
Slope Gradient
13-14
13.7.4
Slope Length
13-15
13.7.5
13-15
13.7.6
Vegetation Cover
13-15
13.8
13-15
13.9
13-16
An ESCP Overview
13-17
March 2010
iii
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13.10.2
Benefits of ESCPs
13-18
13.10.3
13-18
13.10.4
ESCP components
13-18
13.11
Preparing ESCPs
13-21
13.11.1
13-21
13.11.2
13-22
13.11.3
13-22
Select Controls
13-32
13.12.2
13-33
13.13
13-34
13.14
13-34
13.14.1
Regular Clean-Out
13-35
13.14.2
13-35
13.15
13-35
13.16
13-36
13.17
Revegetation
13-36
13
March 2010
iv
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13.1
Introduction
13.2
Erosion and
Sedimentation
March 2010
13-1
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13.3
Figure 13.2 - Interactive Remediation
Works Minimising Erosion and
Sediment Deposition
March 2010
13-2
enable
a
broad
assessment
and
determination of erosion potential for
planning and design purposes.
More
detailed, site specific assessment is
generally required for construction
purposes.
13.3.1
Soil Permeability
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
March 2010
13-3
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
other
obstruction
to
water
movement (such as rock outcrop).
13-4
13.4
Soil Erodibility
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13.4.1 Dispersion
13.4.2 Slaking
Slaking is the breakdown (sloughing off)
of the soil sample into smaller fragments
and is caused by the clay swelling and by
un-trapped air escaping. With slaking
individual soil particles do not detach.
For testing:
a representative soil sample of at
least 500 g should be collected from
each horizon of concern.
the sample should be dry when used
for testing. If collected wet, it will
need to be air dried before testing.
13-5
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
percent
aluminium
of
total
exchangeable cations (important in
acid soils with pH < 5.5) derived
from exchangeable cations.
March 2010
13-6
13.4.6 Dispersion in
Departmental Soil
Groups
This section refers to the soil groups as
detailed in the departments Soils Manual
(2010).
Dispersion is not a common feature in
sandy and loamy textured surface horizons
and subsurface horizons but can occur in
the clayey surface horizon of the Uniform
cracking clays and similar, coarsely
structured Uniform non-cracking clays.
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13.4.8 Interpretation of
Erodibility Tests
The field and laboratory tests described in
Sections 13.4.4 and 13.4.5 are used as
independent estimates of soil dispersion.
The MRTS16 Appendix B (TMR 2010c)
sub-suite and SDI tests use different
surrogates as indicators of soil dispersion
and thus do not necessarily agree.
Soils should be rated as either definitely,
probably, possibly, unlikely or non
dispersive according to the combined
results of all tests.
A suggested framework for rating the soil
tendency for dispersion is provided in
Table 13.4.8. The framework uses the
results of four field and laboratory tests
ESP, Ca:Mg ratio, SDI and EDT.
This framework may need to be adjusted
to allow for disproportionate ESP and
Ca:Mg ratio calculations in (particularly
sandy) soils with very low exchangeable
cation levels (refer Section 13.4.5).
Other relevant field and laboratory tests to
be considered are pH, salinity and the field
texture test for sodicity. Using results
from these tests will help to confirm the
rating for a particular soil.
March 2010
13-7
13
13
ESP 15
or
Ca:Mg ratio < 0.1
13.5
Definitely
dispersive
Criteria
and
2 of 4 tests indicate
dispersion
ESP 6-14
Probably
dispersive
or
Ca:Mg ratio 0.1-0.5
and
2 of 4 tests indicate
dispersion
ESP 15
Probably
dispersive
or
Ca:Mg ratio < 0.1
and
only 1 of 4 tests
indicate dispersion
ESP 6-14
Possibly
dispersive
or
Ca:Mg ratio 0.1-0.5
and
only 1 of 4 tests
indicate dispersion
ESP < 6
Possibly
dispersive
or
Ca:Mg ratio > 0.5
and
2 of 4 tests indicate
dispersion
ESP < 6
Unlikely to
disperse
Non dispersive
or
Ca:Mg ratio > 0.5
and
only 1 of 4 tests
indicate dispersion
No test results
indicate dispersion.
March 2010
13-8
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Erosion Risk
Assessment
13.6
Objective Rating
System
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Very Low
Low
Moderate
High
Very High
March 2010
13-9
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13
13.7
Determining Erosion
Risk Factors
13-10
R 164.741.1177 S 0.6444
S
Where:
S = ARI 2 year, 6 hour rainfall event
(mm/h).
This formula is as presented in Best
Practice Erosion & Sediment Control
(IECA 2008). It can be used to determine
a site specific R-factor anywhere in
Queensland.
Both the average annual R and the highest
monthly percentage occurring during the
period of proposed construction activities
are used as criteria for assessing erosion
risk.
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Bowen
Brisbane
Bundaberg
Cairns
Emerald
Gympie
Mackay
Mount Isa
Normanton
Rockhampton
Roma
Southport
Toowoomba
Townsville
Weipa
31.9
28.5
15.4
4.2
2.2
1.9
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.1
2.4
9.7
Annual
R
value
4,600
18.1
18.5
13.8
7.7
4.8
4.3
3.0
2.1
2.1
5.2
8.1
12.2
3,705
25.2
18.2
12.6
6.5
4.3
4.0
2.8
1.4
1.7
4.0
6.3
13.1
2,979
24.7
27.1
23.6
6.9
2.1
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.6
1.0
3.8
8.7
19,118
21.0
19.5
11.4
4.7
3.4
3.8
2.7
1.8
2.4
4.8
8.6
15.9
1,804
18.2
21.6
14.1
7.1
3.6
3.4
2.3
1.4
2.8
4.4
6.7
14.3
3,646
28.9
25.3
17.2
6.0
2.6
1.7
0.8
0.6
0.7
1.8
3.2
11.2
7,411
26.8
23.4
15.4
3.4
2.9
1.9
0.8
0.3
0.7
2.7
4.6
17.2
1,219
32.7
27.8
16.1
2.2
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.6
3.7
15.7
4,707
20.9
21.9
13.5
3.9
4.5
2.5
1.8
1.9
1.6
4.6
7.5
15.5
3,684
17.4
15.3
13.6
5.3
4.4
3.8
3.9
2.4
3.4
7.3
9.6
13.5
1,697
15.3
17.9
15.9
9.8
7.4
5.2
3.2
2.2
2.2
4.8
6.2
10.0
3,909
19.1
15.7
10.8
6.1
4.8
3.8
3.4
2.2
3.0
6.3
9.4
15.5
2,642
28.7
29.5
17.3
4.8
1.6
0.7
0.4
0.7
0.4
1.2
3.8
11.0
9,790
26.9
27.9
18.8
4.5
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2
1.1
5.1
15.1
4,786
Dec
March 2010
13-11
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13
Average Annual
R1
Highest Monthly
Proportion of
Average Annual R2,3
Erosivity Rating
<1,500
not applicable
1,500-4,000
< 25%
Low (2)
1,500-4,000
25%
Moderate (3)
4,000-10,000
< 25%
Moderate (3)
4,000-10,000
>= 25%
High (4)
> 10,000
not applicable
Notes:
1 & 2 Using Table 6.14.1(a) or site calculated.
3
During period of construction.
13-12
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Waterlogged soils
(nonsaline)
Waterlogged soils
(saline)
Features
Incoherent sand, loamy sand and clayey sand and
coherent sandy loam with single grained to massive
structure
Coherent loams, sandy clay loams and clay loams with
massive to strong structure
Light to heavy clays with strong structure
- fine aggregates
- coarse aggregates
Light medium to heavy clays that shrink and crack open
when dry and swell when wet; gilgai microrelief common
Texture gradually increases from a sandy surface to
sandy clay loam or sandy light clay with depth; single
grain to massive structure
Texture gradually increases from a loamy surface to
sandy clay loam or clay with depth; massive to strong
structure
Sandy or loamy surface abruptly overlying a non
dispersive and generally friable clay subsoil
Sandy or loamy surface abruptly overlying a hard,
dispersive clay subsoil with
ESP 6 and/or Ca:Mg <0.5
ESP 15 and/or Ca:Mg <0.1
Uniforms sands, uniform clays, gradational soils, and
texture contrast soils that are saturated with nonsaline
water for several months of the year
Uniforms sands, uniform clays and texture contrast soils
that are saturated with saline water for several months of
the year
Erodibility
Rating1
Moderate (3)
Very low (1)
Very Low (1)
Low (2) to
Moderate (3)
Low (2) to
Moderate (3)
Moderate (3)
Low (2)
Moderate (3)
High (4)
Very high (5)
Variable3
Very low4 (1)
5
Made land
Variable
High (4)
Very high (5)
Notes:
1.
The erodibility rating is based on the typical soil features for each departmental soil group but individual
profiles may have soil particular horizons that result in a different erodibility.
2.
Refer to Soils Manual for definitions of dispersive and non dispersive soils.
3.
The erodibility of non-saline waterlogged soils is variable and dependant upon soil features at a particular
location. Laboratory testing may be required if soil is to be drained.
4.
If these soils are drained a moderate to high erodibility rating may result.
5.
Made land can consist of any combination of human-generated rubbish or fill with or without entire or
part profiles from natural soils. Hence, they cannot be readily classified in terms of erodibility. Each
human or naturally generated horizon needs to be assessed separately and, if necessary, sampled for
testing.
March 2010
13-13
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Erodibility Rating
1
2(1)
2(2)
2(3)
3(1) and 3(2)
3(3) and 3(4)
4
5
6
7
8
4 or 5
3 or 4
3, 4 or 5
4 or 5
1 or 2
3 or 4
1 or 2
2 or 3
1 or 2
1 or 2
1 or 2
using
broad
which
been
March 2010
13-14
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Modal slope
Erosion
Slope Length
Erosion Rating
Rating
<5m
5 - 25 m
25 - 50 m
50 - 100 m
>100 m
Class
(%)
(degree)
Level
<1
0.35
Very Low
(1)
Very gently
inclined
1-3
0.35-1.45
Low (2)
Gently
inclined
3-10
1.45-6.45
Moderate
(3)
Moderately
inclined
10-32
6.45-18
High (4)
Steep
32-56
18-30
Very High
(5)
Very steep
56100
30-45
Very High
(5)
Precipitous
100300
45-72
Very High
(5)
Cliffed
>300
>72
Very High
(5)
Erosion Rating
> 80 % cover
60-80% cover
40-60% cover
20-40% cover
< 20%
13.8
Implications of Risk
Rating
March 2010
13-15
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13.9
Environmental
Assessment - Review
of Data
March 2010
13-16
13.10 Environmental
Management Plan
(Construction) and
Erosion and Sediment
Control Plans
13.10.1 An ESCP Overview
Risks associated with drainage works and
activities that disturb soil can be managed
through the preparation and implementation
of Erosion and Sediment Control Plans
(ESCPs).
The ESCP makes up one component of the
Environmental
Management
Plan
(Construction), or EMP(C). The EMP(C) is
written to ensure the project environmental
assessment is carried out.
When preparing ESCPs or undertaking
construction activities, legislative approvals
relating to erosion and sediment control
may be required.
These may include permits for:
undertaking works in an area of
preservation or high preservation;
wild river area;
Great Barrier Reef catchment; and/or
interfering with the flow of a
watercourse, taking of water from a
watercourse or removing vegetation
from a watercourse.
Project environmental personnel should be
consulted regarding provisions for permits.
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
March 2010
13-17
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
and
March 2010
13-18
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13
Tender documents
issued
Contractor submits
tender
Contract award
Commence
construction
Revise Contractors
EMP(C)
March 2010
13-19
13
ESCPs may
information:
contain
the
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
following
from
vegetation;
hydrology; and
weather and climatic patterns
expected over the construction
period.
(b) Construction Drainage Plans;
(c) Selection of Control Measures;
(d) Scheduling of works (proposed time
schedules),
design,
installation,
maintenance and removal of control
measures;
(e) Monitoring, Auditing and Reporting;
(f) Appendices:
ESCP Drawings (controls, drainage
path, analysis of contour plan of the
site, disturbance / non-disturbance
zones, location of stockpiles, borrow
pits, storage areas, site office,
amenity
blocks,
location
of
sidetracks, etc);
March 2010
13-20
or
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
March 2010
13-21
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
(from
permanent
contract
March 2010
13-22
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
existing
temporary
ESC
3. community acceptance;
March 2010
13-23
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
March 2010
13-24
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
March 2010
13-25
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Velocity
Range
Application
Intended Duration of
Usage
Channels with
impervious linings
High
Permanent
Chutes
High
Permanent
Diversion Banks
Low Medium
Permanent
Diversion Channel /
Drain
Medium
Permanent
Permanent or
Temporary
Outlet Protection
Permanent or
Temporary
Medium High
Permanent or
Temporary
Medium
Permanent or
Temporary
Rock Mattress
Channels
High /
Turbulent
Slope Drains
High
Temporary
Temporary
Watercourse
Crossings
Low-High
Temporary
Low -
Permanent or
Temporary
Medium
March 2010
13-26
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Application
Check Dams
- Rock
Permanent or Temporary
Drop Structures
Permanent or Temporary
Lengthen Flowpath
Surface Roughening
- Recessed Rock
- Gravel / Sand Bag
Permanent or Temporary
13-27
13
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
March 2010
13-28
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13
Chemical Surface
Stabilisers
Application
Three-dimensional honeycomb-shaped
mesh that protects unbound or exposed
Geocellular
steep cut and fill slopes or earth channels
Confinement System
from hydraulic flows, erosion and
downward slip of unbound materials.
Erosion Control
Blankets
Permanent or Temporary
depending on construction
materials
Permanent or temporary.
Temporary
Mulching
- timber
- rock
- straw
- hydro
- bitumen emulsion
Revegetation for
Used on disturbed, cleared or graded
Erosion Control
areas and stockpiles. Provides surface
(refer Appendix 13D) protection and soil stability.
Surface Roughening
Temporary or Permanent.
Temporary
March 2010
13-29
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Application
Construction
Exits
Temporary
Temporary
Vegetative
Buffer Zone
Permanent or Temporary
Rock Sediment
Trap
Permanent or Temporary
Sediment
Basins
Permanent or Temporary.
Sediment
Fences
Description
March 2010
13-30
Application
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
13
Floating Silt
Curtain
Rock Sediment
Trap
L
ln(1 P)
where:
ARI = design average recurrence
interval (yr);
L = design life (yr);
P = acceptable probability
exceedance (fraction); and
of
March 2010
13-31
13
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Table 13.12 - Suggested Design Average Recurrence Intervals for Various Erosion and
Sediment Control Measures on Construction Sites.
March 2010
13-32
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Correct
selection,
installation
and
maintenance will maximise the lifespan and
functional capability of erosion and
sediment controls.
March 2010
13-33
13
13
Particle Size
Grading
Gross Solids
>5000 Um
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
Treatment Mewasures
Treatment Measures
Gross
Pollutant
Traps
Sedimentation
Basin
Grass Swales
(Wet & Dry)
&
Filter Strips
5000 Um to 125 Um
Fine Particles
125Um - 10Um
Surface
Flow
Wetlands
Infiltration
Systems
Sub-Surface
Flow
Wetlands
Figure 13.12.2 Typical Treatment Devices and Pollutant Removal (Austroads 2003).
March 2010
13-34
13.14 Maintenance of
Control Measures
Regular maintenance of drainage, erosion
and sediment controls is as important as
correct installation. At all times during
their required operational life, ESC devices
must be maintained in proper working order
(IECA 2008). The ESCP should therefore
document proposed maintenance activities
for each control measure selected.
Requirements
for
self-auditing
the
effectiveness of measures and compliance
with the ESCP should also be documented.
This should include details of the frequency
of all maintenance and auditing activities.
For maintenance of ESCs during
construction, the defects liability period and
the on-maintenance phase, there are two
basic requirements. These are outlined in
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
March 2010
13-35
13
13
need to seek
superintendent.
direction
from
Chapter 13
Erosion and Sediment Control
the
March 2010
13-36
13.17 Revegetation
Vegetation is one of the most effective
means of controlling erosion and
subsequent sedimentation.
The link
between a Revegetation Plan and an ESCP
is therefore critical.
A Revegetation Plan should normally be
developed during the detailed design phase
by designers to address permanent
vegetative stabilisation of the site. ESCPs
however, should normally be developed
during the construction phase by the
contractor
and
should
reference
revegetation aspects.
Revegetation guidelines are provided in
Appendix 13D to assist in selecting
appropriate revegetation techniques for
ESC and to provide a higher level of
understanding to the ESCP author. For
further information and detail, refer to the
departments Road Landscape Manual.
Figure 13.17 illustrates a minor failure and
sediment loss from a newly vegetated slope.
Appendix 13A
Preparing Erosion & Sediment Control Plan
13
A
Appendix 13A
Preparing an
Erosion & Sediment
Control Plan
March 2010
13
A
Appendix 13A
Preparing Erosion & Sediment Control Plan
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Steering
Committee
Date
Mar
2010
Appendix 13A
Preparing Erosion & Sediment Control Plan
Appendix 13A
Preparing an Erosion &
Sediment Control Plan
Region/District:
Project Name:
Contract / Project Number:
to superintendent.
ESCP Report
Has an ESCP Report been prepared for he project
Yes / No
Background
Performance Objectives
Design, Installation, Maintenance
and Removal of Control Measures
ESCP Methodology
____________________________
____________________________
Site Characteristics
Catchment Description
Soils
Hydrology
Vegetation
Document Control Status
Supporting Data/Information (aerial
photos, construction program, EMP
requirements, revegetation
specification)
Appendices
ESCP Drawings
Fact Sheets for control measures
Calculations
Water Quality
Revision No.
_______________________________
_______________________________
March 2010
13A-1
13
A
13
A
Appendix 13A
Preparing Erosion & Sediment Control Plan
ESCP Drawings
Check that the following has been included on the ESCP Drawings:
North Point
Title Block
Project Name
ESCP Title
Plan No.
Revision No.
Date
Chainage
_________________________________
_________________________________
_________________________________
Source
Construction Drawings
Limits of site
Contract
Contours
Catchment Boundaries
REF
Watercourses
Drainage Lines
As above
Waterbodies
As above, REF
Existing Vegetation
REF
Special Conditions
Part C
Part B
March 2010
13A-2
Appendix 13A
Preparing Erosion & Sediment Control Plan
Construction Stages
Location of site access points, parking areas, site compounds, storage areas, and
stockpile areas.
Priorities
Velocity Controls
Erosion Controls
Sediment Controls
Diversion Banks
Buffer Zones
Diversion
Channels / Drains
Recessed Rock
Check Dams
Chemical Surface
Stabilisers
Erosion Control
Blankets
Chutes
Grasses Filter
Strips
Mulching
Construction
Exists
Drop Pipes
Erosion Control
Mats
Sediment Fences
Geotextille Lined
Channels
Outlet Protection
Straw Bales
Rock Lined
Channels
Temporary
Revegetation
Temporary
Watercourse
Crossing
Surface
Roughening
Sediment basins
Sediment Weirs
Portable Sediment
Tanks
Drop Inlet/Pipe
Inlet Protection
Check that the following has been considered in the selection of ESCs:
Flow Velocity
March 2010
13A-3
13
A
Appendix 13A
Preparing Erosion & Sediment Control Plan
Have ESCs been designed in accordance with the ESC Fact Sheets?
13
A
Yes / No
If yes, check where the relevant calculations and designs are documented:
Environmental File
________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________
Check the ESC monitoring, auditing and reporting requirements have been
documented:
________________________________________
March 2010
13A-4
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for
ESC Measures
March 2010
13
B
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Appendix 13B
ESC Fact Sheets Index
Techniques commonly used to prevent
controllable erosion and to minimise the
adverse effects of sedimentation are
described in the following fact sheets. Most
control techniques presented in the fact
sheets are to be implemented during the
construction phase only, and are thus
temporary measures. However, some
permanent measures can be integrated into
the operational layout during construction.
Examples
include
buffer
zones,
revegetation, and lined channels.
