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ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
207
7.1 Introduction:
Flexible pavements consist of one or more asphalt layers and usually also a
base. Mostly the base is composed of unbound (granular) materials but also
bound bases (obtained by stabilizing the base material with e.g. cement) are
applied. In The Netherlands the asphalt layer(s) plus the (un)bound base are
normally resting on sand, either the natural sand subgrade or a constructed
sand sub-base. Figure 7.1 is an example of a flexible pavement structure for a
motorway.
50 mm porous asphalt wearing course
210 mm stone asphalt concrete,
4 layers: 3 x 50 mm + 1 x 60 mm
7.2
Stresses in a half-space:
When a load, uniformly distributed over a circular contact area (e.g. a truck
wheel load) is placed on a homogeneous soil then normal and shear stresses
occur at any soil element. This is schematically shown in figure 7.2.
Logically the stresses are dependent on the magnitude of the wheel load, the
radius of the circular contact area and the distance to the center of the load.
Boussinesq has developed equations to determine the vertical stress and the
radial stress on a vertical line through the load center (the shear stresses are
zero because of symmetry). These equations are:
z = p ( 1 z3 / {( a2 + z2 )1.5 })
r = ( p/2 ) {( 1 + 2 ) 2 ( 1 + ) z / [( a2 + z2 )1.5 ] + z3 / [( a2 + z3 )1.5 ]}
t = r
rz = zr = 0; rt = tr = 0; zt = tz = 0
where:
p
a
z
r
= contact pressure,
= radius of the load contact area,
= depth below the surface,
= radial distance to the load centre,
= Poissons ratio.
209
Dry season
Wet season
Cohesion c [kPa]
600
200
210
211
In this specific example only the stresses in the load center (r = 0) are taken
into account.
It follows from figure 7.3 that the occurring deviatoric stress dev is greatest at
a depth of 0.168 m (z = a):
z = 0.6 x p = 510 kPa, r = t = 0.1 x p = 85 kPa, dev = z - t = 425 kPa
The Mohrs circle of occurring stresses now can be drawn, see figure 7.4. This
figure learns that in the dry season the stress circle remains very much below
Coulombs failure envelope. To a smaller extent this is also valid for the (most
critical) wet season. The conclusion from this analysis is that the laterite road
is strong enough to carry the limited number of 150 kN axle loads.
But then another transport-firm starts to use the road and that firm places
such a great amount of products on its trucks that it results in extreme heavy
axle loads of 225 kN. In such a case also the tyre pressure must increase, say
to 1275 kPa. So both the axle load and the tyre pressure increase with a
factor of 1.5. This means that the radius of the contact area remains the
same: a = 0.168 m. The occurring stresses at the depth z = 0.168 m thus also
increase with a factor of 1.5. Figure 7.4 shows that the Mohrs circle for these
occurring stresses just touches the Coulombs failure envelope for the wet
season. This means that the road immediately fails (shear failure) due to the
passage of only one such heavily overloaded truck in the wet season!
cirkels van Mohr en faalomhullenden
1200
schuifspanning [kPa]
1000
800
600
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
-200
spanning [kPa]
Figure 7.4: Mohrs circles and Coulombs failure envelopes for the laterite
road.
In The Netherlands earth and gravel roads form only a very small part of the
road network. However, still today the great majority of the world road network
(around 70%) consists of earth and gravel roads!
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7.3
Burmister was the first person that developed mathematical solutions for the
calculation of the stresses due to traffic loadings in a two-layer system. These
mathematical solutions are also transformed into graphs and the most
important ones are presented in the figures 7.5, 7.6 en 7.7. Figure 7.5 enables
the determination of the radial stress at the bottom of the top-layer in the load
center. The vertical stress at the top of the subgrade in the load centre can be
determined with figure 7.6. Finally figure 7.7 allows the determination of the
vertical displacement (deflection) at the pavement surface in the load center.
