What are different categories of antenna and give an example of each?

Different categories of antenna are as follows :

1. Wire Antennas - Short Dipole Antenna
2. Microstrip Antennas - Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antennas
3. Reflector Antennas - Corner Reflector
4. Travelling Wave Antennas - Helical Antennas
5. Aperture Antennas - Slot Antenna
6. Other Antennas - NFC Antennas

What is handover and what are its types?

Handover in mobile communication refers to the process of transferring a call from one network cell to another
without breaking the call.
There are two types of handover which are as follows :
Hard Handoff : hard handoff is the process in which the cell connection is disconnected from the previous cell
before it is made with the new one.
Soft Handoff : It is the process in which a new connection is established first before disconnecting the old one. It
is thus more efficient and smart.

What is ionospheric bending?

When a radio wave travels into the ionospheric layer it experiences refraction due to difference in density. The
density of ionospheric layer is rarer than the layer below which causes the radio wave to be bent away from the
normal. Also the radio wave experiences a force from the ions in the ionospheric layer. If incident at the correct
angle the radio wave is completely reflected back to the inner atmosphere due to total internal reflection. This
phenomenon is called ionospheric reflection and is used in mobile communication for radio wave propagation
also known as ionospheric bending of radio waves.

What is CDMA?
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access which uses digital format. In CDMA systems several
transmissions via the radio interface take place simultaneously on the same frequency bandwidth. User data is
combined at the transmitters side with a code, then transmitted. On air, all transmission get mixed. At the
receiver's side the same code is used as in the transmitters side. The code helps the receiver to filter the user
information of the transmitter from incoming mixture of all transmissions on the same frequency band and same
time.

Explain the concept of frequency re-use.

The whole of the geographical area is divided into hexagonal shape geometrical area called cell and each cell
having its own transceiver. Each BTS (cell site) allocated different band of frequency or different channel. Each
BTS antenna is designed in such a way that i cover cell area in which it is placed with frequency allotted without
interfering other cell signals. The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular
base station within system is called frequency reuse.

Explain Bluetooth.
Bluetooth is designed to be a personal area network, where participating entities are mobile and require sporadic
communication with others. It is omni directional i.e. it does not have line of sight limitation like infra red does.
Ericsson started the work on Bluetooth and named it after the Danish king Harold Biuetooth. Bluetooth operates
in the 2.4 GHz area of spectrum and provides a range of 10 metres. It offers transfer speeds of around 720 Kbps.

7. What are GPRS services?

GPRS services are defined to fall in one of the two categories :
- PTP ( Point to point)
- PTM ( Point to Multipoint)
Some of the GPRS services are not likely to be provided by network operators during early deployment of GPRS
due in part to the phased development of standard. Market demand is another factor affecting the decision of
operators regarding which services to offer first.

8. What are the advantages of CDMA?

Advantages of CDMa are as follows :
1. Frequency diversity : Transmission is spread out over a large bandwidth due to that less affected by noise. If
bandwidth is increased S/N ratio increases, which means noise will be reduced.
2. Multiplication Resistance : Chipping codes used for CDMA not only exhibit low correlation but also low
autocorrelation. Hence a version of the signal that is delayed by more than one chip interval does not interfere
with dominant signal as in other multipath environments.
3. Privacy : Due to spread spectrum is obtained by the use of noise like signals, where each user has a unique
code, so privacy is inherent.
4. Graceful Degradation. In CDMA, more users access the system simultaneously as compared to FDMa, TDMA.

9. What are the advantages of spread spectrum?

SPread spectrum has the following advantages :
1. No crosstalk interference.
2. Better voice quality/data integrity and less static noise.
3. Lowered susceptibility to multipath fading.
4. Inherent security.
5. Co-existence.
6. Longer operating distances.
7. Hard to detect.
8. Hard to intercept or demodulate.
9. Harder to jam than narrow bands.
10. Use of ranging and radar.

10. Explain the steps involved in demodulating a signal.

Once the signal is coded, modulated and then sent, the receiver must demodulate the signal. This is usually
done in two steps :
1. Spectrum spreading (e.g., direct sequence or frequency hopping) modulation is removed.
2. The remaining information bearing signal is demodulated by multiplying with a local reference identical in
structure and synchronised with received signal.

11. How can a Pseudo Random Noise COde be usable?

To be usable for direct sequence spreading, a PN code must meet the following conditions :
1. Sequence must be built from 2 levelled numbers.
2. The codes must have sharp autocorrelation peak to enable code synchronization.
3. Codes must have a low cross-correlation value, the lower it is, more are the number of users which can be
allowed in the system.
4. The codes should be balanced i.e. the difference between ones and zeros in code may only be 1.