Velocity Controls
Velocity Control 1 Check Dam
Erosion Controls
Erosion Control 1 Chemical Surface
Stabiliser
Erosion Control 2 Erosion Control
Blanket
Erosion Control 3 Mulching
Erosion Control 4 Temporary
Revegetation
Lining Controls
Drainage Controls
Sediment Control
Sediment Control 1- Buffer Zone
Sediment Control 2 Grassed Filter Strip
Sediment Control 3 Construction Exit
Sediment Control 4 Sediment Fence
Sediment Control 5 Rock Sediment Trap
Sediment Control 6 Sediment Basin
Sediment Control 7 Sediment Weir
Sediment Control 8 Portable Sediment
Tank
March 2010
13B-1
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-2
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 1
Description
Grass or turf refers to a layer of topsoil and
grass/turf harvested from the field by
specialist machinery.
Application and Function
Used in both sheet flow and concentrated
flow to provide erosion protection
Remove sediments and nutrients in periods
of low flow, thus improving the site overall
discharge water quality
Limitations
Deposited sediments can kill grass or turf.
Rill erosion along the edges of the grass or
turf may occur.
Alternatives
Impermeable sheeting: e.g. plastic sheeting.
Advantages
Quick Installation
Provide instant erosion protection
Disadvantages
Can cause sediment problems and flow
concentration if overtopped during a heavy
storm
Special Requirements
Minor erosion and saturation problems can
occur if subjected to a constant trickle flow.
In permanent drainage channels, a concrete
invert or underground low-flow pipe may be
required to alleviate mosquito and drainage
problems
Overview
Refer to approved plans for location, extent
and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the engineer
or responsible on-site personnel for
assistance.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
March 2010
13B-3
13
B
Construction
Prepare
a
smooth
seed
bed
of
approximately 75 mm of topsoil - clear away
trash and large stones, and grade smoothly
to eliminate footprints, tracks and ruts.
As deposited sediment can kill grass and
turf, upstream erosion protection and
sediment detention measures must be
installed before the grass or turf can be
installed.
Seed, fertilise, water and rake to remove
any remaining surface irregularities.
Maintenance
Requires mowing in urban environments.
Grass/turf need to be watered until
adequately established.
Removal
If the lining is temporary, it must be replaced
with permanent stabilisation measures as
specified in the approved plan.
Dispose of the lining properly.
March 2010
13B-4
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 2
Description
Reinforced grass refers to a layer grass/turf
grown on an artificial two-dimensional grid
to provide additional strength
Application and Function
Used in concentrated flow to provide
erosion protection.
Remove sediments and nutrients in periods
of low flow, thus improving the site overall
discharge water quality.
Limitations
Not suitable for in areas prone to grass
fires.
Not suitable in areas of high turbulence
Alternatives
Impermeable
sheeting:
e.g.
plastic
sheeting.
Advantages
Provide immediate and long-term erosion
protection.
Disadvantages
Some maintenance problems can occur in
permanent channels resulting from damage
induced by mower or slasher.
Deposited sediments can kill grass or turf.
Special Requirements
Particular attention should be given to the
crest, toe and sides to avoid erosion and
up-lifting.
Overview
Refer to approved plans for location, extent
and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Reinforced Grass
13
B
March 2010
13B-5
13
B
Construction
Prepare a smooth seed bed of
approximately 75 mm of topsoil - clear
away trash and large stones, and grade
smoothly to eliminate footprints, tracks and
ruts.
As deposited sediment can kill grass and
turf, upstream erosion protection and
sediment detention measures must be
installed before the grass or turf can be
installed.
Seed, fertilise, water and rake to remove
any remaining surface irregularities.
Maintenance
Requires mowing in urban environments.
Grass/turf need to be watered until
adequately established.
Removal
Temporary stabilisation works must be
maintained until arrangements have been
made to install the permanent lining.
March 2010
13B-6
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 3
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Geotextile Lining
13
B
No picture available
Description
Geotextile mats can be either surface-laid
or buried.
Surface-laid geotextile include impervious
sheets used to cover bare soil and pervious
mats used to enhance the role of
vegetation. Geotextile mats also act as a
scour prevention / suppressant.
Application and Function
Some geotextile linings provide temporary
protection to earth drains that are intended
to be removed or upgraded within 6 months
and to newly formed grassed channels
established with seed or runners.
Limitations
Geotextile linings are best used with
vegetation.
Non-biodegradable products have limited
use in fauna inhabited bushland areas.
Alternatives
Impermeable
sheeting:
e.g.
plastic
sheeting.
Permeable fabric: e.g. filter cloth.
Permeable netting: e.g. erosion control
mats.
Impermeable netting: e.g. bitumen coated
nets.
Advantages
Quick installation.
Wide variety of products and uses.
Most products provide instant erosion
protection.
Disadvantages
Some fabrics have a very limited working
life.
Environmental problems associated with
nonbiodegradable fabric used in bushland
areas.
Special Requirements
Four general requirements exist for
effective protection against erosion: good
contact must be achieved; seepage flow
under the channel liner should be
discouraged;
surface
irregularities
removed; and good anchorage must be
provided.
Particular attention should be given to the
crest, toe and sides to avoid erosion and
up-lifting.
March 2010
13B-7
13
B
Overview
Refer to approved plans for location, extent
and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
Unless otherwise specified, geotextiles
shall be jointed with either; a sewn 100 mm
(min.) face to face or lapped seam, or
stapled (75 mm min. spacing) lapped
seam, or overlapped 300 mm (min.).
Construction
The method of installation varies with the
type of geotextile. Installation procedures
may be provided by the manufacturer or
distributor. A typical installation procedure
is described below, but should be
confirmed with the product manufacturer or
distributor.
Prepare a smooth bed of approximately 75
mm of topsoil - clear away trash and large
stones, and grade smoothly to eliminate
footprints, tracks and ruts.
Preferably start at the downstream end and
align the geotextile strips, or unroll the
geotextile, upstream against the dominant
direction of flow. In situations where the
bank is subject to both concentrated inbank
(stream) flow and transverse overland
sheet flow, align fabric with the dominant
flow - usually the concentrated stream flow.
Bury the downstream end of the fabric in a
300 mm trench. When spreading the fabric,
avoid stretching the textile mesh - the fabric
should be in good contact with the ground
at all points.
Staple the fabric within the trench at 200 to
250 mm spacing using 100 mm (wide) x
150 mm (penetration length) U shaped, 8
- 11 gauge wire staples. Narrower U
sections may easily tear the matting when
placed under stress.
Maintenance
Inspect the geotextile to see if construction
activity, or falling rocks or trees have
damaged it, or if runoff is undermining the
fabric.
All surface-laid fabrics should be inspected
on a regular basis.
Removal
If the fabric is temporary, it must be
replaced with permanent stabilisation
measures as specified in the approved
plan.
Dispose of the fabric properly.
March 2010
13B-8
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 4
Description
Control mats are made of durable materials
such as jute, coconut fibre, nylon and polypropylene.
Control mats can be either surface-laid or
buried.
Application and Function
Used in concentrated flow environments to
protect soil from raindrop impacts and
erosion, and to control seed germination,
weed growth, soil temperature fluctuations
and soil moisture loss.
Some mats provide temporary protection to
earth drains that are intended to be
removed or upgraded within 6 months and
to newly formed grassed channels
established with seed or runners.
Limitations
Erosion control mats are best used with
vegetation.
Non-biodegradable products have limited
use in fauna inhabited bushland areas.
Synthetic products should be used with
extreme caution in areas used by grazing
animals.
Alternatives
Impermeable
sheeting:
e.g.
plastic
sheeting.
Impermeable netting: e.g. bitumen coated
nets.
Advantages
Quick installation.
Wide variety of products and uses.
Most products provide instant erosion
protection.
Disadvantages
Some fabrics have a very limited working
life.
Environmental problems associated with
nonbiodegradable fabric used in bushland
areas.
Erosion control mats overlapped in the
wrong direction may be lifted by flowing
water.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
13B-9
13
B
Special Requirements
Four general requirements exist for
effective protection against erosion: good
contact must be achieved; seepage flow
under the channel liner should be
discouraged;
surface
irregularities
removed; and good anchorage must be
provided.
Particular attention should be given to the
crest, toe and sides to avoid erosion and
up-lifting.
Overview
Refer to approved plans for location, extent
and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
Unless otherwise specified, control mats
shall be jointed with either; a sewn 100 mm
(min.) face to face or lapped seam, or
stapled (75 mm min. spacing) lapped
seam, or overlapped 300 mm (min.).
Construction
The method of installation varies with the
type of mat. Installation procedures may be
provided by the manufacturer or distributor.
A typical installation procedure is described
below, but should be confirmed with the
product manufacturer or distributor.
Prepare a smooth seed bed of
approximately 75 mm of topsoil - clear
away trash and large stones, and grade
smoothly to eliminate footprints, tracks and
ruts.
Seed, fertilise, water and rake to remove
any remaining surface irregularities.
Preferably start at the downstream end and
align the mats, or unroll the mats, upstream
against the dominant direction of flow. In
situations where the bank is subject to both
concentrated inbank (stream) flow and
transverse overland sheet flow, align fabric
with the dominant flow - usually the
concentrated stream flow.
Bury the downstream end of the fabric in a
300 mm trench. When spreading the fabric,
avoid stretching the textile mesh - the mats
should be in good contact with the ground
at all points.
Staple the mat within the trench at 200 to
250 mm spacing using 100 mm (wide) x
150 mm (penetration length) U shaped, 8
- 11 gauge wire staples. Narrower U
sections may easily tear the matting when
placed under stress.
March 2010
13B-10
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Maintenance
Biodegradable mats should be inspected
after the first few runoff producing storms.
Inspect the mat to see if construction
activity, or falling rocks or trees have
damaged it, or if runoff is undermining the
fabric.
Removal
If the fabric is temporary, it must be
replaced with permanent stabilisation
measures as specified in the approved
plan.
Dispose of the fabric properly.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-11
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-12
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 5
Description
Sized and graded rock is placed along the
bed and banks of a diversion channel, drop
chute, channel bend or spillway.
Application and Function
Rock lining of drains and channels is one of
the simplest kinds of surface treatment.
It is particularly useful in critical sections of
a channel such as bends and stormwater
outlets.
Limitations
There is often only a limited range of rock
sizes available, or the calculated rock size
may be too large in proportion to the drain
size.
Rock may not be readily available in certain
areas.
Alternatives
One of the most common and inexpensive
channel lining materials.
Advantages
One of the most common and inexpensive
channel lining materials.
The porous nature of rock protects the
channel from uplift and allows for
revegetation.
Disadvantages
Problems with unsightly weeds.
Undersized rocks can migrate downstream
and cause further erosion as they move
along the creek bed during periods of flood.
Special Requirements
An underlying geotextile or rock layer is
generally required unless the thickness of
the rock layer is at least three times the
nominal rock diameter, however, if the
voids between the rocks are filled with soil
and planted, then a filter layer is not
required.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Rock Lining
13
B
13B-13
13
B
Overview
Geometry:
o
o
Rock type:
o
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location, extent
and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel.
Clear the proposed channel area of trees,
stumps, roots, loose rock etc.
Subgrade preparation:
o
March 2010
13B-14
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Rock sizing:
o
o
o
o
o
Rock placement:
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-15
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-16
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 6
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Rock Mattress
13
B
No picture available
Description
Rock mattresses consist of multi-celled,
rectangular,
PVC
coated,
heavily
galvanised wire cages filled with wellgraded rock. PVC coated cages should be
used in all watercourse situations.
Application and Function
Used for channel linings, spillway
protection and energy dissipation areas
downstream of high-flow check dams.
Limitations
If poorly constructed, they can be
expensive to rectify.
Water-transported sediment (sand and
gravel) can reduce the service life of the
wire.
Often ineffective on dispersive soils.
Alternatives
Rock mattresses are available in
thicknesses of 0.17, 0.23, 0.3 and 0.5
metres, at a length of 6 metres and width of
2 metres.
Advantages
Rock mattresses are very useful for small
localised
drainage
problems
where
immediate lining and/or protection is
required.
Disadvantages
Unsightly weed infestation can be a
maintenance problem in urban areas.
Sediment is difficult to remove from the
wire cages without damage to the wire,
especially if the location or shape of the
cage structure is difficult to distinguish
under the sediment load.
Special Requirements
On delivery, wire cages should be labelled
and stockpiled separately according to
cage size and thickness.
March 2010
13B-17
13
B
Overview
Mattress details:
o
o
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Rock-fill details:
o
o
o
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel.
Mattresses of different thicknesses should
be stored on-site in separate piles and
clearly labelled.
Flatten out each mattress on a hard, flat
surface, and stamp out any unnecessary
creases. Edge creases will need to be
stamped into the bottom of the 2nd and 4th
internal diaphragms.
Ensure that each diaphragm is vertical and
the correct height. Fold the sides and ends
of the mattress to meet the top of the
diaphragms. Fold the side panel flaps to lie
adjacent to the diaphragms. Tack
temporarily either by using short lengths of
binding wire, or alternatively by twisting the
top diaphragm wire over the flap selvedge
wire.
The ends of the diaphragms must now be
permanently laced to the sides of the
mattress. At the four corners, bend the
projected lengths of the end panels to
overlap the sides, and lace up with binding
wire.
When the mattress is placed over a
geotextile, care must be taken to ensure
that projecting ends of wire are bent
upwards to avoid puncturing or tearing the
cloth. Geotextile should be placed
according to specifications.
March 2010
13B-18
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-19
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-20
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 7
Description
Cellular confinement products are threedimensional honeycomb HDPE mesh
developed originally for the Gulf War to
allow heavy trucks to traverse sand dunes.
Application and Function
The three-dimensional mesh confines infill
material to resist flows, minimise erosion,
and prevent downward migration of
embankment materials.
May be used to contain sand, mud and
other unbound soil material for temporary
roads or creeks crossings.
Limitations
Product is expensive compared to alternate
techniques.
The mesh can lift in concentrated flow due
to the memory action of HDPE and
insufficient pegging.
Alternatives
All other channel linings.
Advantages
Easy to transport to site.
Disadvantages
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Cellular Confinement
13
B
Special Requirements
Overview
Refer to manufacturers guidelines.
Construction
Refer to manufacturers guidelines.
Maintenance
Refer to manufacturers guidelines.
Removal
Refer to manufacturers guidelines.
March 2010
13B-21
13
B
March 2010
13B-22
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 8
Description
Open channel lined with concrete
(permanent
structure)
for
erosion
protection.
Application and Function
Permanent linings are suitable for use on
in-situ soils where protection from high
velocity flows is required.
Limitations
Concrete-lined channels may overtop
during high flows.
Access for concrete trucks can be difficult
in remote or steep locations.
Can be expensive.
Alternatives
Advantages
Designs usually have a lower risk of failure
compared to vegetated channel liners.
Disadvantages
If concrete lining sits proud of the soil
surface, erosion along the soil/concrete
interface may occur.
When used on non-insitu soils, differential
settlement can occur, causing the concrete
to crack.
Special Requirements
Overview
Channel cross-sectional area and capacity
should be designed to safely convey the
peak discharge from the design storm.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Construction
Maintenance
Removal
March 2010
13B-23
13
B
March 2010
13B-24
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Lining 9
Description
Short channels or chutes lined with plastic
sheeting (temporary structure) for erosion
protection.
Application and Function
Temporary linings are suitable for use on
short channels or chutes.
Limitations
Can be expensive.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Alternatives
Advantages
Design usually have close to 100%
strength immediately after placement.
Disadvantages
Problems can arise from water eroding
under the plastic.
Special Requirements
Overview
Channel cross-sectional area and capacity
should be designed to safely convey the
peak discharge from the design storm.
Construction
Maintenance
Removal
March 2010
13B-25
13
B
March 2010
13B-26
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Drainage Control 1
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
No picture available
Description
Channel or catch drains are usually
excavated with a grader blade and should
be at least 300 mm deep and 1000 mm
wide.
Application and Function
To limit the flow path length down steep
grades on unstable or newly grassed
areas.
To divert runoff around disturbed areas
To direct contaminated flow within
disturbed areas to sediment traps.
Limitations
Typical gradient is 0.5%, may be as low as
0.25% or as high as 0.75%.
Alternatives
Diversion banks
Perimeter banks
Backpush banks
Straw bale perimeter banks (if used for
longer than 1 day, bales must be wrapped
in geotextile)
Advantages
Quick to establish or re-establish if
disturbed.
Inexpensive to construct.
Disadvantages
Can cause sediment problems and flow
concentration if overtopped during a heavy
storm.
Special Requirements
The erodible nature of the subsoil should
be investigated before planning any
excavated drains.
Straw bales or other sediment traps should
not be placed within channels as they
usually cause the flow to be diverted from
the channel.
Overview
Minimum 300 mm deep and 1000 mm
wide.
Bank slopes should not be steeper than
2(H):1(V).
Unless side slopes are 6(H):1(V) or flatter,
U shaped or parabolic sections are
preferred where practicable.
Gradient:
o
o
Location:
o
March 2010
13B-27
13
B
13
B
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Slope
Spacing
1%
90m
2%
60m
4%
40m
6%
32m
8%
28m
10%
25m
March 2010
13B-28
Drainage Control 2
Description
An excavated drain and bank formed by
pushing soil down the slope.
A diversion bank constructed slightly off the
contour is often referred to as perimeter
bank.
Application and Function
Used above batters, borrow pits and
exposed surfaces to protect them from upslope stormwater runoff.
Limitations
Typical gradient is 0.5%, may be as low as
0.2% or as high as 0.6%.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Diversion Bank
13
B
Alternatives
Diversion channels and catch drains.
Advantages
On larger catchments, the cost savings
resulting
from
the
diversion
of
uncontaminated flow and the resulting
reduction in erosion can be significant.
Disadvantages
Can limit vehicular movement around a
site.
Channels down from the bank may be
subject to erosive flows
Special Requirements
Channels downstream of bank must have a
stable outlet.
Overview
Dimensions:
o
o
o
o
Gradient:
o
o
Design notes:
o
March 2010
13B-29
13
B
March 2010
13B-30
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Drainage Control 3
Description
Chutes consist of a relatively steep
impervious open channel with an erosion
resistant lining.
Inflow is directed to the chute either by
diversion banks or from a stormwater
outlet. Energy may be dissipated down the
chute face and/or within a specially
constructed outlet.
Application and Function
Transportation of concentrated flow down
an embankment.
Diverts 'clean' stormwater around a work
site.
Limitations
Local topography must allow safe collection
of water at the inlet.
Alternatives
Open channel chutes can consist of half
rounded corrugated metal or concrete
pipes,
prefabricated
concrete
units,
shotcrete, grouted rock, asphaltic concrete,
grout filled mattresses, plastic sheeting,
filter cloth, turf or old conveyor belt rubber.
Also refer to Channel Linings Fact Sheet.
Advantages
Economical for low flows and high, steep
drops.
Some chute types are quick to construct.
Disadvantages
Usually have a defined service life.
May be damaged by overtopping flows.
Special Requirements
Chutes should have a minimum depth of
300 mm and bends should be avoided.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Chute
Some
structures
requires
earthworks and construction skills.
limited
13B-31
13
B
Overview
Dimensions:
o
Foundations:
o
Inlet design:
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
Construct the subgrade to the elevations
shown on the plans. Remove all unsuitable
material and replace with stable material.
Compact the subgrade thoroughly and
shape it to a smooth, uniform surface. On
fill slopes, ensure that the soil adjacent to
the Chute for at least 1 metre is wellcompacted.
Maintenance
Inspect chutes and flumes after each runoff
event and repair all damage noted in
inspections immediately.
After Chute slopes are permanently
stabilised, periodic inspections are required
only after major storm events.
Removal
Temporary structures may only be
removed when an alternative, stable,
drainage path is available.
Remove accumulated sediment and
suitably dispose of in a manner that
minimises environmental harm.