It is important to realize that the magnitude of the occurring traffic load
stresses is dependent on the magnitude and the geometry of the load, the
ratio of the thickness of the top-layer and the radius of the circular contact
area, and the ratio of the elastic modulus values of the top-layer and the
bottom layer (subgrade).
When using the graphs it should be realized that they are all valid for a
Poissons ratio of 0.5 for both layers and that full bond between the top-layer
and the subgrade has been assumed.
The use of the graphs is illustrated with an example for a motorway pavement
structure that consists of 300 mm asphalt (h) directly laid on the sand
subgrade. The elastic modulus E1 of the asphalt amounts 5000 MPa and the
elastic modulus E2 of the sand subgrade is 100 MPa. The pavement structure
is subjected to wheel loadings of 50 kN and the tyre pressure (contact
pressure) is 700 kPa. We want to know the radial stress at the bottom of the
asphalt top-layer in the load center as well as the vertical stress at the top of
the sand subgrade in the load center.
It can be calculated from the magnitude of the wheel load and the contact
pressure that the radius of the circular contact area a = 150 mm.
So we find:
E1 / E2 = 50, h / a = 2, p = 700 kPa.
To determine the radial stress at the bottom of the asphalt the bottom graph of
figure 7.5 is the easiest one to use. It is read from this graph:
-r / p = 1
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Figure 7.5: Graphs for determination of the radial stress in the load center at
the bottom of the top-layer of a two-layer system (1).
214
Figure 7.6: Graph for determination of the vertical stress in the load center at
the top of the bottom layer of a two-layer system (1).
215
The minus sign means that the radial stress is a flexural tensile stress
because the contact pressure is a compressive stress. In the remaining part
of this calculation example tensile stresses are however given a positive sign
and compressive stresses a negative sign, which results in:
r = -1 x p = -1 x -700 = 700 kPa
It appears from figure 7.6 that:
z / p = 0.043
In this case z and p have the same sign and that means that z is a
compressive stress. This leads to:
z = 0.043 x p = 0.043 x -700 = -30 kPa
In chapter 4 it has been explained that knowledge about the fatigue behavior
of asphalt is important because a (truck) wheel load does not pass only one
time over the pavement but millions of times. It was also discussed in chapter
4 that usually the occurring strain instead of the stress is used as input in the
asphalt fatigue relationship. This implies that the occurring strain at the bottom
of the asphalt layer must be known for the determination of the allowable
number of load repetitions until fatigue damage (cracking) occurs.
This strain cannot be calculated with the equation = /E because at the
bottom of the asphalt layer there is not a one-dimensional but a threedimensional stress situation.
In the load centre at the bottom of the asphalt layer there is not only a radial
stress r but also a tangential stress t (see also figure 7.2). The vertical line
through the load center is the axis of symmetry, therefore is valid t = r and
the shear stresses are zero.
Furthermore there is a vertical stress at the bottom of the asphalt layer.
Because of the required balance of vertical stresses the vertical stress at the
bottom of the asphalt layer is equal to the vertical stress at the top of the
subgrade, and this has already been determined above.
At the bottom of the asphalt layer in the load center thus the following
stresses are present:
r = t = 700 kPa, z = -30 kPa
The radial strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer can now be calculated with
the equation:
r = [r - t - z] / E1 = [0.7 0.5 x 0.7 0.5 x (-0.03)] / 5000 = 7.3 x 10-5
Be aware of the fact that the stresses were calculated in kPa while the elastic
modulus E1 of the asphalt was given in MPa. For the calculation of the asphalt
strain all values are given in MPa.
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To enable the calculation of the vertical strain z at the top of the subgrade the
radial stress r and the tangential stress t at that location must be known.
These stresses are however absolutely not equal to r and t at the bottom of
the asphalt layer.