March 2010
13B-32
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Outlet Design:
An energy dissipater outlet similar to that
used on drop pipes will be required.
o
Design notes:
o
Drainage Control 4
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Drop Pipe
13
B
No picture available
Description
Flows are usually directed to the inlet by
the use of perimeter banks and then
directed through the pipe to an energy
dissipator outlet.
Application and Function
Limited application.
Transportation of concentrated flow down
embankments usually greater than 3 m in
height.
Limitations
Local topography must allow collection of
surface water at the pipe inlet.
Usually only economical for low flows.
Alternatives
Drop pipes can be formed from flexible
pipes or solid pipes with flexible joints at
the top and base.
Advantages
Requires
limited
earthworks
and
construction skills.
Can be relocated with relative ease.
Disadvantages
Pipe entry subject to blockage by sediment
and debris.
Usually only suitable as a temporary
structure.
Special Requirements
Trash racks/bars may need to be
considered at the entrance of some drop
pipes to avoid debris blockage.
Soil around the inlet must be well
compacted.
Overview
Sizing:
o
Pipe geometry:
o
Length: = 6D m;
Width: = 3D + 0.6 m;
diameter in metres.
where: D = pipe
Design notes:
o
13B-33
13
B
o
o
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
Place drop pipes on undisturbed soil or
wellcompacted fill at locations and
elevations shown on the approved plan.
Slightly slope (minimum 3%) the section of
pipe under the embankment constructed
around the pipe inlet.
Anchor the inlet at the top of the slope.
Drive stakes on both sides of the inlet a
minimum of 450 mm into the ground and
secure the pipe to the stakes with wire or
cord.
Hand tamp the soil under and around the
entrance section in lifts not to exceed 100
mm.
Ensure that the embankment over the inlet
has minimum dimensions of 500 mm
height, 1200 mm width, 300 mm over pipe
obvert and 3(H):1(V) slopes.
Ensure that all drop pipe connections are
watertight.
Ensure that all fill material is wellcompacted.
Maintenance
The inlet and outlet must be checked
regularly to ensure they are clear of
obstructions or damage. Sediment and
debris should be removed from the inlet
and outlet.
Joints should be checked to ensure they
are watertight.
Removal
Drop pipes should be removed only when
an alternative stable drainage path is
available.
Remove accumulated sediment.
March 2010
13B-34
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Drainage Control 5
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
No picture available
Description
A temporary access culvert consists of one
or more sections of pipe placed over filter
cloth and covered with a suitably graded
aggregate layer.
Application and Function
Temporary crossings provide safe access
for construction equipment with minimal
disturbance to the watercourse.
To help keep sediment generated by
construction traffic out of a watercourse.
Limitations
Generally restricted to minor streams or
creeks.
Culverts and bridges may be subject to
flood damage.
Alternatives
Alternatives include pipe and box culverts
(based on a solid watercourse bed), fords
and bridges.
In shallow bank and rock-based streams,
fords may be used if the road is not
expected to be subjected to regular
sediment-laden traffic.
Advantages
Minimises disturbance to the watercourse.
Improves access to a construction site.
Disadvantages
They can be a direct source of water
pollution.
They may aggravate flooding and/or create
a safety hazards.
Special Requirements
When the crossing is no longer needed, all
materials including pipes, aggregate and
filter cloth should be removed. Final clean
up also includes restoration of the
watercourse to the original channel cross
section and stabilisation of the banks.
March 2010
13B-35
13
B
13
B
Overview
All designs should be appropriate for the
local watercourse conditions.
Culvert crossings:
o
o
Location
Preferably located on a straight section of a
watercourse, well downstream of a sharp
bend.
The approach road should be straight for at
least 10 metres each side of the crossing
and should desirably cross the watercourse
at right angles.
In any case, crossings should be located in
an area that will cause the least overall
disturbance, especially to those areas that
are required to remain in a 'natural' state.
Sizing:
o
o
o
o
Construction
Minimise disturbance to stream banks.
Culvert cells should be placed on a
geotextile filter overlaid with a bed of
washed rock.
Cells should be covered with a sufficient
layer of compacted 150 mm rock to prevent
their damage when subjected to the
expected traffic loads.
Maintenance
Temporary access crossings should be
inspected regularly, and always after heavy
rainfall.
Sediment and debris trapped upstream or
within the culvert should be removed.
Removal
Avoid deposition of fill material in the
watercourse.
Downstream
bunding
or
temporary
damming may be required if there is a
likelihood of sediment re-suspension and
potential environmental harm. Provision for
low flows should be maintained in any
case.
March 2010
13B-36
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Stabilised fords:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Velocity Control 1
Description
Check dams may be constructed from
either semipervious or impervious materials
typically, medium size rock or sand/gravel
filled bags. Check dams should not be
constructed from straw bales.
Application and Function
Check dams are normally used to control
flow velocities in newly formed channels
that have a grade of less than say 1 in 10.
To control minor gully erosion.
Limitations
Check Dams should be limited in height to
around 0.5 m, or 1 m if formal design.
Catchment area generally limited to 1 ha.
Check dams are not normally placed in
defined watercourses. In circumstances
where they are necessary (i.e. during major
channel works) then sediment weirs, rock
filter dams or formally designed drop
structures should be used.
Alternatives
At the principal discharge point on major
construction sites other structures such as
rock filter dams can be used as the final
check dam.
Advantages
Quick and inexpensive to install.
May be used to avoid the need to turf of
new drainage channels.
Disadvantages
Damage can occur to grass cutting
equipment if check dams are not removed
from the channel or table drain.
Special Requirements
A marker post may need to be placed
adjacent to all rock check dams to make
their existence obvious to grass cutting
maintenance personnel. These posts
should only be removed once the rock
check dams have been removed.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Check Dam
13
B
March 2010
13B-37
13
B
Overview
Check dams should only be used in
channels conveying concentrated flows.
Rock check dams should be used in deep
(>500 mm) channels. If the channel is less
than 500 mm deep, then sand or gravel
filled bags should be used to form the
check dam.
Dimensions:
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Rock Size:
Spacing:
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
Place rock, on a filter fabric foundation, to
the lines and dimensions shown in the
approved plan.
Keep the centre rock section at least 150
mm below natural ground level where the
dam abuts the channel banks.
Maintenance
Inspect check dams and channels for
damage after each runoff event. Correct all
damage immediately. If significant erosion
occurs between dams, check spacing of
dams and/or install a protective rock liner in
that portion of the channel.
Maintain the dams so that runoff will flow
through the washed rock or over the dams
spillway. Keep the spillway shaped so that
runoff will go over the centre of the dam or
over the ends where it can wash out the
more erodible stream banks. If necessary,
line the bottom and sides of the channel
below the spillway so that flow through the
spillway is on rock, not the erodible
channel.
March 2010
13B-38
Design notes:
o
Removal
When construction work within the
drainage area above the check dams has
been completed and disturbed areas
sufficiently stabilised to restrain erosion,
the dams must be removed.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-39
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-40
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Erosion Control 1
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
No picture available
Description
Most chemical stabilisers are soil binders
that provide a thin surface crust.
Application and Function
Generally effective for dust control or the
control of erosion caused by raindrop
impact.
Limitations
Products have a limited life and
consideration should be given to the use of
geotextiles if the exposed surfaces need to
be protected for extended periods or during
the wet season.
Alternatives
Some products are used on their own as
temporary surface stabilisers, while other
products may be used with vegetation or
geotextile matting.
Advantages
Provide instant protection.
Disadvantages
Usually less effective than mulches.
Bitumen products can breakdown and
release pollutants to receiving waters.
Some products can reduce water
infiltration.
Special Requirements
For many products, the protective layer
must remain intact to be effective and
therefore no traffic, of any kind, is
permitted.
Overview
Bitumen-based products:
o
Two types
recognised:
o
of
bitumen
emulsion
are
Others:
o
These
include
proprietary
chemical
stabilisers including resins derived from
timber.
March 2010
13B-41
13
B
Construction
Application
as
specifications.
per
manufacturers
Maintenance
Areas should be revegetated as soon as
possible otherwise reapplication may be
required as the protective surface
deteriorates.
Disturbance to the surface crust by
machinery, vehicles, or otherwise post
application, must be avoided if possible, as
this breaks up and disturbs the surface
crust reducing the effectiveness of this
method. Temporary barricading, or fencing
off the area treated would reduce the
likelihood of this occurring.
Removal
The surface crust is easily removed by
applying a light grade across the treated
area. If this is not possible (due to terrain)
then
other
removal/rehabilitation
techniques could be tried.
March 2010
13B-42
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Erosion Control 2
Description
Erosion
Control
Blankets
include
impervious sheets used to cover bare soil
and pervious fabrics utilised to facilitate
and promote plant growth.
Application and Function
Fabrics provide only temporary erosion
control (usually no more than 6 months) on
exposed earthern surfaces, newly seeded
grass channels or newly grassed channels.
Limitations
Blankets are best used in conjunction with
vegetation buffer zones (eg. grassed rows).
Limited versatility for non biodegradable
products in bushland sites.
Alternatives
Biodegradable fabrics.
Synthetic fabrics.
Composite
materials
(biodegradable
materials reinforced with synthetic mesh).
Permeable
mats:
eg.
buried
root
reinforcing.
Advantages
Quick installation.
Wide product range and associated uses.
Most products instantly reduce erosion
potential if installed correctly.
Disadvantages
Some fabrics have a very limited life span.
Environmental problems associated with
non biodegradable fabric used in bushland
areas.
Special Requirements
Four general requirements must be met in
order to provide effective erosion control:
o
o
o
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
March 2010
13B-43
13
B
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Overview
Refer to manufacturers specifications.
Construction
The method of installation varies with the
type of material used and the intended
purpose being performed by the blanket.
Methods of installation of these products
are normally provided with the materials.
However, a typical laying procedure is
described below:
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and specifications. If there are
questions or problems with the location,
extent, or methods of installation, contact
the engineer or responsible on-site
personnel for assistance.
Prepare
a
smooth
seedbed
of
approximately 75 mm of topsoil - clear
away trash and large stones, and grade
smoothly to eliminate footprints, tracks and
ruts.
Seed, fertilise, water and rake to remove
any remaining surface irregularities.
Preferably starting at the downstream end,
align fabric strips/rolls in the direction of
flow. In situations where the bank is subject
to both concentrated in-bank stream flow
and transverse overland sheet flow, align
fabric length with the dominant flow usually the concentrated stream flow.
Bury the downstream end of the first roll in
a 300 mm deep trench.
When spreading the fabric, avoid stretching
the textile mesh - the blankets should be in
good contact with the ground at all points.
Maintenance
All surface-laid fabrics should be inspected
on a regular basis.
Inspect the fabric to see if construction
activity or fallen rocks and trees have
damaged it, or if runoff is undermining the
fabric.
Removal
If the fabric is a temporary measure, it must
be replaced with permanent stabilisation at
an appropriate time as specified in the
plan.
March 2010
13B-44
Erosion Control 3
13
B
Mulching
Description
Mulching is the application of a protective
blanket of straw or other plant residue,
gravel, or synthetic material to the soil
surface.
Application and Function
Applied to clay-soil surfaces to limit runoff
turbidity caused by raindrop impact.
Applied to mild slopes to control raindrop
impact as well as erosion caused by sheet
flow.
Used to control soil temperature and
moisture loss.
Limitations
Some mulches are not suitable in bushland
areas due to possible introduction of
unwanted seeds.
Not suitable for areas subjected to
concentrated flow unless a suitably sized
gravel mulch is used.
Alternatives
Mulch materials can
wood chip, sugarcane
of sawdust and wood
newspaper, straw,
fibreglass.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Advantages
Most effective and practical means of
controlling erosion prior to vegetation
establishment.
Can be applied on irregular and steep
terrain.
March 2010
13B-45
13
B
Disadvantages
Decomposition of some wood products can
tie-up significant amounts of soil nitrogen,
thus requiring modification to the fertiliser
application rates.
Special Requirements
Mulch should be spread evenly with a
maximum depth of 50 mm. Thicker layers
(75 to 100 mm) inhibit germination and can
be used to control weed growth.
Overview
Coverage:
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Weed control:
o
Application:
o
March 2010
13B-46
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
If the mulching is not effective in containing
soil erosion it should be replaced or an
alternative erosion control procedure
adopted.
Remove rocks, stumps, roots, and other
debris that will interfere with the mulch
contacting the soil and make maintenance
difficult.
Maintenance
Inspect all mulches periodically, and after
storm events to check for rill erosion,
dislodgment or failure.
Any places where the mulching is
dislodged and the soil exposed must be
repaired with additional mulch. Tacking or
netting shall be applied where necessary.
Removal
N|A
Hydroseeding,
and
Hydromulching
(increased mulch content), involves the
mixing of seed, fertiliser, paper pulp (5
tonnes per hectare) or wood pulp (not less
than 2.5 tonnes per hectare) and a bitumen
emulsion or tackifier with water to form a
slurry that is sprayed over the area to be
revegetated. The seed generally sticks to
the pulp which improves the microclimate
for
germination
and
establishment.
Application rate: should be between
30,000-40,000 litres per hectare. The slow
curing anionic bituminous emulsion is
applied at a rate of around 1500 to 2000
litres per hectare.
March 2010
13B-47
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-48
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Erosion Control 4
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Temporary Revegetation
No picture available
Description
Revegetation is the process of restoring
vegetation to disturbed areas by application
of vegetative cover of various types.
Application and Function
Soil
surface
protection
and
soil
reinforcement.
Stabilisation of shallow land slips.
Interception and retention of stormwater
runoff.
Reduce rainfall impact energy.
Increase
soil
permeability
and
evapotranspiration, thus reducing the
volume of total annual runoff.
Limitations
There are limits to the role vegetation alone
can play in controlling erosion. Both soil
strength and vegetative cover (including
root system) can take years to develop to
the required condition.
Alternatives
Vegetation options include temporary
seeding for erosion control during
construction delays.
Advantages
In terms of soil surface protection,
vegetation is the best long-term defence
that can be used to protect soil against
wind and water induced erosion.
Disadvantages
Long establishment time.
Subject to damage in heavy traffic areas.
Conflicts can exist between the choice of
native and exotic species.
Special Requirements
Usually requires guidance from local
experts.
At least 70% ground cover is considered
necessary to provide a satisfactory level of
erosion control.
A mulch cover layer is usually required to
control short-term erosion and provide
good growing conditions.
March 2010
13B-49
13
B
Overview
Selecting
the
most suitable
plant
establishment techniques, appropriate
species, seeding rates, planting densities,
fertiliser types, watering rates, and
maintenance techniques, requires the
guidance of experts such as local bushland
groups,
landscape
consultants
and
government bodies.
Construction
Seedbed preparation:
o
o
Seeding:
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Mulching:
o
o
Tree protection:
o
o
o
Maintenance
Areas must be reseeded and mulched
where the vegetation fails to establish or is
damaged by runoff or construction
activities.
Following significant storm events, monitor
that vegetation is controlling erosion and
stabilising soil slopes.
If the temporary vegetation fails before the
permanent stabilisation is provided, it must
be replaced with an appropriate type of
cover sufficient to restrain erosion.
If the permanent vegetation fails to
establish or to adequately restrain erosion
for any reason during the construction or
maintenance period, the area should be
revegetated or protected with other erosion
control measures as appropriate.
In areas where the established vegetation
is considered inadequate for erosion
control, over-seed and fertilise the area
using half the originally specified rates, or
otherwise replant following advice from an
appropriate specialist.
March 2010
13B-50
o
o
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Retained trees:
o
March 2010
13B-51
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-52
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Erosion Control 5
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Surface Roughening
No picture available
Description
A technique that leaves the soil surface in a
roughened state to increase water
infiltration, decrease and slow down run-off
and to encourage sediment retention and
vegetation establishment.
Track marks left by a dozer working up and
down the slope (sandy soils only) is one
surface roughening technique.
Application and Function
On recently seeded or exposed earth
surfaces, erosion protection can be
improved by roughening the soil surface to
increase infiltration and delay the formation
of rutting.
Limitations
Surface roughening or ripping is not
effective during major rainfall events where
concentrated runoff willbreak through the
furrows and cause rill erosion.
On uncompacted soils, track-walking can
concentrate runoff in a vertical direction,
thereby increasing the risk of rill and gully
erosion.
Alternatives
Surface roughening may be carried out
before or immediately after topsoil
placement and seeding.
Advantages
Increases infiltration and reduces runoff.
Aids the establishment of vegetation.
Disadvantages
Of only limited value during periods of
heavy rainfall.
Special Requirements
Existing rutting and gullies should be filled
or suitably contoured.
March 2010
13B-53
13
B
Overview
Coppin and Richards (1990) guidelines:
o
o
o
o
o
Contour Ripping:
o
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel
for assistance.
Maintenance
Periodically check the seeded slopes for
rills and/or washouts.
Removal
N|A
March 2010
13B-54
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Sedimentation Control 1
Description
Buffer zones are corridors of vegetation
which have been retained or installed to
decrease the velocity of overland flow and
facilitate settling of suspended sediments.
Application and Function
Generally, the wider the corridor the more
effective the buffer zone will be in achieving
a reduction in overland flow velocity and
settling of suspended particles.
Limitations
Buffer zones are only capable of trapping
coarse sediments. Clays and fine silts will
pass through a buffer zone during periods
of heavy rainfall.
Alternatives
Alternatives include sediment fences.
Advantages
If buffer zones are appropriately retained or
properly established then they reduce the
need for on-site sediment controls required
during construction.
A reduction in transportation of total
sediments downslope is achieved.
Disadvantages
Limited sediment trapping performance
under high flows.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Buffer Zone
13
B
on
slopes
Special Requirements
Buffer zones should be fenced off to
exclude traffic and prevent damage to
vegetation and wheel rut formation.
Rills and gullies have the capacity to
concentrate flow, therefore decreasing the
effectiveness of the buffer zone.
March 2010
13B-55
13
B
Overview
Dimensions:
o
General guide:
o
o
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel.
The buffer zone must remain undisturbed
throughout the time it is used to trap
sediment.
Runoff from the disturbance must be able
to flow to, and be dispersed as sheet flow
through the buffer zone during all stages of
construction as the grades and drainage of
the disturbance change.
Maintenance
Inspect the buffer zone after each runoff
event. Check for evidence of concentrated
flow or any flow bypassing. Take necessary
steps to correct the passage of sheet flow.
Remove excessive accumulations of
sediment that may cause the concentration
of flow.
The sources of any excessive sediment
should be investigated.
Removal
Buffer zones are usually installed as
permanent
fixtures
and
are
not
recommended for removal.
March 2010
13B-56
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Performance monitoring:
o
Sedimentation Control 2
Description
Grassed filter strips are narrow strips of
vegetation which have been installed to
decrease the velocity of overland flow and
facilitate settling of suspended sediments.
Application and Function
Grassed filter strips are placed around
impervious surfaces (typically roads or
pavements etc in new developments) to
control run-off from entering the stormwater
system.
Vegetation strips downslope of construction
activities can provide a simple method of
trapping sediment.
Limitations
Filter strips are only capable of trapping
coarse sediments. Clays and fine silts will
pass through a buffer zone during periods
of heavy rainfall.
Generally, an increase in strip width equals
an increase in strip effectiveness.
Alternatives
Variations include retention of existing
grass prior to construction disturbance
upslope.
In new areas subject to disturbance (kerbs,
and road verges) turf products can be
utilised.
Advantages
Easy to install
Efficient during regular storm events, and
can reduce the total sediment load
downstream.
Disadvantages
Ineffective during heavy rainfall events
Easily disturbed during construction
activities (i.e. vehicles, stockpiled materials,
and establishment of services).
Special Requirements
In high velocity areas turf should be stapled
to a topsoil layer and/or over laid on
geofabric enforcement.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Grass
seeding
is
not
considered
appropriate as time taken to achieve total
ground cover may be too long and is
largely dependent on prevailing weather
conditions. Adverse conditions are not
conducive to quick establishment
Reduces on-site and off-site cleanup work
after storms.
March 2010
13B-57
13
B
Overview
Strips of turf placed along the edge of
newly formed roads, pathways and around
other
impervious
surfaces.
It
is
recommended that on all subdivisions and
urban road developments, turf strips at
least 300 mm wide and preferably 600 mm
are laid adjacent to all such surfaces.
The flatter and wider (relative to the flow
direction) the grassed filter strips are, the
more effective the filtering process.
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location, extent
and details. If there are questions or
problems with the location, extent, or
methods of installation, contact the
engineer or responsible on-site personnel.
When laying turf, care must be taken to
ensure that edges are not raised and that
adjoining strips are level. Concentration of
turf may otherwise occur.
As clearing progresses, construct any
diversions needed to capture and direct
runoff evenly through the filter strips.
Maintenance
Inspect the filter strips after each runoff
event. Check for evidence of concentrated
rill-forming flow along the upper edge of the
turf.
The source of excessive sediment should
be investigated and resolved.
Removal
Grassed filter strips are usually installed as
permanent
fixtures
and
are
not
recommended for removal.
March 2010
13B-58
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Sedimentation Control 3
Description
Crushed rock pads, vibration grids or washdown areas located at vehicle exit points.
Dry systems: crushed rock pads and
vibration grids.
Wet systems: drive-through wash racks
and manual wash bays.
Application and Function
To remove soil, mud, clods, dust and
debris from tyres of vehicles leaving the
construction site.
Limitations
May only result in limited removal of
sediment from vehicles unless a wash bay,
or suitably designed drive-through wash
rack is used.
Alternatives
"Cattle" grids; metal or timber sleepers
(100-mm high at 200-mm spacing),
constructed at least 3.5 (preferably 7)
metres long -- sandy soils only.
Crushed rock pads: 75-mm rock pad
(minimum 40- mm) at least 15 metres long
and 150-mm thick.
Advantages
Automatic process (except manual wash
bays).
Vibration grid systems can be readily
moved.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Construction Exit
13
B
Disadvantages
Requires regular maintenance (i.e. further
placement of rock).
Special Requirements
Surface water flowing to the construction
exit sediment trap must be piped under the
trap, or a perimeter bank should be
constructed to direct surface flow away
from the trap.
13B-59
13
B
Overview
Location:
o
o
o
Drainage control:
o
o
Vibration grids:
o
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details.
If the location of the construction exit is not
clearly shown on the approved plan,
determine
its
location
taking
into
consideration
o
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-60
Maintenance
If the construction exit does not function to
keep soil and debris on-site, then any soil
or debris tracked from the site must be
physically removed from these areas by
first using a shovel and broom and then by
a mechanical vacuum unit, if available. The
road shall only be washed clean after all
reasonable efforts have be taken to sweep
the sediment from the road surface.
Diversions used to direct runoff away from
the exit to sediment-trapping devices must
be maintained according to specifications
for those devices.
Removal
When the construction exit is no longer
needed, when access roads have been
stabilised and the potential for tracking soil
and debris onto the street has ceased, the
construction exit may be removed.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-61
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-62
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Sedimentation Control 4
Description
Special sediment fence fabric is attached to
a wire and picket fence at a maximum
height of 700mm with an additional 200mm
(min) buried and compacted into a trench
on the upslope side of the fence. The
sediment fence may also be supported
(downslope side) with straw bales.
Application and Function
Temporarily reduces the velocity of sheet
flow containing suspended sediments there
by trapping sediment.
Control of sediment runoff from exposed
land, unsealed roads and stockpiled
materials.
Limitations
Have little ability to trap fine silts
Design flows limited to around 40 litres per
second in areas of concentrated flow.
Should not be used in concentrated flow.
Alternatives
Sediment fences are manufactured from
either woven fabric or non-woven, needle
punched fabric. Woven fabrics are
preferred on large sites when the service
life exceeds 1 month during the wet
season. Nonwoven, needle punched
fabrics are preferred on small disturbances
such a building sites.
Advantages
Easy to install.
Controls sediment runoff close to the
source of the erosion.
Highly visible sediment control measure.
Disadvantages
Easily damaged by construction equipment
and stockpiles.
Can cause concentration of sheet flow if
poorly located, installed or maintained.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Sediment Fence
March 2010
13B-63
13
B
Special Requirements
Limited service life of around 6 months or
less during the wet season.
Often incorrectly installed and maintained.
Overview
Materials
Use a synthetic filter fabric or a pervious
sheet of polypropylene, nylon, polyester, or
polyethylene yarn, with a minimum of 6
months of usable construction life.
Stakes should consist of 1500 sq. Mm
hardwood (min.), Or 1.5 kg/m (min.) Steel
star pickets suitable for attaching fabric.
Fabric reinforcement should consist of wire
or steel mesh minimum 14 gauge with a
maximum mesh opening of 200 mm.
Location
Their location should be determined taking
into consideration space requirements for
maintenance, grading, filling, and other
construction activities, required spacing
between the fence and adjacent buildings.
Locate the fence on relatively flat land in an
area where temporary ponding and
settlement can occur upslope of the fence.
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details.
Sediment fences should be located as
shown on the approved plan or as directed
by the site supervisor.
Excavate a 200 mm wide by 200 mm deep
trench along the proposed fence line,
placing the excavated material on the
upslope side.
Along the lower side of the trench, install
the stakes securely into the undisturbed
ground. Stakes should be spaced no
greater than 3 m if supported with mesh, or
not greater than 2 m without support mesh,
or at 0.5 m in areas of minor concentrated
flow.
Construct the sediment fence from a
continuous roll, avoiding joints wherever
possible. To join fabric, attach each end to
individual stakes, holding the stakes
together, rotate the stakes 180 degrees,
then drive the two stakes into the ground.
Securely attach necessary support mesh to
the upslope side of the stakes with the
mesh extending at least 200 mm into the
excavated trench.
March 2010
13B-64
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Maintenance
Inspect the sediment fence:
o
Removal
When disturbed areas upslope of the
sediment fence are sufficiently stabilised to
restrain erosion, the fence and any outlets
must be removed.
Remove accumulated sediment and
dispose of it properly.
Remove stakes, fence and fabric, and
dispose of them properly.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-65
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-66
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Sedimentation Control 5
Description
Rock filter dams may be described as
oversized rock check dams.
A rock-lined spillway usually forms an
integral part of the dam.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
March 2010
13B-67
13
B
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Overview
Rock embankments:
Min. top width = 1.5 m
Max. height at centre line of embankment
=1.5 m
Side slopes: Max. 2(H):1(V) upslope face
and 3(H):1(V) downslope face.
Rock abutments should extend at least 450
mm above the spillway.
The entire upslope face of the rock
structure should be covered with fine
crushed rock
As a guide, the full storage volume should
discharge over no less than 8 hours.
Rock fill:
Rock should be well graded, hard, erosion
resistant stone.
Minimum D50 of 225 mm and a maximum
size of 350 mm (preferred sizing).
Protection from "piping":
Filter fabric with minimum 600-mm overlap
must cover the entire foundation including
any earth abutments.
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details.
Clear the area of woody vegetation and
organic matter.
Establish an access track for ongoing
maintenance. (Continued overleaf).
Cover the foundation area including the
abutments with extra-strength filter fabric
before backfilling with rock. Excavate a 600
x 600 mm cutoff trench, with 1(H):1(V) side
slopes, along the centre line of the dam,
extending for the full extent of the earth
abutments.
Apply filter fabric under the rockfill
embankment, from the upstream edge of
the dam to the downstream edge of the
apron. Overlap filter material a minimum of
600 mm at all joints.
Overfill earth embankments 150 mm to
allow for settlement.
Material used in the rock section of the
embankment (not spillway) should be wellgraded mixture of rock with a D50 size of
225 mm and a maximum of350 mm. The
minimum rock size used within the spillway
section should be that shown on the
approved plan.
March 2010
13B-68
Spillway:
Typically 1 in 2 year design discharge
hydraulic capacity.
Maximum longitudinal grade of downslope
face 3(H):1(V).
Maximum 2(H):1(V) side slope of spillway
section.
Minimum depth of the rock-lined spillway
chute is 300 mm.
Minimum thickness of rock lining is 500
mm, or twice the nominal rock size,
whichever is larger.
Outlet protection:
A rock apron at least 500 mm thick should
extend downstream from the toe of the
dam, on zero grade, to prevent channel
erosion.
Safety:
Large sediment traps are considered
dangerous because they can attract
children, thus safety aspects should be
considered. Steep side slopes should be
avoided. Fences with warning signs may
be required if public access is possible.
Maintenance
Check structures after each runoff event.
The effectiveness of this type of structure is
dependent upon the permeability, type and
placement of rock or other filter media. The
sides of the structure need to be carefully
inspected, refilled and compacted if
undercutting or piping occurs.
Check the structure for damage from
erosion or piping.
If the permeability is reduced to an
unacceptable level, the 300 mm layer of
upslope filter rock/aggregate should be
removed and replaced with clean
rock/aggregate. If a greater degree of
filtration is required, geotextile fabric can be
placed in front of the structure.
Removal
Following permanent stabilisation of the
upstream construction area, remove the
structure and any unstable sediment.
All water and sediment should be removed
from the basin prior to dam or weir
removal.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
March 2010
13B-69
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-70
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Sedimentation Control 6
Description
Sediment basins consist of an excavated
pit, stabilised flow entry points, low-flow
filtered outlet and high-flow emergency
spillway.
Sediment basins require a formal design
based on catchment hydrology, the
expected sediment transport rate, and the
required trapping efficiency.
Application and Function
Sediment basins can be permanent or
temporary structures that allow ponding
and settlement of sediment-laden runoff.
Basin operation may involve chemical
dosing to improve capture of fine sediment
particles.
Limitations
Generally used on catchments greater than
1 ha.
Sediment basins do not replace other onsite control measures such as drainage
controls, sediment fences and sediment
barriers.
Alternatives
Alternatives include: rock sediment traps,
however, there are few alternatives to
chemical dosing if the control of fine
sediments and turbidity is required.
Advantages
Very effective for coarse sediment removal.
Can be an effective control of fine sediment
runoff if suitably operated.
Disadvantages
The dosing process is difficult to automate.
Basins are difficult to relocate if the
construction or drainage layout changes.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Sediment Basin
excavated
or
13B-71
13
B
Special Requirements
Early integration into the construction
layout
Basins should be free draining wherever
possible.
Avoid construction in dispersive soils.
Overland flow inlets should be stabilised
and should not cause erosion down the
basin embankment.
Ideally should be located above the 5 yr
ARI flood level.
Discharge water into the basin in a manner
that will not cause soil erosion.
Overview
Location:
Where access for construction and
maintenance activities is available.
Adjacent to level land where possible.
Not in dispersive soils, otherwise a non
dispersive lining may be required.
Preferably above the 1 in 5 year flood level
of a major watercourse.
Dimensional constraints:
Maximum earth batter slopes 3(H):1(V)
Minimum width at top of embankment 2.5
metres
Maximum embankment height 3.0 metres
Basin length:width ratio of 3:1 minimum,
otherwise baffles are required.
Primary outlet:
Minimum conduit diameter 250 mm.
Sized for full drainage within 24 hours.
Discharge conduits located within the
embankment should be constructed to
avoid piping failure.
The area around the outlet should be
protected with rock fill or similar.
Adequate anti-floatation weights must be
securely attached to the outlet conduit.
Attach an anti-vortex device and trash
guard to the riser as required.
March 2010
13B-72
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Safety aspects:
Sediment basins may attract children and
can be dangerous. Avoid steep, smooth
internal slopes. Appropriately fence basins
and post warning signs if unsupervised
public access is likely and public safety is
at risk.
If public safety is a concern, and if the
basin banks are steeper than 3(H):1(V),
then at least one bank should be turfed a
width of at least two (2) metres from the top
of bank to the toe of bank to allow ease of
exit during wet weather.
Inlets:
Inlets should be appropriately stabilised
with rock or other suitable product to avoid
erosion of the basin embankments.
Outlet seepage collars:
Minimum of two cutoff collars should be
installed around all discharge conduits.
Collars spacing no greater than 15 times
the vertical projection of each collar.
Spillway:
Minimum freeboard of 750 mm.
Preferably located on natural ground rather
than compacted fill.
Structurally sound during the 1 in 20 year
ARI critical basin discharge.
Performance criteria:
In the absence of other criteria, the
recommended discharge water quality for
chemically treated Sediment Basins is 20
mg/L suspended solids.
The performance criterion for nonchemically treated basins is usually based
on the gravitational settlement of the
expected D30 runoff soil particle size.
Chemical dosing:
If the water does not meet the prescribed
standards, it must be treated with a
flocculant (eg. gypsum) to settle out
suspended solids.
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and
details.
Cutoff trench:
Excavate a cutoff trench along the
centerline of the earth fill embankment, no
less than 600 mm deep. The cutoff trench
must extend into both abutments to at least
the elevation of the riser pipe crest.
Side slopes of the trench are to be no
steeper than 1:1.
Any water that accumulates in the trench
must be removed.
Embankment:
Take fill material from the approved areas
shown on the plans.
Place fill material in 150 to 250 mm
continuous layers over the entire length of
the fill area and then compact it.
Construct the embankment to an elevation
10% higher than the design height to allow
for settling. Do not use the embankment as
a dump for debris from building the settling
pool.
Maintenance
Inspect the sediment basin during
construction and after each runoff event to
determine whether any components has
been damaged. If damage has occurred,
repair it.
Inspect the basin after each runoff event to
check whether sediment has accumulated
to a level where it must be removed (top of
the
indicator
post),
and
remove
accumulated sediment when necessary
Removal
When all disturbed areas are adequately
stabilised, the sediment basin must be
removed or otherwise converted to a
permanent pond, wetland, stormwater
detention or treatment structure. In either
case sediment should be cleared and
properly disposed of and the basin area
stabilised.
Conduit outlet:
Drill dewatering holes in the riser as
specified on the plan.
Securely attach the riser to the conduit or
conduit stub to make a watertight structural
connection. Attach the anti-seep collars to
the conduit. Place the conduit and riser on
a firm, smooth foundation of impervious
soil.
Place fill material around the conduit in 100
mm layers and compact it under and
around the pipe to at least the same
density as the adjacent embankment.
Place a minimum depth of 600 mm of
lightly compacted backfill over the conduit
before crossing it with construction
equipment. Anchor the riser in place to
prevent floatation.
Attach anti-floatation weights, anti-vortex
device and trash guard to riser.
Sediment settling pool area:
Place a post or stake to indicate clearly the
depth at which accumulated sediment must
be removed. The top of the stake must
indicate the elevation of the top of the
sediment storage volume.
Do not dispose of sediment in a manner
that will create an erosion hazard.
Check all pipe connections for leaks, and
repair as necessary.
Check fill material in the dam for excessive
settlement, slumping or piping; and make
all necessary repairs.
Remove all debris from the basin and riser.
March 2010
13B-73
13
B
13
B
March 2010
13B-74
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Sedimentation Control 7
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
Sediment Weir
No picture available
Description
Sediment weirs are rock filters contained
by solid, permeable walls.
Sediment weirs may be constructed of
pervious materials such as straw bales,
washed stone, gravel-filled bags or rockfilled gabions.
March 2010
13B-75
13
B
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Overview
Location:
Where the weir is to be built with fence
posts and steel reinforcing mesh, locate the
filter where the gully banks are high
enough so that runoff will flow through the
spillway in the centre of the weir instead of
flowing around the rock filter and over the
erodible gully banks.
When possible, where gully banks are
protected with rock or trees, which will help
stabilise the banks and hold the completed
filter in place.
Outlet protection:
A rock apron at least 500 mm thick should
extend downstream from the toe of the weir
to a distance equal to the height of the
weir.
Structure:
Maximum 600 mm spacing of steel posts.
Minimum structure thickness of 1 metre.
Minimum 1 m key into the sides of the
channel or gully.
Construction
Refer to approved plans for location,
extent, and details.
Clear the area of woody vegetation,
organic matter etc. Delay clearing the
upstream storage area until the dam or
weir is in place.
When constructed in a gully or channel, the
weir should to be cut into the sides of the
gully or channel to a minimum depth of 1
metre. Steel pickets are spaced at 600 mm
centres and mesh attached to the upstream
side of the posts. Additional "fences" are
constructed as required with the spacing
usually being determined by the width of
the bucket of the excavator.
Maintenance
Check structures after each runoff event as
effectiveness is dependent upon the
permeability, type and placement of rock or
other filter medium. The sides of the
structure need to be carefully inspected,
refilled and compacted if erosion,
undercutting or piping occurs.
Any rock displaced from the spillway must
be replaced immediately.
Trash and debris are to be removed as
necessary
Removal
After the upstream construction area has
been permanently stabilised, remove the
structure.
All water and unstable sediment should be
March 2010
13B-76
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
March 2010
13B-77
13
B
March 2010
13B-78
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Sedimentation Control 8
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
13
B
No picture available
Description
The tank contains several compartments
that trap sediment and allow chemical
dosing.
Removal
N|A
March 2010
13B-79
13
B
March 2010
13B-80
Appendix 13B
Fact Sheets for ESC Measures
Appendix 13C
Inspection of Erosion & Sediment Controls
13
C
Appendix 13C
Inspection of
Erosion & Sediment
Controls
March 2010
13
C
Appendix 13C
Inspection of Erosion & Sediment Controls
Reference
Section
March 2010
13C-ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 13C
Inspection of Erosion & Sediment Controls
Appendix 13C
Inspection of Erosion &
Sediment Controls
Region/District:
Project Name:
Contract / Project Number:
N/A
Drainage Control
Item
Check
Action Required
Catch Drains
Located at top of batter faces?
Is bed stable?
Diversion Channels
Channel lining stable?
Banks are stable?
Outlet is stable?
Drop Pipes & Chutes
Inlet stabilised?
Outlet stabilised?
Sediment trap located downslope or upslope of
structure?
Is structure well anchored?
Is there any active erosion around the structure?
Geosynthetic Lined Channels
Lining well anchored on all sides & upstream edge?
Fabric overlaps in direction of flow?
Rock Lined/Rock Mattress Channels
Geosynthetic fabric is installed under the rock
Temporary Watercourse Crossing
Do culverts have a flow similar to inbank area of
watercourse?
Is soil/gravel surface well compacted and stable?
Are inlets and outlets stabilised?
March 2010
13C-1
13
C
13
C
Appendix 13C
Inspection of Erosion & Sediment Controls
Velocity Control
Item
Check
Action Required
Check
Action Required
Erosion Control
Item
Chemical Surface Stabilisers
Are dust clouds visible?
Is runoff from surface causing erosion?
Erosion Control Blankets and Mats
Are blankets and mats anchored?
Are there signs of undermining of blankets & mats?
Do blankets & mats overlap in direction of flow?
Mulching
Have exposed surfaces been covered if work on a
particular area has been delayed?
Does mulch on steep slopes require anchoring?
Can mulch be removed by concentrated flow?
Outlet Protection
Are outlets stabilised?
Is outlet protection anchored/stable enough for
concentrated flow?
Temporary Revegetation
Soil preparation as per approved schedule?
Mulch applied?
Has watering of vegetation been occurring?
Has maintenance (eg. weed removal) been
undertaken?
Graded areas seeded and mulched as per approved
schedule?
Surface Roughening
Trimmed areas with no further earthworks to be
roughened.
March 2010
13C-2
Appendix 13C
Inspection of Erosion & Sediment Controls
Sediment Control
Item
Check
Action Required
Buffer Zones
Fencing of buffer zones and No Go Zones
Is sediment contained within first quarter of buffer?
Grassed Filter Strip
Are grass strips recessed and level with upslope
surface?
Are grass strips being undermined?
Construction Exits
Entry/Exit points stabilsed?
Is sediment runoff directed away from exit point and
adequately controlled?
Is sediment visible on roads?
Does the exit contain enough coarse rock/cattle grid to
shake sediment from vehicles?
Sediment Fences
Is fabric buried in 200mm (approx.) deep trench?
Do sediment fences have at least 60% trapping
capacity?
Are stakes spaced 2m (approx.) without wire mesh
backing or 3m (approx.) with wire mesh?