Another question is whether it is also possible to calculate the stresses z, r
and t at the surface of the top-layer in the load center. This is not possible
through the given graphs but reasonable estimates can nevertheless be
made. Because of the balance of vertical stresses, the vertical stress at the
surface of the top-layer must be equal to the contact pressure, so in that point
is valid:
z = -700 kPa.
It is furthermore known that the asphalt top-layer behaves as a bending beam
under the wheel loading and that its neutral line will be somewhat below the
middle of the top-layer. When the ratio E1 / E2 increases the neutral line
moves into the direction of the middle of the top-layer. The horizontal stresses
at the top of the layer therefore will be about equal to the horizontal stresses
at the bottom of the layer. The sign is however opposite as through the
bending flexural compressive stresses are present in the upper part of the
asphalt layer and flexural tensile stresses in the lower part. At the surface of
the top-layer in the load center the stresses are thus:
r = t -700 kPa
Figure 7.8 presents the radial stresses r in a two-layer system. The figure
makes clear that the top-layer indeed acts as a bending beam: in the case of
a ratio E1 / E2 of 10 and higher the neutral line is about in the middle of the
top-layer.
Figure 7.8: Radial stresses in the load center as a function of depth in a twolayer system (1).
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7.4
Graphs are also available to determine the occurring stresses, strains and
displacements in three-layer systems. The use of these graphs is however
rather complicated and therefore no attention is given to them. Another
reason to do so is that the analyses can also be done fast and easy with one
of the available linear-elastic multi-layer computer programs. In this paragraph
therefore the computer program WESLEA is discussed that is added to these
lecture notes on a CD-ROM. Appendix I gives a short description how the
input for this program has to be prepared and how the output is obtained. The
use of the WESLEA program is further explained here by discussing a small
example problem.
The example problem concerns the calculation, for the three-layer system
depicted in figure 7.9, of the stresses and strains at the bottom of the asphalt
layer and at the top of the subgrade, in both cases in the load centre. The
required input parameters are all given in figure 7.9. Full bond between the
various layers is assumed. The location at the bottom of the asphalt layer is
referred to as position 1 and the location at the top of the subgrade as
position 2.
After having prepared the input as explained in Appendix I and having done
the calculation, the results given in table 7.1 are obtained.
Remark! The sign convention used in WESLEA is different from the one used
until now. WESLEA uses the so-called soil mechanics convention; in this
convention a tensile stress or tensile strain gets the sign, while a
compressive stress or compressive strain gets the + sign.
50 kN wheel load
tyre pressure 700 kPa
200 mm asphalt, E = 5000 MPa, = 0.35
r, r
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Position 1
X
-798.02
-112.02
Y
-798.02
-112.02
Z
118.31
135.38
240.54
Position 2
X
-1.96
-81.64
Y
-1.96
-81.64
Z
31.35
218.14
185.07
Table 7.1: The stresses and strains calculated with WESLEA in the two
positions indicated in figure 7.9.
In figure 7.9 the stress and the strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer are
indicated as r and r respectively, while WESLEA gives the stresses in
Cartesian coordinates. However, for an axial symmetric load (such as the one
in this example) in the vertical line through the load center is valid: r = t = x
= y.
So it is very easy to calculate the occurring stresses and strains in any point
of a certain asphalt pavement structure by means of the WESLEA program.
The obtained output allows a pavement life analysis that is discussed in the
following paragraph.
7.5
7.5.1 Introduction:
In this paragraph the principles of the structural design of an asphalt
pavement and the determination of its life are discussed. Prior to that however
attention is paid to the various types of damage that may occur on asphalt
pavements and that in principle should be taken into account in the structural
design. It will appear from the overview of damage types that in this course
only a limited number of damage types is addressed and that only a limited
number of design criteria is taken into account.