Constructed along contour?
Not subject to concentrated flow?
Ends of sediment fence returned to avoid bypassing?
Located at least 2m from toe of batter/stockpile?
Straw Bales
Not subject to concentrated flow?
Recessed in 100mm (approx.) trench?
Staked with minimum of 2 stakes?
Sediment Basins
Spillway stabilised?
Adequate trapping capacity with regular sediment
removal?
Is basin accessible for maintenance?
Is exclusion fencing required for safety?
Field Inlets
Bypass flows directed to stable areas?
Is fabric trenched to avoid undercutting?
Is fabric/gravel regularly maintained to allow adequate
filtering/ponding?
March 2010
13C-3
13
C
13
C
Appendix 13C
Inspection of Erosion & Sediment Controls
Check
Action Required
Item
Check
Action Required
Sediment Control
March 2010
13C-4
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
13
D
Appendix 13D
Revegetation
Guidelines
March 2010
13
D
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
March 2008
ii
Reference
Section
-
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
13D.1. Introduction
Developing and implementing a site
specific revegetation program on any site
requires careful planning, appropriate
expertise and resources. In order to achieve
this, the process of collecting and
interpreting relevant information is
fundamental to the outcome.
In the majority of cases, it is recommended
that advice be sought from suitably
experienced professionals, such as a
landscape architect, who will be required to
balance issues of: budget, maintenance
requirements,
site
constraints,
environmental values, ecological stability,
sediment control and risk of failure.
Projects differ widely in scale, design
objectives and site conditions. Meeting
specific outcomes will often require
specialist expertise and skills in soil
conservation
/science,
environmental
science, landscape revegetation, road
construction, botany, and/or zoology to aid
in the interpretation and evaluation of
information in order to achieve the desired
environmental and functional outcomes.
13D.2. Purpose
This guideline is designed to provide a
broad overview of the methodology or
framework used in developing a
revegetation program. This includes
important principles and techniques to be
considered during the planning and
development of such programs. For further
detail on these principles, techniques and
13D.3.1. Bio-physical
Characteristics
Much of the bio-physical information
required to develop a revegetation program
should already be available in the
March 2010
13D-1
13
D
13
D
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
(monthly)
variations
in
March 2010
13D-2
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
13D.3.3. Environmentally
Sensitive Areas
The data from the environmental
assessment and related documentation will
identify environmentally sensitive sites and
March 2010
13D-3
13
D
13
D
March 2010
13D-4
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
13D.4.1. Development of a
Revegetation Program
Developing a revegetation program requires
competent management that accounts for
the implications of information gathered
during the planning stage and accounts for
and incorporates any site specific
peculiarities, or constraints into the design
of the program. In addition to biophysical
constraints, agency requirements, and
contract standards, the designer must also
consider the following aspects:
project schedule;
risk;
species selection;
access considerations;
site preparation requirements; and
maintenance
programs.
and
monitoring
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
13D.4.1.3. Risk
Achieving revegetation standards may
require significant inputs owing to the high
risks associated with the environmental
conditions on a works site. As site and
climatic conditions vary widely, the factors
affecting success will vary accordingly.
During planning and design it is important
that the consequences of not achieving the
standards required are taken into account.
The
potential
cost
implications
(replacement of treatment, and potential
damage to pavement and structures etc)
of undertaking remedial works because
of failure of a low cost revegetation
technique implemented in a high risk
area must always be considered.
13D.4.1.4. Species Selection
Use of detailed botanical survey results, in
conjunction with site specific bio-physical
information, will enable the designer to
select those species best suited to the site.
The species selected must be capable of
providing the required ground cover and
soil stabilisation measures necessary for
appropriate erosion and sediment control.
Slope length, angle, potential disturbance
and predicted water flow must be
considered when choosing plants for
specific locations, particularly within a road
drainage system.
Other considerations
include, but are not limited to: longevity,
growth rates, water logging tolerance,
drought tolerance, salinity tolerance,
humidity tolerance, fire tolerance; and
maintenance requirements. For further
detail and considerations on species
selection refer to the Road Landscape
Manual.
March 2010
13D-5
13
D
13
D
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
Advantages
Broadcast
Seeding
Tractor drawn
broadcasting is efficient
and economical.
Grass species are
typically easily applied.
Drill Seeding
Hydroseeding
March 2010
13D-6
Disadvantages
Broadcast seeding does not
provide any soil surface
protection against erosion.
Different seed types (sizes) are
generally not spread evenly and
no erosion control protection is
afforded by the technique.
Some seed types (i.e. fluffy/hairy
seeds) cannot be spread by
spinners.
Not suited to high rainfall areas
with prolonged wet seasons or
slopes >1:3.
May require temporary erosion
and sediment control measures
to protect drains/culverts/
waterways until surface
coverage is obtained.
May not ensure compliance with
safety and CPTED principles,
resulting in additional
maintenance requirements
(depending on species used).
Drill seeding does not provide
any soil surface protection
against erosion.
Not suited to high rainfall areas
with prolonged wet seasons or
slopes >1:3.
May require temporary erosion
and sediment control measures
to protect drains/culverts/
waterways until surface
coverage is obtained.
May not ensure compliance with
safety and CPTED principles,
resulting in additional
maintenance requirements
(depending on species used).
Hydroseeding does not provide
any soil surface protection
against erosion.
May require additional measures
such as jute mesh.
Not suited to high rainfall areas
with prolonged wet seasons or
slopes >1:3.
Water truck access for
establishment of vegetation may
require traffic control depending
on staging of construction
works.
May not ensure compliance with
safety and CPTED principles,
resulting in additional
maintenance requirements
(depending on species used).
Access Limitation
Factors
Requires access for either
4WD tractor or for
individuals to undertake
hand seeding. Machine
broadcast seeding is
limited by machines
capacity to access steep
gradients. Slopes <1:3 are
accessible slopes, >1:3
may require 4WD
capability or manual
seeding.
Access for water
truck/maintenance needs
to be planned where
perimeter access limits
watering.
Revegetation
Technique
Advantages
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
Disadvantages
Access Limitation
Factors
Hydromulching
Straw Mulching
Trash
Blanket/Brush
Matting
March 2010
13D-7
13
D
13
D
Revegetation
Technique
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
Access Limitation
Factors
Advantages
Disadvantages
Erosion Control
Blankets
Organic
Blankets
Bonded Fibre
Matrix (BMFs)
Container Stock
Provides an opportunity
to establish plants that
have specific
characteristics.
Planting using container
stock provides a specific
vegetation cover in an
economical and
environmentally sensitive
manner.
Can ensure species
diversity from installation.
Ensures compliance with
safety and CPTED
principles.
Turfing
Turfing provides an
instant vegetative cover
and erosion protection
where velocities are less
than 2m/sec.
March 2010
13D-8
Revegetation
Technique
Stiff Grass
Barrier
Reinforced Turf
Willowing
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
Access Limitation
Factors
Advantages
Disadvantages
March 2010
13D-9
13
D
13
D
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
Rating
Broadcast Seeding
1,2
Drill Seeding
1,2
Hydroseeding
1,2
Hydromulching
1,2,3
Straw Mulching
1,2,3,4 +
1,2,3
1,2,3,4,5 *
Organic Blankets
1,2,3,4,5 *
1,2,3,4,5 *
1,2,3
Turfing
1,2,3
1,2,3,4
1,2,3
Reinforced Turf
1,2,3,4,5
Willowing
+ = variable depending on strength of glue used.
* = variable depending on type of product used.
Rating System
Class
1
2
3
4
5
March 2010
13D-10
Environmental Management
(Construction) (MRTS51);
Plan
Vegetation
(MRTS16);
Plan
Protection
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
March 2010
13D-11
13
D
13
D
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
been installed.
Replacement generally
relates to container stock plantings, but may
also be applied to seeding treatments.
Replacement will aid in achieving adequate
coverage by the desired species, which aids
in the suppression of weeds and the
stabilisation of soils.
Replacement may also be required after the
establishment and monitoring periods.
Failure to replace stabilisation plants (for
example, Vetiver grass planted within a
hedge row) can lead to concentrated flows
and result in significant damage and repair
costs, and should therefore be replaced
immediately. Replacement may also be
necessary when failure of larger plants,
which are central to a corridor or aesthetic /
planting program, occurs.
For further considerations and detail in
relation to failure replacement refer to the
Road Landscape Manual.
Mowing
Mowing frequency is dependant upon the
species of grass planted and the type of use
the area is subject to. Mowing is generally
limited to drainage areas or areas adjoining
publicly accessible spaces.
Mowing
frequency is determined by intervention
levels, and varies from urban to rural areas.
It is important to select an appropriate
species of grass in relation to the intended
use and/or function of the area, as this will
reduce the level of mowing required
(determined by intervention level) for
maintaining functionality.
For further considerations and detail in
relation to mowing refer to the Road
Landscape Manual.
Failure Replacement
Failure replacement is generally undertaken
during the establishment and monitoring
periods after a revegetation program has
March 2010
13D-12
transects
and
grid
Appendix 13D
Revegetation Guidelines
13
D
March 2010
13D-13
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14
Chapter 14
Operation,
Maintenance &
Remediation
March 2010
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14
Revision Register
Issue/
Rev
No.
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
Table of Contents
14.1.
Introduction
14-1
14.2.
Legal Aspects
14-1
14.3.
Operation
14-2
14.4.
14.5.
14.6.
14.3.1.
Period of Inspection
14-2
14.3.2.
Performance
14-3
14.3.3.
Reporting of Deficiencies
14-3
14.3.4.
Metal Culverts
14-3
Maintenance
14-3
14.4.1.
14-3
14.4.2.
Types of Maintenance
14-4
14.4.3.
Metal Culverts
14-4
Drainage Failures
14-4
14.5.1.
Introduction
14-4
14.5.2.
Causes of Failure
14-4
14.5.3.
Types of Failure
14-5
14.5.4.
14-7
14.5.5.
Identifying Failures
14-7
14.5.6.
Reporting of Failures
Remediation
14-10
14-10
14.6.1.
Introduction
14-10
14.6.2.
Remediation Options
14-10
14.6.3.
Evaluation
14-13
14.
March 2010
iii
14
14
March 2010
iv
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance &
Remediation
14.1. Introduction
14-1
14
14
14.3. Operation
The operation of the road and inturn the
drainage system commences immediately
after the road is opened to traffic. This
March 2010
14-2
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14.3.2. Performance
Drainage infrastructure is constructed to
primarily carry / transfer and possibly treat
stormwater. These devices are designed for
a certain discharge and/or capability. With
respect to drainage devices constructed to
protect and/or maintain water quality, they
have been designed to meet specific water
quality requirements. It is important that
the performance of these devices be
checked to ensure that the devices are
achieving the design requirements. If it is
found that the requirements are not being
met, the site must be:
fully investigated to determine the
reasons why the device is or devices
are not achieving required targets;
appropriate remedial action planned /
designed to correct deficiency; and
remedial work undertaken.
This investigation and remedial work must
be undertaken as soon as possible after the
deficiency has been identified as the risk of
causing harm or damage will remain
elevated until the work is completed.
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14.4. Maintenance
14.4.1. The Maintenance Process
The Department of Transport and Main
Roads is the steward of the state controlled
road network. Part of this role is to
maintain the road network to a standard
which ensures the safety and efficiency of
the travelling public and protection of the
environment.
Road drainage infrastructure (or system) is
designed for a certain discharge and/or
capability and needs to be properly
maintained
to
ensure
continued
performance. Poor maintenance reduces
the performance (capacity) of the drainage
device or system and this inturn can
increase the risk of:
upstream flooding;
failure of the device / system and
potentially the road;
accelerated deterioration of the road
asset;
accidents (such as unexpected water
on the road surface); and
March 2010
14-3
14
14
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14.5.1. Introduction
poor maintenance
practice;
March 2010
14-4
inspection
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
sedimentation;
debris accumulation (e.g. litter and
vegetation); and
structural failure of the drainage
device / component.
These are discussed below in further detail.
14.5.3.1.
Erosion
unsealed
batters.
14.5.3.2.
shoulders,
verges
and
Undermining or Piping
March 2010
14-5
14
14
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14-6
Debris Accumulation
Debris
accumulation
includes
the
accumulation of vegetation, litter and other
gross pollutants in the drainage system.
This may be caused by insufficient
hydraulic capacity of the drainage structure,
the size of debris entering the drainage
system or lack of maintenance. Figure
14.5.3.4 shows debris accumulation via the
growth of vegetation in the outlet of a
culvert.
Sedimentation
14.5.3.4.
14.5.3.5.
Structural
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14
potential
March 2010
14-7
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
Failure
Cause
Examples of Potential
Impact
Erosion
Scouring at culvert
outlet
Sedimentation of
downstream waterways.
Decrease in water
quality.
14
Obstruction to flow.
Damage to bridge.
Scour of stream.
Compromise of public
safety.
Erosion of creek
banks
Blockage of road.
Poor drainage.
Loss of soil.
Weed invasion.
Undermining of road
surface.
Scouring around
culvert
headwalls.(Refer
Figure 14.3.5)
Concentration of runoff.
Lack of controlled drainage.
Sedimentation of
downstream waterways.
Decrease in water
quality.
Sedimentation of
downstream waterways.
Decrease in water
quality.
March 2010
14-8
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
Failure
Type
Failure
Cause
Examples of Potential
Impact
Erosion
Scouring of Bridge
Abutments
Sedimentation of
downstream waterways.
Undermining
Sedimentation of
downstream waterways
Undermining of
culvert aprons
Loss of drainage
structure.
Erosion at Outlet.
Sedimentation of
downstream waterways.
Transport of sediment to
downstream locations.
Undermining of rock
gabions or
mattresses
Loss of drainage
structure.
Undercutting of
batter
Sedime
ntation
Debris
Accum
ulation
Sediment. deposition
in table drains and
channels and
culverts
Insufficient gradient.
Ponded outlet.
Unacceptable afflux.
Scouring at Bridge
Abutments and/or road
approaches.
March 2010
14-9
14
14
14.6. Remediation
14.6.1. Introduction
The purpose of remediation is to restore the
drainage device or system to the level of
performance / capability it was designed
for.
After inspection / checks have been carried
out and deficiencies and/or failures have
been
identified
and
investigated,
appropriate remedial work options need to
be developed and the best solution
determined.
(and
re-construction);
14-10
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
Repair
Augmentation
Re-Design
Maintenance Practice
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
March 2010
14-11
14
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14
Drainage
Failure
Required
Maintenance
Erosion
Backfilling
Mulching
Revegetation
Reprofiling
Undermining
Backfilling
Installation of
protection measures
(e.g. rock, concrete)
Sedimentation
Hand removal of
sediment
Mechanical removal
of sediment
Disposal of sediment
Debris
Accumulation
Hand removal of
debris
Mechanical removal
of debris
Disposal of debris
material
Weed
Removal
March 2010
14-12
Removal of
vegetation
Herbicide application
Chapter 14
Operation, Maintenance & Remediation
14.6.3. Evaluation
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of
maintenance practices, and reduce the
potential for future drainage failures,
information
recorded
during
the
maintenance process should be reviewed.
This information can then be used for the
planning,
design,
construction
and
maintenance of future drainage systems.
14
March 2010
14-13
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Appendix 14A
Management of
Corroded Metal
Culverts
January 2013
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Revision Register
Issue/
Rev
No.
Reference
Section
Whole
January 2013
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Steering
Committee
M
Whitehead
Date
Mar
2010
Jan
2013
14A.1 Introduction
14A.1.1 Purpose
This appendix is intended to be a guide for
the inspection and treatment of corrugated
metal culverts. It describes the information
that should be recorded, identifies typical
situations, the associated risk to the
travelling public and the urgent action that
may be required to provide a safe and
efficient road network.
This Appendix has been written by the
departments Bridge Design Branch located
within the Engineering & Technology
Group. Figure 14A.1.1 provides a flow
chart summarising the information given in
this appendix.
14A.1.2 Background
The Department of Transport and Main
Roads has installed many corrugated metal
culverts made from galvanised steel during
the 1970s and 1980s. Many of these
culverts now show significant corrosion,
and several have structurally failed. One of
these failures caused the closure of the
Bruce Highway south of Gin Gin a few
years ago. Another culvert failure in New
South Wales, where a family of five
drowned when their car was swept away,
was subject to a coroner's enquiry which
found the local authority was responsible
for their deaths by failing to maintain the
corrugated metal culvert. This enquiry has
highlighted the severity of the problem
associated with metal culverts, and the
importance
of
rehabilitating
and
maintaining culverts.
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14A.2 Inspection
Inspections should be conducted in
accordance with the Bridge Inspection
Manual and appropriately released Advice
Notes. If the structure is rated in Condition
State 4, a Level 3 Detailed Structural
Engineering Inspection should be requested
with the Principal Engineer of BAM.
14A.2.1 Information
Gathered
to
be
January 2013
14A-1
14
A
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
Identify
Metal Culvert
Gather Basic Information
- Culvert Type
- Size and Shape
- Corrugations
- Height of Fill
- Material Thickness
- Extent of Corrosion
- Max possible OD (if relining)
- Voids Present in Fill
- Other Defects
14
A
Situation 1
- Standing water
in culvert
Very Low
Risk
Low
Risk
Medium
Risk
High
Risk
Very High
Risk
- Prop immediately
-Repair urgently
- Speed restriction and hazard signs
Situation 2
- Corrosion appearing
in the invert
- Substantial metal
thickness remains
Situation 3
- Considerable level
of corrosion in the invert
- Small holes appearing
Treatment
Treatment
Situation 4
- Culvert Invert rusted
through in large sections.
- Culvert remaining circular
-No significant flows
- Constant HV traffic volume
Treatment
Situation 5
- Culvert Invert rusted
through in large sections.
- Culvert remaining circular
-Local flooding occurs
-HV traffic volume increases
Treatment
Situation 6
- Culvert invert rusted
through in large sections.
- Culvert ring movement evident
-No road surface settlement
Treatment
Unknown
Risk
Treatment
Situation 7
- Culvert invert rusted
through in large sections.
- Culvert ring movement evident
-Road surface settlement
January 2013
14A-2
Extreme
Risk
Treatment
- Close road immediately
- Repair urgently
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
January 2013
14A-3
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Helical
38
6.5
68
13
75
25
125
25
68
13
200
55
Plated
January 2013
14A-4
14A.2.1.6 Maximum
Diameter
Outside
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
January 2013
14A-5
14
A
14
A
culvert joints.
Infiltration can cause
settlement and misalignment problems if
the water carries fine grained soil particles
from the backfill material.
Joint separation may also occur due to
external loads and changing soil conditions
and this allows backfill infiltration and
water exfiltration.
Joint Defects - Multi-Plate
Joint defects for multi-plate culverts occur
at the bolt lines typically from construction
damage. The bolt lines are weaker than the
plate itself, and some construction
specifications called for the joint to be
offset in each ring to avoid a line of
weakness.
If this was not done, the
backfilling operation could put high
bending moments on the bolted joint lines,
causing local cracking in the plates where
excessive tension occurs.
Figure
14A.2.1.8(a) shows such cracking, probably
caused by excessive side pressures during
backfill.
This is a defect that should be avoided in
construction, however once the culvert is
completed and backfilled, the cracked joint
should go into compression and not be a
long term failure initiator.
It is essential, though, that the cause of such
defects be determined. If they are due to
continuing vertical loading they may
indicate the start of structural failure.
Invert Deterioration
Invert deterioration is usually due to a
combination of corrosion and abrasion.
Once the galvanising layer is abraded from
material carried by the flow of the water,
corrosion then attacks the bare steel and is
accelerated by further abrasion that
constantly removes the protective oxide
layer formed by corrosion.
The
January 2013
14A-6
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Figure 14A.2.1.8(a) - Cracks in Metal Plate.
Shape Distortion
The construction process for metal culverts
requires care and attention to the backfilling
procedure (refer Attachment 14A.B at end
of this Appendix). During construction,
culverts are flexible and will distort if
excessive earth pressure or construction
loads are applied. In extreme cases, the
culverts can collapse, or be severely
distorted during construction.
Figure
14A.2.1.8(c) illustrates a joint damaged
during
backfill,
probably
construction overload.
due
to
January 2013
14A-7
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Figure 14A.2.1.8(c) - New Culvert Damage
.
14A-8
Data Collected
Culvert Type
(Multi-plate/Helical)
Size and Shape
Corrugation (pitch x depth)
Height of Fill Material (m)
Material Thickness
Extent of Corrosion
(invert/full height)
Maximum OD (if relining)
Voids Present in Fill
for
January 2013
Culvert Property
Soil Migration
14A.3 Treatment
14A.3.1 Repair methods
The following is a range of repair
treatments that should be considered, taking
into account:
Cost
Remaining life of the non-corroded
portion of the culvert
Durability and expected service life of
the repair
Size of embankment over culvert
Traffic volumes
Water flow
Ability to detour traffic
The products detailed in the repair methods
below must be obtained from approved
suppliers.
Emergency Propping
Install emergency propping for immediate
temporary stabilising of the structure when
a safety issues become evident. Propping
of the culvert can only slow the complete
collapse of the structure and there is still a
future risk to the travelling public if a
failure is allowed to occur. Since most
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
January 2013
14A-9
14
A
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Invert
with
January 2013
14A-10
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
January 2013
14A-11
14
A
14
A
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
January 2013
14A-12
Situation 1
Unknown Risk Condition
Standing water in the culvert, typically
caused by a blockage on the
downstream end
(refer to Figure
14A.3.2(a)); and
Structure will rapidly corrode and it is
difficult to inspect its condition. A
decision must be made quickly on how
to make the culvert durable, easy to
inspect
and
safe.
Immediate Treatment
Survey downstream levels and the consult
land owner. If practical, cut a low flow
channel that will allow the culvert to drain.
If a blockage is caused by cattle or vehicles
pushing the bank into the stream bed,
negotiate a preventative strategy such as:
Constructing an alternate crossings
further downstream;
Installing a low flow pipe under a low
level concrete ford; or
Putting up a fence around the stream
for sufficient length to maintain exit
drainage.
Hydraulics Branch can be consulted if there
are concerns regarding this.
Later Treatment
Assess culverts when clean and dry to
determine whether additional repairs
are needed; and
Check culverts after each wet season to
ensure they remain self draining.
Note: If a culvert has deep standing water
and downstream surveys show it is not
practical to drain the culvert, Regional /
District Management must be informed and
a management plan developed.
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
Situation 2
Very Low Risk Condition
Significant corrosion appearing in the
invert of the culvert, but substantial
thickness of metal remains (refer to
Figure 14A.3.2(b));
Culvert is retaining circular shape or
may have distorted during construction
process but is remaining stable (see
notes on defect identification); and
The culvert is assessed as being Asset
Management Condition State 3.
Treatment
Monitor culvert annually;
Plan to install a concrete invert or use a
paint system, while the culvert still has
adequate metal in the invert and before
the culvert perforates due to corrosion;
and
Complete repairs within 2 years.
Situation 3
Low Risk Condition
Considerable level of corrosion in the
invert and small holes appearing in the
invert of the culvert (refer to Figures
14A.3.2(c) and 14A.3.2(d));
No evidence of material loss from soil
behind culvert and no soil cavities
evident;
January 2013
14A-13
14
A
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
January 2013
14A-14
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Situation 4
Medium Risk Condition
Culvert invert rusted completely
through over a large portion of the
length;
Losses of backfill material below
invert (refer to Figure 14A.3.2(e));
Culvert is retaining circular shape
(loads are being carried by soil arch) or
may have distorted during construction
process but is remaining stable (see
notes on defect identification);
Culvert has no significant flows; and
Heavy vehicle traffic loading remains
constant.
Treatment
Prop immediately and repair as soon as
possible within two months or before
the next wet season starts;
Check culvert and pavement levels
fortnightly, after short rainfall events
and during extended rainfall periods
for any signs of ring compression
failure or settlement of the soil arch
over the culvert; and
Situation 5
High Risk Condition
Culvert invert rusted completely
through over a large portion of the
length;
Losses of backfill material below the
invert (refer to Figure 14A.3.2(e));
Culvert is retaining circular shape
(loads are being carried by soil arch) or
may have distorted during construction
process but is remaining stable (see
notes on defect identification);
Local flooding event occurs creating
the risk that the culvert and
embankment could be washed out; or
Heavy
vehicle
increases.
traffic
loading
January 2013
14A-15
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
14
A
Treatment
Culvert must be repaired as soon as
practical (within one month);
Props should be installed immediately;
Culvert and pavement surface should
be checked weekly, after short rainfall
events and during extended rainfall
periods for any signs of ring
compression failure or dips in the
pavement caused by soil arch
settlement;
If the replacement culvert cannot be
obtained immediately from the
manufacturer alternative options that
may be considered are:
January 2013
14A-16
Situation 6
Very High Risk Condition
Culvert invert rusted through over
large portion of the length;
Compression ring movement is
obvious (metal has buckled or is
overlapping), but soil arch is mostly
intact (refer to Figure 14A.3.2(f));
Voids possibly present behind culvert
lining but no dip in road;
Culvert
structure
has
failed,
embankment soil arch at high risk of
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
District
Situation 7
Extreme Risk Condition
Culvert invert rusted through over
large portion of the length;
Compression ring movement is
obvious (metal has buckled or is
overlapping) but soil arch is mostly
intact (refer to Figure 14A.3.2(f));
Voids possibly present behind culvert
lining but no dip in road;
Asset Management Condition State 5,
culvert
structure
has
failed,
embankment soil arch at high risk of
imminent failure; and
Road pavement above culvert shows
obvious signs of settlement (refer to
Figure 14A.3.2(g)).
Treatment
As given for Very High Risk.
Safety
Culvert has structurally failed; and road
is to be closed immediately.
January 2013
14A-17
14
A
14
A
14A.4 Conclusion
The objective of this Appendix is to act as a
guide for the inspection and treatment of
corrugated metal culverts to provide a safe
and efficient road network. The situations
given are typical and if there is any
uncertainty in the condition and treatment
of a culvert further advice can be obtained
from the departments Bridge Design
Branch located within the Engineering &
Technology Group.
January 2013
14A-18
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
January 2013
14A-19
14
A
14
A
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
January 2013
14A-20
Appendix 14A
Management of Corroded Metal Culverts
Janaury 2013
14A-21
Glossary
Glossary
March 2010
Glossary
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
Glossary
Glossary
Glossary based on: (1) AS 1348 - 2002 Australian Standard for Road and Traffic Engineering;
(2) QUDM 2008; (3) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Model Drainage Manual 1991; and (4) Queensland Water Act 2000.
Afflux - The rise in water level on the upstream side of a constriction such as a road, weir or
bridge in a stream or channel relative to the water level at that point without the constriction.
Aggregate - A soil aggregate consists of a cluster of primary soil particles bound together into a
clearly defined unit by electrostatic forces such as charges on clay particles, cementing
substances from organic matter or hydroxides of iron, or binding strands of roots.
Allotment Drainage - A system of field gullies, manhole chambers and underground pipes
constructed within private property to convey flows through and from allotments.
Alluvial Plain - A landform with extremely low relief formed by the accumulation of alluvium
from overbank stream flow over a considerable period of time. This accumulation may still be
occurring (flood plain) or may have ceased (terrace).
Amelioration - Refers to efforts made to minimise adverse effects of an activity (e.g. road
construction) after the event.
Anabranch - A branch of a stream which leaves and later re-enters the stream.
Annual Flood - The highest peak discharge in a water year consisting of 1 September to 31
August.
Apron - A floor or lining at either the inlet or outlet of a hydraulic structure such as a culvert to
protect the waterway channel from erosion.
Asphalt - A mixture of bituminous binder and aggregate with or without mineral filler produced
hot in a mixing plant. It is delivered, spread and compacted while hot.
Australian Height Datum (AHD) - A level datum, uniform throughout Australia, based on an
origin determined from observations of mean sea level at tide gauge stations, located at more
than 30 points along the Australian coastline.
Australian Height Datum Derived (AHDD) - The level datum based on a direct connection to
the Australian height datum.
Average Annual Time of Closure (AATOC) - The times of closure for every flood are totalled
and the sum is divided by the years of record.
Average Annual Time of Submergence (AATOS) - The times of submergence for every flood
exceeding a selected level (deck level) are totalled and the sum is divided by the years of record.
Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) - The average or expected value of the period between
exceedances of a given rainfall intensity or discharge.
March 2010
iii
Glossary
Backwater - That part of a stream, the water level of which is kept above normal due to some
controlling influence downstream.
Backwater Curve Analysis - A procedure for determining water surface levels in open
channels under gradually varied flow conditions.
Basin - A hollow or depression within which water can be contained.
Batter - The side slope of an embankment or cutting.
Batter Chute - A temporary or permanent structure designed to convey concentrated storm
runoff down a cut or fill embankment, or over a change in grade, without causing erosion.
Bed and bank - With reference to a watercourse or lake, means land over which the water of
that watercourse or lake normally flows or that is normally covered by the water whether
permanently or intermittently, but does not include land adjoining or adjacent to the bed or
banks that is from time to time covered by floodwater. [Water Act 2002, Queensland.]
Bench (benching) - (1) A ledge cut or formed in the batter of a cutting or bank, to provide
greater security against slips; (2) A ledge constructed in a batter or natural slope to segment the
slope length to reduce erosion potential.
Berm - Typically used in reference to slope barrier measures designed to break the continuity of
slopes to reduce runoff velocities.
Biodiversity - (short for biological diversity) Number of species of vegetation and wildlife in a
given habitat; e.g. rainforests, [which typically have a large number of different plant and
animal species] are said to be high in biodiversity.
Borrow Pit - An excavation outside the formation limits for obtaining fill.
Broadcast Seeding - Any method of planting seed which scatters the seed in random pattern on
the surface of the soil.
Buffer Zone - Zone adjoining a sensitive area that is required for protecting stream banks from
erosion, providing habitat along stream corridors, and treating overland flow before it enters the
drainage network.
Building - A habitable room; retail or commercial space; factory or warehouse; basement
providing carparking space, building services or equipment; or enclosed carpark or enclosed
garage.
Bypass Flow - That portion of the flow in a road or in a channel which is not collected by a
gully inlet or field inlet, and which is redirected out of the system or to another inlet in the
system.
Capillary Water - Water drawn upwards into soil pores and held by surface tension.
Catch Bank - A small levee constructed to intercept and divert runoff away from cut slopes,
embankments, disturbed areas, and stockpiles. An alternative to, or can be combined with, a
Catch Drain. See also Std Dwg: 1178.
Catch Drain - A small surface channel constructed to intercept and divert runoff away from cut
slopes, embankments, disturbed areas, and stockpiles. See also Std Dwg: 1178.
March 2010
iv
Glossary
Catchment Area - That area determined by topographical or equivalent features, upon any part
of which rain falling will contribute to the discharge of the stream at the point under
consideration.
Causeway - A raised carriageway across wet or low areas or across tidal water.
Channel - (1) The bed of a stream or river; (2) A course or passage through which something
may move or be directed.
Channel Freeboard - Vertical distance between the design water surface elevation in an open
channel and the level of the top of the channel bank.
Channel Lining - Material placed on the surface of a channel or chute to protect it from
erosion. Materials include grass and turf, reinforced grass, erosion control mats, rock lining,
rock mattress, cellular confinement and impervious liners.
Channel Stabilisation - Materials used to stabilise the channel surface. Examples include soil
retention blankets (with appropriate seeding mixture) for non-structural cover, and concrete or
riprap (rock) for structural cover.
Check Dam - Check dams are typically used in channels conveying concentrated flows to
control flow velocity and minor gully erosion. They may be constructed from semi-pervious or
impervious materials such as medium-size rock or sand and gravel filled bags.
Chute - Used to convey water down slopes and are constructed with materials suited to the
expected life of the chute (i.e. concrete for permanent chutes).
Clearing - The removal of vegetation, structures or other objects.
Coastal Plain - A complex, level to very gently inclined landform pattern adjacent to the coast.
The plain was formed by the deposition of material from overbank stream flow, overland sheet
flow and marine inundation.
Coefficient of Runoff (Discharge) - Dimensionless coefficient used in the Rational Method for
the calculation of peak runoff discharge.
Coefficient of Runoff (Volumetric) - The ratio of the amount of water that runs off to the
amount that falls in a catchment area.
Cofferdam - A temporary enclosure formed to exclude water from an area in which
construction is to take place. Cofferdams can take a variety of forms and are constructed from
materials such as driven sheet piling, rock, earth or concrete.
Concentrated Flow - Water, usually storm runoff, flowing in a confined feature such as a
channel, ditch, swale, river, etc.
Contour Ploughing - Ploughing horizontally along the contour.
Cover Crop - Plants, particularly cereals, grown mainly to protect the soil on a temporary basis
during or prior to the establishment of more protective plant cover.
Cover Ground - Any vegetation producing a mat on or just above the soil surface. In forests,
this may be formed by low-growing shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants under the trees.
March 2010
Glossary
March 2010
vi
Glossary
Drainage System - A system of gully inlets, pipes, overland flow paths, open channels, culverts
and detention basins used to convey runoff to its receiving waters.
Dyke - See Levee.
Ecologically Sustainable Development (ESD) - Protection of the environment while allowing
for the development that improves the total quality of life, both now and in the future, in a way
that maintains the ecological processes on which life depends.
Ecology - The interrelationships between plants, animals and humans which compete and
depend on each other for existence in the physical environment.
EMC - Event Mean Concentration is defined as pollutant load washed off by a storm event
divided by the runoff volume.
Energy dissipator - Any means to reduce the total energy of flowing water especially highvelocity flows. In stormwater design, they are usually mechanisms that reduce velocity prior to,
or at, discharge from an outfall in order to prevent erosion. Materials used include gabions,
concrete splash pads, drop structures, riprap, and boulders.
Environment - Refers to the conditions in which an organism lives and survives or the
conditions in which an object or organism resides. These conditions can be described as aspects
of a physical, social or an economic environment, depending on the perspective perceived
by the observer. The Environmental Protection Act (1994) describes the environment as
including: (a) ecosystems and their constituent parts, including people and communities; (b) all
natural and physical resources; (c) the qualities and characteristics of locations, places and
areas, however large or small that contribute to their biological diversity and integrity, intrinsic
or attributed scientific value or interest, amenity, harmony and sense of community; and (d) the
social, economic, aesthetic and cultural conditions that affect, or are affected by things
mentioned in paragraphs (a) to (c).
Environmental Design Report (EDR) - Outlines the ways in which environmental
requirements outlined in the EMP (Planning) have been incorporated into the detailed design
and contract documentation. It is an audit report and not a contract document.
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) (Construction) - Prepared by the Construction
Contractor, considering the management of environmental impacts of activities in a given road
project during the Construction period. It identifies risks to the environment for the project and
the environmental requirements contained within the Contract documentation and outlines key
strategies for managing these risks and minimising undesirable environmental impacts.
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) (Maintenance) - Prepared by the Maintenance
Contractor. It considers the management of environmental impacts of activities in a given
maintenance project as well as environmental requirements contained within the Contract
documentation. It focuses on the minimisation of adverse effects (and the management of these
effects) on the environment by maintenance activities required.
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) (Planning) - Sets out the overall requirements,
outcomes and performance indicators for the design, construction and maintenance of a road
project.
March 2010
vii
Glossary
Environmental Monitoring - Includes activities which gather and evaluate information used
for the assessment of environmental performance.
Erosion - (1) The wearing away of the land surface by moving water, wind, ice or other
geological agents, including such processes as gravitational creep; (2) Detachment and
movement of soil or rock fragments by water, wind, ice or gravity. (i.e. accelerated, geological,
gully, natural, rill, sheet, splash, or impact, etc).
Erosion Control - Includes the protection of soil from dislocation by water, wind or other
agents.
Erosivity - The erosive potential of rainfall expressed as the product of total storm energy and
the maximum 30 minute intensity of each storm.
Extreme Flood - The rare flood event for which the performance of a detention basin or similar
structure should be checked in order to assess the economic and social risk that could be
associated with overtopping or failure of that structure.
Fan - A level to very gently inclined landform associated with rapidly migrating stream
channels. The landform occurs as a typical fan shape below uplands on hard rock and is formed
by deposition of alluvial material through overbank stream flow and overland sheet flow.
Filter Fabric - See Geotextile.
Filter Material - Granular material with the grading selected so that it will allow water to pass
through it, while retarding the movement of soil particles.
Filter Strip - Typically a long, relatively narrow area of undisturbed or planted vegetation used
to retard or filter sediment for the protection of watercourses, drainage basins, diversions,
reservoirs, or adjacent properties.
Flocculant - A chemical agent used to enhance the flocculation process (see Flocculation).
Flocculation - The process of combining individual soil particles to form larger aggregates to
facilitate settling.
Flood Boundary Line - A line defining the edge of the area submerged at the height of a flood.
Usually related to a given recurrence interval.
Floodgate - (1) A gate placed in a channel, drain or culvert to control the passage of flood or
tidal water; (2) A gate placed in a fence where it crosses a watercourse or drain, which permits
the passage of stormwater or floodwater but acts otherwise as an integral part of the fence.
Flood Immunity - Average recurrence interval (ARI) of a flood at the point of overtopping the
crown level or highest point of the road if superelevated.
Floodplain - The relatively flat area adjoining the channel of a natural stream which has been or
may be inundated with flood waters.
Floodway - Longitudinal depression in a carriageway specially constructed to allow the passage
of floodwater across it without damage.
Fraction Impervious - That part of a catchment which is impervious, expressed as a decimal or
percentage.
March 2010
viii
Glossary
Freeboard - The height between a given water level and the underside of a bridge, top of a
channel or embankment, or floor of a building to give a factor of safety against calculated
design flood levels.
Friction Slope - Sometimes referred to as the hydraulic gradient or pressure gradient and is the
slope of the line representing the pressure head, or piezometric head in a pipeline.
Froude Number - Froude number is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the inertial
forces over the weight of fluid.
For an irregular section F V
A
B
Where V is the mean velocity, A is the cross sectional area, B is the free surface width and g is
acceleration due to gravity.
When Fr < 1, then flow is subcritical, when Fr = 1, flow is critical and when Fr > 1, flow is
supercritical.
Gabion (reno mattress) - (1) Wire mesh basket or cage filled with rock and used to retain earth
or as a protecting agent against erosion. Used as energy dissipators, channel liners, steep-slope
protectors, and retaining walls; (2) Geotextiles filled with soil, in which cuttings (brush) are
placed used for streambank stabilisation and termed soft gabions.
Geofabric - See geotextile.
Geotextile (filter fabric, geofabric) - (1) A synthetic fabric, woven or non-woven, used for
various purposes including embankment reinforcing and stabilization, as a filter layer between
dissimilar materials and as a strain alleviating membrane; (2) Channel lining - to protect
channels against erosion and to filter fine particles from runoff.
Grading - Any stripping, cutting, filling, stockpiling, or combination thereof which modifies
the land surface.
Ground Water - The water below the water table.
Grubbing - The removal of roots and stumps below ground level.
Head - The difference in water level upstream and downstream of a structure.
Head Loss Coefficient (Pressure) - A dimensionless coefficient which, when multiplied by the
velocity head in the outlet pipe, gives the difference in the level of the hydraulic grade line
(HGL) between the inlet and outlet pipes. It may be positive (indicating that the HGL rises
upstream) or negative (indicating that the HGL is less upstream).
Headwater - The height of water above the invert of a culvert measured at the inlet of the
culvert.
High Level Basin Outlet - The outlet of a detention/retention basin from which flows greater
than those handled by the low level outlet will be discharged (usually a weir type or glory hole
spillway).
March 2010
ix
Glossary
March 2010
Glossary
Levee - An earth or rock embankment constructed to: prevent flooding of low lying land (for
example, along the banks of a stream or river), or control the level or direction of flow of water
at or into a structure.