7.5.2 Damage types on asphalt roads and design criteria to be used:
When determining the required thickness of an asphalt pavement structure
two design criteria should be taken into account, i.e. cracking and permanent
deformation. It already has been explained that horizontal tensile stresses and
horizontal tensile strains occur at the bottom of an asphalt layer, laid directly
on the subgrade or on an unbound base, due to bending of the structure
under the traffic load. After many load repetitions these flexural tensile
stresses/strains may lead to fatigue cracking. This fatigue cracking starts at
the bottom of the asphalt layer, gradually propagates upward and finally
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appears at the road surface as so-called alligator cracking in the wheel tracks.
Figure 7.10 shows an example of this particular type of cracking. An asphalt
pavement structure must be designed in such a way that this type of serious
damage does not occur too early.
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is not the right place to extensively discuss the occurrence and propagation of
surface cracking; reference is made to the course CT4860 Structural design
of pavements. One should however realize that surface cracking is a major
reason for maintenance of asphalt wearing courses.
Asphalt layers are not only applied on an unbound base but also frequently on
a cement-bound base. For instance, on Amsterdam Airport Schiphol the
pavement structure on a runway consists of 200 mm polymer-modified
asphalt layers on 600 mm lean concrete base. Although a linear elastic multilayer calculation reveals that no tensile stresses or tensile strains occur at the
bottom of the asphalt layer, there are however cracks present in the asphalt.
The causes of these cracks are the following.
Each cement-bound material will try to shrink due to the hardening process
and due to a decrease of temperature. The shrinkage is however to a great
extent obstructed because of the friction with the underlying layer and this
results in tensile stresses in the cement-bound material. If these tensile
stresses become too great (shrinkage) cracks occur. This type of cracking is
thus strongly dependent on the climatic conditions and on the properties of
the cement-bound material. The shrinkage cracks remain not exclusively
within the cement-bound base but they want to propagate into the bonded
asphalt layers. This mechanism is schematically shown in figure 7.11a.
The material properties of the cement-bound base exhibit quite some variation
and as a result also the distance between the (transverse) cracks varies. The
greater the strength of the cement-bound base material, the greater both the
crack distance and the crack width and the movements around the crack due
to temperature variations. So the greater the crack distance the greater the
movements at the crack and the more heavily loaded the bonded asphalt.
asphalt
originally
closed crack
opens
because of
shrinkage
cement-bound
base
Figure 7.11: Propagation of cracks from the cement-bound base into the
bonded asphalt layer.
The effects of the temperature movements can be reduced by regulation of
the crack distance in the cement-bound base. On Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
this has been done by creating notches, to a depth of 1/3 of the base
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thickness, at regular distances (about 7 m). Through these notches the base
weakens to such an extent that the shrinkage cracks will occur there. The
limited crack distance results in smaller movements around the crack and as
a result the asphalt layer is less heavily loaded. The principle of a notch is
similar to that of a contraction joint in plain concrete pavements (see chapter
5).
But even a narrow crack always is a weak point in the pavement structure. At
such a crack bending moments cannot be transmitted, load transfer is only
possible through cross-forces. As indicated in figure 7.11b, during the
passage of a wheel load not only substantial shear stresses occur in the
asphalt layer above the crack but also an extra large bending moment, and as
a result the crack wants to propagate from the base into the asphalt layer. The
asphalt layer also has to be designed to resist this type of cracking. This
subject is however outside the scope of this course; reference is made to the
course CT4860 Structural design of pavements.
Permanent deformation of the various pavement layers due to the repeated
traffic loadings is another important type of damage that should be taken into
account in the structural pavement design. Such permanent deformations
manifest themselves as rutting in the wheel tracks. Figure 7.12 is an example
of this type of damage.
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223
224
In the calculations much care must be taken that the correct units are used
because nonsense in = nonsense out.
Also realistic layer thicknesses should be used! The minimum thickness of a
layer is about 2.5 to 3 times the maximum grain size.