Level Spreader - A device to convert channel or pipe flow to sheet flow to prevent
concentrated, erosive flows from occurring, and to enhance filtration.
Loss Rate - The rate at which rainfall is lost through processes such as infiltration, evaporation
and local storage, and therefore does not contribute to surface runoff.
Major Drainage System - The major drainage system is that part of the overall drainage
system which is designed to convey a specified rare flood event. This system may comprise: (a)
Open space floodway channels, road reserves, pavement expanses and other flow paths that can
act as overland flow paths for flows in excess of the capacity of the Minor Drainage System; (b)
Detention Basins and Lagoons; and (c) Major underground piped systems installed where
overland flow is either impractical or unacceptable.
Major Road - A road to which is assigned a permanent priority for traffic movement over that
of other roads.
Major Storm - The design storm with an average recurrence interval selected on the basis of
satisfying requirements for flood immunity and safety. Design may vary in accordance with
local authority guidelines. For most development in Queensland, the Major Storm has an ARI
of 100 years.
Mannings Roughness Coefficient - A measure of the surface roughness of a conduit or
channel to be applied in the Mannings equation.
Minor Drainage System - The minor drainage system includes kerbs and channels, roadside
channels, inlets, underground drainage, junction pits or access chambers and outlets designed to
fully contain and convey a design minor stormwater flow of specified Average Recurrence
Interval. This arrangement may also include: (a) field gully inlet pits, installed to collect surface
runoff from within allotments, as well as the roofwater drainage provisions for buildings; (b)
Cross drainage under minor roads where delay or inconvenience during major flows is
acceptable. This also includes low flow pipes or box culverts installed under floodways; and (c)
Low flow pipes installed under drainage reserves or park areas.
Minor Road - A road whose primary function is to provide access to individual properties.
Minor Storm - The design storm with an average recurrence interval selected on the basis of
satisfying requirements for convenience and safety of pedestrians and vehicles. Design may
vary in accordance with local authority guidelines. For most development in Queensland, the
Minor Storm has an ARI of between 2 and 10 years.
Mulch Anchoring - A method used to increase the effectiveness of mulch against surface
erosion by water and wind. Binding agents referred to as tackifiers are mixed with the mulch in
a water slurry prior to application.
Mulching - The application of plant residues or other suitable material to the land surface to
conserve moisture, hold the soil in place, aid in establishing plant cover, increase infiltration and
minimize temperature fluctuations.
March 2010
xi
Glossary
Normal Flow Conditions - A condition in open channel flow where the depth and velocity of
flow achieved is consistent with the prevailing channel shape, slope and roughness.
Obvert - The highest portion of the internal surface of a culvert or arch.
Open Graded Asphalt - A bituminous mix using aggregate containing only small amounts of
fine material, and providing a high percentage of air voids.
Outlet - The point at which water discharges from a stream, river, lake, tidewater, or artificial
drain.
Outlet Control - The situation where factors downstream of the culvert entry such as high
water level at the outlet govern the discharge characteristics.
Outlet Protection - scour protection placed downstream of a pipe or culvert outlet to complete
the transition between pipe flow and open channel flow. Pipe outlet protection may be provided
by energy dissipaters, channel protection (non-structural and structural methods), or a
combination of the two. See also Apron.
Overland Flow Path - Open space floodway channels, road reserves, pavement expanses and
other flow paths that convey flows typically in excess of the capacity of the Minor Drainage
System.
Pavement Immunity - An immunity defined to ensure part or all of a pavement is not
submerged in a flood with a given ARI.
Permeability - The property of a material by virtue of which a fluid such as water can pass
through it.
Pervious Surface (Pervious Area) - A surface or area within a drainage catchment where some
of the rainfall will infiltrate thus resulting in a reduced volume and rate of runoff e.g. grassed
playing fields, lawns etc.
Piping - Refer to Tunnel Erosion.
Pressure Change Coefficient - Refers to Head Loss Coefficient (Pressure).
Probable Maximum Flood - The theoretically greatest runoff event from a catchment.
Probable Maximum Precipitation - The greatest theoretical depth of precipitation for a given
duration that is physically possible over a catchment.
Rainfall Intensity - The rate of rainfall in millimetres per hour.
Reach - A section or length of stream/channel/river over which the physical characteristics are
similar.
Retention Basin - See Detention Basin.
Revetment - A facing of stone or other material laid on a sloping face of earth to maintain the
slope in position or to protect it from erosion.
Review of Environmental Factors REF (Concept) - Broadly identifies, describes and assesses
environmental advantages, disadvantages and constraints associated with particular broadly
defined routes or corridors during the Concept Phase of the Roads Delivery Program.
March 2010
xii
Glossary
Review of Environmental Factors REF (Planning) - Identifies, describes and assesses the
environmental advantages, disadvantages and constraints associated with chosen route options
during the Planning and Preliminary Design Phase.
Riprap - Medium to large size rock protection applied (usually by dumping) to the face of an
embankment, in a waterway or as an outlet protection from a storage.
Road - A route trafficable by motor vehicles; in law, the public right-of-way between
boundaries of adjoining property.
Rock Sediment Trap - Barriers consisting of rock placed in a channel to trap sediment through
the temporary detention of water.
Runoff - That portion of the water precipitated onto a catchment area which flows as surface
discharge from the catchment area past a specified point.
Run-On - Water that accumulates at a site (compared with runoff water that exits a site).
Scour - A term commonly used to mean localised erosion of a bank or channel which typically
occurs due to excessive slope, turbulence or flow velocity.
Sediment Basin - A basin or tank in which stormwater containing settleable solids is retained to
remove by gravity or filtration a part of the suspended matter.
Sediment Curtain - A piece of material, typically geotextile, attached to floats and weights and
extending from the floor of a water body (e.g. sea, lake, river) to the surface, and used to trap
sediments. Also referred to as Silt Curtain.
Sediment Fence - A barrier typically consisting of permeable material stretched between and
attached to supporting posts and entrenched in the earth.
Sediment Trap - Generally, sediment traps are smaller versions of sediment basins.
Sedimentation - Deposition of material of varying size, both mineral and organic, away from
its site of origin by the action of water, wind, gravity or ice.
Seeding - Refers to the establishment of perennial warm-season grasses for the stabilisation of
disturbed soils.
Sheet Flow - Water, usually storm runoff, flowing in a thin layer over the ground surface. Also
referred to as overland flow.
Silt - An alluvial material intermediate in particle size between sand and clay (0.002-0.02mm).
It is usually non-plastic.
Sodicity - A measure of the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil material. Soil
material with an ESP of < 6 is referred to as non sodic. Soil material with an ESP of 6-15 is
referred to as sodic. Soil material with an ESP > 15 is referred to as strongly sodic.
Soil Dispersion - The process by which soil aggregates disperse into individual particles (clay,
silt and sand) in water.
March 2010
xiii
Glossary
Specific Energy - Is the measure of the total energy of water flow at a particular location. It is
the combination of static, velocity and pressure heads and is measured as a height with the
channel bottom as the datum and expressed in metres of water.
For any cross sectional shape, the specific energy E at a particular section is defined as:
E y V
2g
Where V is the mean velocity, P is the pressure, is the density of water, y is the flow
depth, g is acceleration due to gravity and is the kinetic energy correction factor
which accounts for velocity variations across the section.
Spillway - An open or closed outlet used to convey water from a reservoir or basin. Usually
used to convey a given design runoff.
Sprayed Seal (Flush Seal) - A thin layer of binder sprayed onto a pavement surface with a
layer of aggregate incorporated and which is impervious to water.
Stabilisation (Soil) - The provision of adequate measures (vegetation, mulches, geotextiles, riprap, and other structural measures) to prevent erosion from occurring.
Stabilised Construction Exit - Stabilisation of exposed soil at construction exits to reduce or
eliminate sediment from leaving the construction site. Common materials or controls include
gravel, aggregate cover and timber, and cattle grids.
Stabilised Material (Soil) - A natural material which has been modified to improve or maintain
its load carrying capacity or reduce erosion. Modification may be by the addition of other
natural materials such as sand, loam or clay or of manufactured materials such as bitumen, lime
and cement.
Stream Bank Protection - Measures used to protect existing stream banks from eroding.
Measures may include loose or anchored materials such as large boulders, brush mats,
geotextiles, logs, or concrete.
Structure - Soil structure refers to the size, shape and arrangement of particles and aggregates,
and the size, shape and arrangement of voids or spaces separating the particles and aggregates.
Subcritical Flow - Flow in a channel or conduit which has a Froude number less than 1, a depth
greater than the critical depth and a velocity less than the critical velocity. In practice,
subcritical flows are controlled by the downstream flow conditions.
Subsoil Drain - A drain below the ground surface, which collects subsurface water throughout
its length.
Supercritical Flow - Flow in a channel or conduit which has a Froude number greater than 1, a
depth less than the critical depth and a velocity greater than the critical velocity. In practice,
supercritical flows are controlled from upstream.
Superelevation - (1) The continuous transverse slope normally given to the carriageway at
horizontal curves; (2) The phenomenon where flow around a horizontal curve in an open
channel is at a higher level at the outer edge than at the inner edge of the curve.
March 2010
xiv
Glossary
Surcharge Overflow - That portion of the flow which is forced out of a piped system at a gully
inlet, manhole or surcharge structure when the downstream pipe system capacity is exceeded.
Surface Condition - Surface condition refers to the characteristic appearance of the surface soil
when dry. Conditions including cracking, firm, loose and soft.
Swale - A shallow constructed channel, often grass-lined, which is used as an alternative to kerb
and channel, or as a pre-treatment to other measures. Swales are generally characterised by a
broad top width to depth ratio and gentle grades.
Table Drain - The side drain of a road adjacent to the shoulders, having its invert lower than
the subgrade level and being part of the formation.
Temporary Seeding - Refers to the use of soil stabilisation with grasses that will establish
quickly and have longevity of one year or less.
Terrace - A former flood plain on which alluvial deposition and erosion are barely active or
inactive.
Terracing - Grading technique which reduces slope length through the creation of benches.
Tidal Definitions:
(a) Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT) - Highest tide level which can be predicted to occur
under average meteorological conditions and under any combination of astronomical
conditions.
(b) Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) - Lowest tide level which can be predicted to occur
under average meteorological conditions and under any combination of astronomical
conditions.
(c) Mean High Water Springs (MHWS) - The long term average of the heights of two
successive high tides when the range of tide is greatest, at full moon and new moon.
(d) Mean Low Water Springs (MLWS) - The long term average of the heights of two
successive low tides when the range of tide is greatest, at full moon and new moon.
(e) Mean High Water Neaps (MHWN) - The long term average of the heights of two
successive high tides when the range of tide is the least, at the time of the first and last
quarter of the moon.
(f) Mean Low Water Neaps (MLWN) - The long term average of the heights of two
successive low tides when the range of tide is the least, at the time of the first and last
quarter of the moon.
(g) Mean Sea Level (MSL) - The average level of the sea over a long period.
(h) Storm Surge -The increase in sea level occurring during a cyclone resulting from the
combines effect of reduced atmospheric pressure and the build up of water against the
shore caused by onshore wind (wind stress).
(i) Wave Setup - The raising of sea level inside the surf zone resulting from the momentum
flux of broken waves.
March 2010
xv
Glossary
Time of Concentration - The shortest time necessary for all points on a catchment to contribute
simultaneously to runoff past a specified point.
Trafficability - A road is defined as trafficable when the total head (static plus velocity) across
a carriageway is less than or equal to 300 mm.
Transition Loss Coefficient - Coefficient associated with head losses at open channel
transitions.
Tunnel Erosion - The removal of subsoil by water while the surface remains relatively intact;
also referred to as piping.
Vegetative Protection - Stabilisation of erodible areas through covering with vegetation.
Velocity Head - A measure of the kinetic energy of flow in a pipe or channel and equal to V2/2g
where V is the average velocity of flow.
Water Surface Elevation - The elevation of the water surface reached in a gully inlet, manhole,
junction structure or open channel.
Water Table - (1) In an aquifer, the upper limit of the portion of ground saturated with water;
(2) The natural level at which water stands in a bore-hole or well under conditions of
equilibrium.
Watercourse - A river, creek or stream in which water flows permanently or intermittently in a
natural or artificial channel. For legal definition, refer Water Act 2000.
Waterway - (1) A channel or stream; (2) The area available for water to pass through or under a
structure.
March 2010
xvi
References
References
March 2010
References
Reference
Section
March 2010
ii
Description of Revision
Authorised
by
Date
Steering
Committee
Mar
2010
References
References
The following lists the references used (either cited or consulted) in compiling this manual.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). 1991. Model Drainage
Manual. Washington: unknown.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1992. Design and Construction of Urban Stormwater
Management Systems. Engineering Practice No 77. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers.
Australian National Committee On Large Dams (ANCOLD). 2000. Guidelines on Selection of Acceptable
Flood Capacity for Dams.
Argue, J. R. 1960. New Structure for Roadway Pipe Culverts. The Journal of the Institution of Engineers,
Australia. Sydney: Institution of Engineers, Australia.
Argue, J. R. 1986. Special Report No 34. Storm Drainage Design in Small Urban Catchments. Australia:
Australian Road Research Board.
Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC). 2000. Australian and
New Zealand Guidelines for fresh and marine water quality. Australia: unknown.
Australian Road Research Board (ARRB). 1987. Special Report No 35. Subsurface Drainage of Road
Structures. Australia: Australian Road Research Board.
Australian Road Research Board (ARRB). 1998. Part I Biodiversity and Road Drainage Issues, Part II
Practical Rules to Reduce Impacts of Drainage on Ecosystems and Part III Applications of Improved
Drainage Management. Draft. Australia: Australian Road Research Board.
Australian Standard (AS) 1348. 2002. Glossary of terms - Roads and traffic engineering. Australia:
Standards Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 1726. 1993. Geotechnical site investigations. Australia: Standards Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 1761. 1985. Helical lock-seam corrugated steel pipes. Australia: Standards
Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 1762. 1984. Helical lock-seam corrugated steel pipes - Design and installation.
Australia: Standards Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 2041. 1998. Buried corrugated metal structures. Australia: Standards Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 3725. 1989. Loads on Buried Concrete Pipes. Australia: Standards Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 3996. 2006. Access covers and grates. Australia: Standards Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 4058. 2007. Precast concrete pipes (pressure and non-pressure). Australia:
Standards Australia.
Australian Standard (AS) 4685.1. 2004. Playground equipment. Australia: Standards Australia.
Australian Water and Coastal Studies (AWACS). 1990. Smeaton Grange Industrial Development Hydraulic Model Testing of Drop Structure. Report 90/15. Sydney: unknown.
Austroads. 1994. Waterway Design - A guide to the hydraulic design of bridges, culverts and floodways.
Sydney: Austroads.
Austroads. 2005. Guidelines for the management of road surface skid resistance. Sydney: Austroads Inc.
Austroads. 2008a. Guide to Road Design. Part 5: Drainage Design. Sydney: Austroads Inc.
Austroads. 2008b. Guide to Road Design, Part 7: Geotechnical Investigation and Design. Sydney:
Austroads Inc.
March 2010
iii
References
Ball, J.E., Jenks, R. and Aubourg, D. 1998. An assessment of the availability of pollutant constituents on
road surfaces. The Science of the Total Environment, 209: 243-254.
Barnes, D., P. J. Bliss, B. W. Gould, and H. R. Vallentine. 1981. Water and Wastewater Engineering
Systems. Great Britain: Pitman.
Beecham, S. C. and S. J. Sablatnig. 1994. Hydraulic modelling of stormwater trash racks. Proceeding of
the International Conference on Hydraulics in Civil Engineering, NCP 94/1, 97-104.
Blaisdell, F. W. 1948. Development and Hydraulic Design, The SAF Stilling Basin. Report SCS-TP-79.
United States of America: US Soil Conservation Service.
Blaisdell, F. W. 1948. Development and Hydraulic Design, Saint Antony Falls Stilling Basin.
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 113. United States of America:
ASCE.
Blaisdell, F. W. 1949. The SAF Stilling Basin. Technical Bulletin No.79. United States of America: US
Soil Conservation Service.
BMT WBM 2007. State-wide Review of the Use of Road Runoff Treatment Devices and Water
Monitoring Programs. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads & BMT WBM Pty Ltd.
Bohan, J. P. 1970. Erosion and Riprap Requirements at Culvert and Storm-Drain Outlets. US Army
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Research Report H-70-2. Vicksburg, Mississippi: US Army.
Brater, E. F., H. W. King, J. E. Lindell and C. Y. Wei. 1996. Handbook of Hydraulics (Seventh Edition).
USA: McGraw-Hill
Brisbane City Council (BCC). 1996. Environmental Best Management Practice (Volume 1) for Erosion
and Sediment Control and for Waterways and Wetlands. Brisbane: Brisbane City Council.
Brisbane City Council (BCC). 2001. Sediment Basin Design, Construction and Maintenance Guidelines.
Brisbane: Brisbane City Council.
Bureau of Public Roads. 1965. Hydraulic Charts for the Selection of Highway Culverts. Washington DC:
US Department of Commerce.
Bureau of Reclamation. 1960. Design of Small Dams. Washington DC: US Department of the Interior.
Bureau of Reclamation. 1964. Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipaters, Engineering
Monograph No.25. Washington DC: US Department of the Interior.
Cameron and McNamara. 1966. Report on Model Investigation of Causeway Design for Commonwealth
Department of Works, Darwin and Queensland Main Roads Department. Unknown:
Camp, Dresser and McKee. 1993, California Storm Water Best Management Practice Handbooks:
Municipal. (prepared for California Stormwater Quality Task Force). Unknown:
Chiew, F. H. S., L. B. Mudgway, H. P. Duncan, and T. A. McMahon. 1997. Urban stormwater pollution.
Industry Report 97/5. Australia: CRC for Catchment Hydrology.
Chiu, A and W. R. Rahmann. 1980. Drainage Design and Outlet Protection. Brisbane: Department of
Main Roads.
Chow, V. T. 1959. Open Channel Hydraulics. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Inc.
Cotterell, E. 1998. Fish Passage in Streams: Fisheries guidelines for design of stream crossings.
Brisbane: Department of Primary Industries.
Cottman, N. H., and G. R. Mackay. 1990. Bridges and Culverts Reduced in Size and Cost by Use of
Critical Flow Transitions. Proceedings Institution Civil Engineers (London), Part 1, Volume 88.
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CSIRO. 1989. Greenhouse: Planning for
Climate Change. Melbourne: CSIRO Publishing.
Dash, D. M. 1977. Life Cycle Study F3 Sydney to Newcastle Highway, Surface Characteristics. Australia:
Roads and Transport Technology.
Dash, D. 2006. Aquaplaning literature review. Sydney: Roads and Traffic Authority (NSW).
March 2010
iv
References
Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering. 1996. Reducing Sediment Discharge from
Sedimentation Basins with Barriers and a Skimmer. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University.
Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering. 1996. Sedimentation Basins Evaluation and
Design Improvements. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University.
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (USA). 1975. Standards and Specifications for Soil
Erosion and Sediment Control in Developing Areas. Maryland:
Department of Conservation and Land Management (NSW). 1992. Urban Erosion and Sediment Control.
Sydney:
Department of Environment (QLD). 1997. A User's Guide to Queensland Environmental Protection
(Water) Policy. Brisbane:
Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation (QLD). 2009. Fish Habitat
Management Operational Policy (FHMOP 008) Waterway barrier works development approvals.
Brisbane: Queensland Fisheries
Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation (QLD). 2009. Fish Habitat
Management Operational Policy (FHMOP 008) Waterway barrier works development approvals.
Brisbane: Queensland Fisheries
Department of Housing (NSW). 1998. Managing Urban Stormwater - Soils and Construction (Third
Edition). Sydney:
Department of Land and Water Conservation (NSW). 1998. The constructed wetlands manual, Volume 1
and 2 Department of Land and Water Conservation. Sydney:
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 1997a. Erosion and Sediment Control Manual. Brisbane:
Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 1997b. Roads in the Wet Tropics - Planning, Design,
Construction, Maintenance and Operation Best Practice Manual. Brisbane: Queensland Department
of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 1997c. Road Landscape Manual. Brisbane: Queensland
Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 1998. Cultural Heritage Manual. Brisbane: Queensland
Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2000. Fauna Sensitive Road Design, Volume 1 - Past and
Existing Practices. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2001a. Queensland Environmental Legislation Register, 2nd
edition. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2001b. Road Maintenance Contracts, Volume 2: Open
Competition. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2002a. Asset Maintenance Guidelines. Brisbane: Queensland
Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2002b Road Drainage and Design Manual. Brisbane:
Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2003. Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Brisbane:
Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2004a. Road Maintenance Contracts, Volume 3: Guidelines
for undertaking maintenance. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2004b. Road Project Environmental Processes Manual.
Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
March 2010
References
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2005a. Preconstruction Processes Manual. Brisbane:
Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2005b. Road construction erosion & sediment control
workshop. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2006. Road Planning & Design Manual (RPDM) Bridges and
Retaining Walls (Chapter 22). Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2007a. Road Maintenance Contracts, Volume 1: Sole Invitee.
Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2007b. Road Traffic Noise Management: Code of Practice.
Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2008a. Guidelines for Strategic Road Network Planning.
Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2008b. Macrotexture and Microtexture for Road Surfacings Development of Interim Initial Standards. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2009a. Project Cost Estimating Manual. Brisbane:
Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Main Roads (QLD) (DMR). 2009b. Standard Drawings (Roads) Manual. Brisbane:
Queensland Department of Main Roads.
Department of Natural Resources & Water (QLD) (NR&W). 2007. Guidelines on Acceptable Flood
Capacity for Dams. Brisbane: Department of Natural Resources & Water
Department of Natural Resources & Water (QLD) (NR&W). 2008. Queensland Urban Drainage Manual
(QUDM). Brisbane: Department of Natural Resources & Water
Department of Primary Industries (DPI) (QLD). 1978. Soil Conservation Handbook. Brisbane:
Department of Primary Industries (DPI) (QLD). 1992. Soil Conservation Handbook Part 9 - Design of
Structures. Brisbane:
Department of Primary Industries (DPI) (QLD). 1998. Fisheries, Fish Passage in Streams - Fisheries
Guidelines for Design of Stream Crossings. Brisbane:
Department of Transport. 1978. Charts for the Hydraulic Design of Channels and Pipes. London, UK:
HMSO.
Department of Transport (QLD). 1975. Urban Road Design Manual - Volume 2. Brisbane:
Department of Transport and Main Roads (QLD) (TMR). 2010a. Road Planning & Design Manual - A
guide to QLD practice. Brisbane: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads.
Department of Transport and Main Roads (QLD) (TMR). 2010b. Soils Manual. Brisbane: Queensland
Department of Transport and Main Roads.
Department of Transport and Main Roads (QLD) (TMR). 2010c. Standard Specification Roads.
Brisbane: Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads.
Department of Transport (USA). 1972. Hydraulic Design of Improved Inlets for Culverts, Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No.13. Washington DC:
Department of Transport (USA). 1983. Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipaters for Culverts and
Channels. Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.14. Washington DC:
Department of Transportation (USA). 1995. Best Management Practices of Erosion and Sediment
Control. Washington DC:
March 2010
vi
References
Department of Urban Services (ACT). 1994. Urban Stormwater: Standard Engineering Practices.
Canberra:
Drapper, D., A. Bell, and R. Tomlinson. 1997. Analysing Runoff from Road Surfaces; Formulating a
Baseline for the Queensland Department of Main Roads. Storm Water and Soil Erosion 97
Conference, Brisbane.
Earley, P. C. 1979. Gully Inlet Spacing Design. Australia: University of Western Australia.
Emerson, W. W. 1967. A classification of soil aggregates based on their coherence in water. Australian
Journal of Soil Research No.5, 47-57.
Emerson, W. W. 1977. Determination of the contents of clay sized particles in soils. Journal of Soil
Science No.22, 50-59.
Engineers Australia. 2006. The Australian Runoff Quality A guide to Water Sensitive Urban Design.
Australia: Engineers Australia.
Environmental Protection Agency (NSW). 1997. Treatment techniques, Managing urban stormwater
series. Sydney:
Environmental Protection Agency (QLD). 2006. Queensland Water Quality Guidelines (QWQG).
Brisbane: EPA
Environmental Protection Agency (QLD). 2008. Best Practice Urban Stormwater Management - Erosion
and Sediment Control Guideline. Brisbane: EPA
eWater (2008). Catchment Modelling Toolkit, (http://www.toolkit.net.au/music). Canberra: eWater
Cooperative Research Centre (CRC).
Frankcombe, M. and R. Coventry. 2001. Townsville City Council, Revegetation Contractors, Natural
Resource Assessment, Catchments & Creeks. Erosion and Sediment Control Planning for North
Queensland. Unknown:
Franzini, J. B. and E. J. Finnemore. 1997. Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications (Nineth
Edition). USA: WCB McGraw-Hill
Freeman, G and L. Howells. 1995. Saline Flocculation in Stormwater Quality Management. Proceedings
of the 3rd Annual Conference on Soil and Water Management for Urban Development. Sydney:
International Erosion Control Association of Australasia.
Foucard, J. 2005. Role of tires in the skid resistance phenomenon. France:
Gallaway, B. M, R. E. Schiller Jr and J. G. Rose. 1971. The Effects of Rainfall Intensity, Pavement Cross
Slope, Surface Texture and Drainage Length on Pavement Water Depths. Texas: Texas
Transportation Institute
Gallaway, B. M., G. G. Hayes, D. L. Ivey, W. B. Ledbetter, R. M. Olsen, H. E. Ross Jr, R. E. Schiller Jr,
and D. L. Woods. 1979. Pavement and Geometric Design Criteria for Minimising Hydroplaning.
Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
Gillespie, T.D. 1992. Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc.
Goldrick, D. A., I. Yassini, and B. G. Jones. 1996. Flocculation Behaviour of West Dapto and Albion
Park Soils Types in Urban Runoff Treatments. Proceedings of the 4th Annual Conference on Soil and
Water Management for Urban Development. Sydney: International Erosion Control Association of
Australasia.
Gothi, M. 2005. Water Influence on Skid Resistance, Surface Friction: Roads & Runways Conference, 14 May 2005, New Zealand.
Griffith University and RUST PPK. 1997. Erosion Treatment for Urban Creeks, Guidelines for Selecting
Remedial Works Guidelines for Brisbane City. Brisbane:
Hare, C. M. 1983. Magnitude of Hydraulic Losses at Junctions in Piped Drainage Systems. Australian
Transactions, Volume CE25. Australia: Institution of Engineers.
March 2010
vii
References
Hee, M. 1969. Hydraulics of Culvert Design Including the Constant Energy Concept. Queensland Local
Government Engineers' Conference, Brisbane.
Hee, M. 1978a. Hydraulic Calculations for Bridges and Culverts. 2nd Conference, Road Engineering
Association of Asia and Australasia. Manila, Philippines.
Hee, M. 1978b. Selected Case Histories. Workshop on Minimum Energy Design of Culvert and Bridge
Waterways. Australian Road Research Board.
Hee, M. 1993. Practical and Legal Aspects of Floodway Design. First Annual Conference, the Institution
of Municipal Engineers, Queensland Division.
Henderson, F. M. 1970. Open Channel Flow. United States of America: Prentice Hall
Higgins, R. G. and R. J. Campbell. 1997. Pacific Motorway (Logan to Nerang) - Case Study:
Management of Water Quality Impacts. Brisbane: Department of Main Roads.
Highway Department. 1962. Hydraulic Manual. Texas:
Highway Research Board. 1971. Design of Culverts, Energy Dissipaters and Filter Systems, Record
No.373. Washington DC:
Horner, R. R., J. J. Skupien, E. H. Livingston, and H. E. Shaver. 1994. Fundamentals of urban runoff
management. Washington DC: Terrene Institute.
Horne, W. B. 1968. Tire Hydroplaning and its Effects on Tire Traction. HRR. No. 214.
Hunt, J. S. 1992. Urban Erosion and Sediment Control. (revised edition). Sydney: Department of
Conservation and Land Management.
Ibrahim, A and F. Hall. 1994. Effect of Adverse Weather Conditions on Speed-Flow-Occupancy
Relationships. TRR No. 1457
IECA (Australasia) 2008. Best practice erosion and sediment control. International Erosion Control
Association (Australasia).
Institution of Engineers, Australia (IEAust). 1977. Australian Rainfall and Runoff Flood Analysis and
Design. Barton, ACT: Institution of Engineers, Australia
Institution of Engineers, Australia (IEAust). 1985. Guidelines for the Design of Detention Basins and
Grassed Waterways for Urban Drainage Systems. Sydney:
Institution of Engineers, Australia (IEAust). 1987a. Australian Rainfall and Runoff - Guide to Flood
Estimation, Vol 1. Barton, ACT: Institution of Engineers, Australia
Institution of Engineers, Australia (IEAust). 1987b. Australian Rainfall and Runoff - Guide to Flood
Estimation, Vol 2. Barton, ACT: Institution of Engineers, Australia
Institution of Engineers, Australia (IEAust). 1996. Soil Erosion and Sediment Control Engineering
Guidelines for Queensland Construction Sites. (prepared by G. Witheridge and R. Walker). Brisbane:
Institution of Engineers, Australia (IEAust). 2001. Australian Rainfall and Runoff - Guide to Flood
Estimation, Vol 1. Barton, ACT: Institution of Engineers, Australia
Isbell, R.F. 2002. The Australian soil classification. Revised edition, CSIRO Publishing.
James Cook University of North Queensland (JCU). 1977. Numerical Simulation of Tropical Cyclone
Storm Surge Along the Queensland Coast, Parts I to X. (prepared for Beach Protection Authority,
Department of Environment and Heritage). Townsville:
Keim, S. R. 1962. The Contra Costa Energy Dissipater. Journal of the Hydraulic Division, Proceedings
of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vo188, No.HY2.
Korom, S. F., S. Sarikelle and A. L. Simon. 1990. Design of Hydraulic Jump Chamber. Journal of the
Hydraulic Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 116, No.HY2.
Lawrence, I. and Breen, P. 1998. Design Guidelines: Stormwater Pollution Control Ponds and Wetlands.
Canberra: Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Freshwater Ecology.
March 2010
viii
References
Landcom 2004. Managing urban stormwater: Soils and construction. (Fourth edition). Landcom NSW.
Local Government and Shires Association (NSW). 1982. Residential Standards Manual. Sydney:
Loch, R. J., B. K. Slater, and C. Devoil. 1998. Soil erodibility (Km) values for some Australian soils.
Australian Journal of Soil Research.
Maccaferri Gabions (London). 1973. River and Sea Gabions, London:
MacDonald, T. C. 1969. Energy Dissipaters for Large Culverts. Journal of the Hydraulic Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vo195, No.HY6.
Matthews, M. 2007. Manual for Erosion and Sediment Control Version 1.1. Maroochy Shire Council,
Qld.
McDonald, R. C., R. F. Isbell, J. G. Speight, J. Walker, and M. S. Hopkins. 1990. Australian soil and
land survey field handbook. (Second edition). Australia: Inkata Press.
McDonald, R. C., R. F. Isbell, J. G. Speight, J. Walker, M. S. Hopkins, L. J. Gregory, R. J. Hnatiuk and
R. Thackway. 2009. Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook. (Third edition). Australia:
CSIRO Publishing.
Meredith, D.D. 1975. Model Study of Culvert Energy Dissipater. Journal of the Hydraulic Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 101, No.HY3.
Ministry of Works and Development (NZ). 1978. Culvert Manual. Christchurch:
Mockmore, C. E. 1944. Flow Round Bends in Stable Channels. Transactions of the American Society of
Civil Engineers, Volume 109. United States of America: ASCE.
Moore, D. F. 1975. The friction of pneumatic tyres. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
Morse, McVey and Associates. 1993. Soil and Water Management for Urban Development. (prepared for
New South Wales Department of Housing). Sydney:
Moreton Bay Waterways and Catchments Partnership (MBWCP). 2006. Water Sensitive Urban Design
Technical Design Guidelines for South East Queensland. Brisbane: Moreton Bay Waterways and
Catchments Partnership
Mudgway, L. B., H. P. Duncan, T. A. McMahon and F. H. S. Chiew. 1997. Best Practice Environment
Management Guidelines for Urban Stormwater. Australia: CRC for Catchment Hydrology.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA). 1983. Guide to the Control of
Moisture in Roads. Sydney: NAASRA
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA). 1986. Guide to the design of Road
Surface Drainage. Sydney: NAASRA
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA). 1989. Bridge Waterways
Hydrology and Design. Sydney: NAASRA
National Capital Development Commission. 1988. Design Manual for Urban Erosion and Sediment
Control. Unknown:
Neill, C. R. 1973. Guide to Bridge Hydraulics. Canada: Roads and Transportation Association of Canada.
New South Wales Soil Conservation Service. 1998. Construction Site Erosion and Sediment Control
Course Notes. Sydney: (authors: A. King, D. Greentree and D. Height)
North Carolina Department of Transportation. 1992. Erosion and Sediment Control Guidelines for
Division Maintenance Operations. Raleigh, North Carolina:
North Carolina Department of Transportation. 1995. Erosion and Sediment Control Guidelines for
Contract Construction. Raleigh, North Carolina:
North Carolina Sediment Control Commission. 1992. Erosion and Sediment Control - Inspector's Guide.
Raleigh, North Carolina:
March 2010
ix
References
North Carolina Sediment Control Commission. 1993. Erosion and Sediment Control Planning and
Design Manual, 1993. Raleigh, North Carolina:
O'Loughlin, E. M. 1960. Culvert Investigations by Hydraulic Models, Harbours and Marines Branch,
Hydraulic Laboratory. Sydney: Department of Public Works.
Oliver, J. W. H. 1979. Surface Drainage of Road Pavements, the Problem. Australia: ARRB.
Orange County Planning Department. 1989. Soil Erosion and Sediment Control Manual. Hillsborough,
North Carolina:
Peterka, A.J. 1984. Hydraulic Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipaters. USBR Engineering
Monograph 25. Denver: US Bureau of Reclamation.
Premier's Department (QLD). 1989. The Greenhouse Effect: Implications for Queensland A Discussion
Paper. Brisbane:
Queensland Fisheries (QF). 2009. Fish Habitat Management Operational Policy (FHMOP 008)
Waterway barrier works development approvals. Brisbane: Queensland Fisheries (part of Department
of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation)
Rand, W. 1955. Flow Geometry at Straight Drop Spillways, Transactions of the American Society of
Civil Engineers. Volume 81, No 791. United States of America: ASCE.
Rice, C. E. and K. C Kadavy. 1991. HGL Elevation at Pipe Exit of USBR Type VI Impact Basin. Journal
of the Hydraulic Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 117,
No.HY7.
Ritchie, J.A. 1963. Earthwork Tunnelling and the Application of Soil Testing Procedures. Journal of the
Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales, No.19, 111-129.
Roads and Traffic Authority (NSW). 1993. Road Design Guide - Section 8 "Erosion and Sedimentation".
Sydney:
Roads and Traffic Authority (NSW). 1994. Draft Guidelines for Limiting the Risk of Aquaplaning on
Roads. Sydney:
Roads and Traffic Authority (NSW). 1995. Water Quality Management. Sydney:
Roads and Traffic Authority (NSW). 1996. Road Design Guidelines. Sydney:
Roads and Transportation Association of Canada. 1982. Drainage Manual, Volume 1. Canada:
Rosenthal, K. M. and B. J. White. 1980. Distribution of a rainfall erosion index in Queensland. Land
Utilisation Report 80/8. Australia: Queensland Department of Primary Industries.
Rosewell, C. J. and J. B. Turner. 1992. Rainfall Erosivity in New South Wales. CaLM Technical Report
No.20, NSW. Department of Soil Conservation and Land Management. Sydney:
Rosewell, C. J. and R. J. Loch. 2002. Estimation of the RUSLE soil erodibility factor, in soil physical
measurement and interpretation for land evaluation. (McKenzie, N., Coughlan, K. and Cresswell,
H.) of CSIRO Publishing.
Ross, N. F. and K. Russam. 1968. The Depth of Rain Water on Road Surfaces. Berkshire: Road Research
Laboratory.
Rouven, N., R-M. Li and D. B. Simons. 1981. Flow Resistance in Vegetated Waterways. United States of
America: American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
Sangster, W. M., H. W. Wood, E. T. Smerdon and H. G. S. Bossy. 1958. Pressure Changes at Storm
Drain Junctions, Engineering Series Bulletin No 41, Engineering Experimental Station. United States
of America: University of Missouri.
Schueler, T. R., P. A. Kumble and M. A. Heraty. 1992. A Current Assessment of Urban Best Management
Practices: Techniques for Reducing Non-point Source Pollution in the Coastal Zone. United States of
America: US Environment Protection Authority.
March 2010
References
SMEC 2008. Literature Review: Road Runoff Quality and Treatment Technologies. Queensland
Department of Main Roads & SMEC.
Smith, C. D. and J. Yu. 1966. Use of Baffles in Open Channel Expansions. Journal of the Hydraulic
Division, Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vo192, No.HY2, plus various
discussions: Skogerboe, G. V., M. Leon Hyatt and M. M. Soliman. 1966. ASCE No.HY5, 255-261;
Rao, B. V., V. J. Galay and W. H. R. Nimmo. 1966. ASCE No.HY6, 212-215; Dake, J. M. K., S. Kar,
S. Raghunathan, V. C. Kulandaiswamy and M. Narayanan. 1967. ASCE No.HYl, 78-85; Smith, C. D.
and J. Yu. 1967. ASCE No.HY4, 273-275.
Speight, J. G. S. 1990. Landform, in Australian soil and land survey field handbook (second edition).
Australia: Inkata Press.
Vallentine, H. R., R. T. Hattersley and B. A.Cornish. 1961. Low Cost Scour Control at Culvert Outlets
Reports 48 and 62. Sydney: University of New South Wales.
VicRoads. 1995. Road Design Guidelines, Part 7, Drainage. Melbourne: VicRoads.
Water Resources Commission. 1998. A Manual for Managing Urban Stormwater Quality in Western
Australia. Perth: Water Resources Commission.
Willing and Partners Pty Ltd. 1992. Design guidelines for gross pollutant traps. (prepared for ACT
Department of Environment, Land and Planning and the Department of Urban Services). Canberra:
Wischmeier, W. H. and D. D. Smith. 1978. Predicting rainfall erosion losses, a guide to conservation
planning, USDA Agriculture Handbook Number 537. United States of America: unknown.
Witheridge, G. M. and R. B. Tomlinson. 1995. Water Under the Bridge, Engineering Update, Institution
of Engineers, Australia, Queensland Division, Technical Papers. Brisbane: IEAust.
Witheridge, G. M. 1997a. Design of Energy Dissipators: Engineering Update Volume 5 No.2. Brisbane:
IEAust.
Witheridge, G. M. 1997b. Design of Energy Dissipators. Technical Paper 3, Engineering Update,
Institution of Engineers, Australia, Queensland Division, pp.3-10. Brisbane: IEAust.
Witheridge, G. S. 1997c. Erosion and Sediment Control in Road Design and Construction.
Wong, T. H. F. 2000. Improving Urban Stormwater Quality From Theory to Implementation. Water
Journal of the Australian Water Association, Vol. 27 No. 6, November/December, 2000, pp. 28-31.
Wong, T., T. Fletcher, H. Duncan, J. Coleman, and G. Jenkins. 2002. A Model for Urban Stormwater
Improvement Conceptualisation (MUSIC) (Version 1.00). Melbourne: CRC for Catchment Hydrology.
Wright-McLaughlin Engineers. 1969. Urban Storm Drainage - Criteria Manual, Volume 2. Denver:
Yeager, R. W. 1974. Tire Hydroplaning: Testing, Analysis and Design. Plenum Press.
March 2010
xi