Probably a number of calculations, with different layer thicknesses, are
required to obtain the desired pavement life. Adapting the layer thicknesses
has to be done in a systematic way and care must be taken that the stresses
and strains are calculated at the correct positions within the (modified)
pavement structure. It is recalled that WESLEA uses the soil mechanics sign
convention, so the sign means tension and the + sign means compression.
Pavement life
The fatigue life of the asphalt can be determined on the basis of the
calculated strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer. The fatigue life resulting
from the (laboratory) fatigue relationship has to be multiplied with the factors
for healing (see chapter 4, paragraph 4.11.2) and for lateral wander (as stated
earlier, a value of 2.5 is a reasonable assumption for the lateral wander
factor).
The pavement life based on the subgrade criterion is found by inputting the
calculated vertical compressive strain in the subgrade criterion given in
chapter 4, paragraph 4.3. This found pavement life of course should not be
multiplied with the healing factor and the lateral wander factor (you should be
able to explain why this should not be done).
7.6
References:
1.
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APPENDIX I
MANUAL FOR THE PROGRAM WESLEA
226
Introduction:
The WESLEA program has been developed for the American Waterways
Experiment Station (WES) of the US Army Corps of Engineers. It is a linear
elastic multi-layer program that enables the analysis of a pavement structure
consisting of maximum 5 layers (the subgrade counts as one layer). The
number of circular loads is maximum 20. This is a very useful option because
it enables to analyze the effects of complex load systems such as the landing
gears of a Boeing 747 aircraft.
There are two options with respect to the bond between the layers:
a. the subsequent layers are fully bonded to each other (this is the most
commonly used option),
b. the subsequent layers are not bonded to each other, so they can slip
along each other without any friction (this option is only used for very
special cases).
The starting point in the following description of the input and output of the
program is the example given in figure 7.9.
The input:
On the main screen you first click units and then SI.
You have to realize that the WESLEA program has originally been developed
for the American system of units. Your input in SI-units therefore is converted
into American units and then of course some round-off errors occur. Also in
the output you will notice this.
Next you click input and then structure. You input that the number of
layers is 3.
The next step is the input of the properties of the various pavement layers. As
material for layer 1 you chose asphalt and for the elastic modulus you fill in
5000 MPa. As material for the layers 2 and 3 you chose other. The reason
for doing so is that the choice for GB (= granular base) yields a confrontation
with a maximum value for the elastic modulus that is hidden in the program.
This limitation is by-passed through the choice of the material other. Next
you input the values for the elastic modulus of the unbound base and the
subgrade in MPa. Also the values of the Poissons ratio have to be input but
you will observe that the value 0.35 is set as default value.
Next the thickness (in cm!) of the asphalt layer and the base has to be input.
Then you have to input whether the asphalt layer is fully bonded to the base
and whether the base is fully bonded to the subgrade. As stated earlier this is
a very reasonable assumption for most of the cases.
You now click the button ok.
You click again on input and then on loads.
There is the possibility to analyze various load configurations, which are:
a. a single axle with dual tyre wheels,
b. a tandem axle with dual tyre wheels,
c. a triple axle with dual tyre wheels,
d. a single axle with wide base tyre wheels (steer),
227
228
The calculated damage factor is the ratio between the applied (the
occurring) and the allowable number of load repetitions.
Finally you can have a look to the fatigue relationship for the asphalt
(fatigue) and the criterion for the allowable permanent deformation in the
subgrade (rutting) by means of the button view transferfunctions. It is
stressed again that these functions are not universal applicable. The relations
that normally used in The Netherlands already have been given in chapter 4.
Final remark:
The WESLEA program generates numerical solutions. The accuracy of the
obtained calculation results depends among other things on the magnitude of
the integration steps. In this calculation process errors may be introduced.
Simple checks are possible to investigate whether these errors have occurred
and whether the program has functioned well. This is however beyond the
scope of this course; reference is made to the course CT4860 Structural
design of pavements. In that course also other programs will be discussed.
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229-a