12. What are the drawbacks of walsh codes?

Walsh codes have the following drawbacks :

1. The codes do not have a single, narrow autocorrelation peak.
2. The spreading is not over the whole bandwidth; instead the energy is spread over a number of discrete
frequency components.
3. Although the full sequence cross correlation is identically zero, this does not hold for a partial sequence cross
correlation function. Thus advantage of using orthogonal codes is lost.
4. Orthogonality is also affected by channel properties like multi path.

13. Explain radio environment in building.

Building penetration : Building penetration depends on the material used for construction and architecture used.
This varies building to building and is based on building construction.
Building Height Effect : The signal strength is always higher at top floor and generally floor gain height is about
2.7dB/floor which is not dependent on building construction.
Building Floor Reception : The signal isolation between floors in a multi floor building is on the average about
20dB. Within a floor of 150 * 150 feet, the propagation loss due to interior walls, depending on the wall materials
is about 20 dB between the strong and the weak areas.

14. List some advantages of GSM.

Here are some advantages of GSM :
1. GSM is mature, this maturity means a more stable network with robust features.
2. Less signal deterioration inside buildings.
3. Ability to use repeaters.
4. Talk time is generally higher in GSM phones due to pulse nature of transmission.
5. The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch networks and handset at will.
6. GSM covers virtually all parts of world so international roaming is not a problem.

15. What are the various types of numbers for network identity?
Various types of number for network identity are as follows :
1. MSISDN ( Mobile station ISDN) Number : It is international mobile subscriber number which is normally called
mobile number. It is unique worldwide.
2. MSRN ( Mobile Subscriber Routing Number) : MSRN is used during mobile terminate trunk call to provide
location of mobile subscriber.
3. HON ( Hand Over Number ) : HON is used for providing information required to transfer call from one B?SC to
another BSC or to another MSC.
4. ISMI ( International Mobile Subscriber Identity Number) : Purpose of ISMI is for location update and
authentication.
5. TMSI ( Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity ) : TMSI is used instead of IMSI to improve security efficiency of
network.
6. IMEI : International Mobile Equipment Identity.

16. What are the functions of Base Station System ( BSS)?

Functions of BSS are as follows :
1. Radio path control.
2. BTS and TC control.
3. Connection establishment with MS-NSS.
4. Mobility management, speech transcoding.
5. Connection of statistical data.

17. What are the parts of Network Management System ( NMS )?

Following are the parts of network management system :
1. OMC : Operation and maintenance center - Computerized monitoring center.

2. NMC : Network Management Center - Centralized control of a network is done here.

3. OSS : Operation and support system - Used for supporting activities performed in an OMC and/or NMC.

18. What are applications of DSP?

Some selected applications or digital signal processing that are often encountered in daily life are listed as
follows:
1. Telecommunication: Echo cancellation in telephone networks.
2. Military Radar signal processing
3. Consumer electronics Digital Audio/TV
4. Instrumentation and control
5. Image processing image representation, image compression
6. Speech processing speech analysis methods are used in automatic speech recognition
7. Medicine Medical diagnostic instrumentation such as computerised tomography (CT)
8. Seismology DSP techniques are employed in geophysical exploration for oil and gas.
9. Signal Filtering Removal of unwanted background noise.

19. What is analog-to-digital conversion of signals?

A discrete-time signal is defined by specifying its value only at discrete times, called sampling instants. When the
sampled values are quantised and encoded, a digital signal is obtained. A digital signal is obtained from the
analog signal by using an analog-to-digital converter. This entire process is referred to as the conversion of
signals from analog to digital form.

20. What are the properties of ROC for z-Transform?

Properties of the ROC for the z-Transform :
1. X(z) converges uniformly if and only if the ROC of the z-transform X(z) of the sequence includes the unit circle.
The ROC of X(z) consists of a ring in the z-plane centered about the origin. That is, the ROC of the z-transform of
x(n) has values of z for which x(n) r-n is absolutely summable.
2. The ROC does not contain any poles.
3. When x(n) is of finite duration then the ROC is the entire z-plane, except possibly z=0 and/or z=infinity.
4. If x(n) is a right sided sequence, the ROC will not include infinity.
5. If x(n) is a left sided sequence, the ROC will not include z=0. However if x(n)=0 for all n>0, the ROC will
include z=0.
6. If x(n) is two sided and if the circle |z| = r0 is in the ROC, then the ROC will consist of a ring in the z-plane that
includes the circle |z|=r0.
7. If X(z) is rational, then the ROC extends to infinity, i.e. the ROC is bounded by poles.
8. If x(n) is causal, then the ROC includes z=infinity.
9. If x(n) is anti- causal, trhen the ROC includes z=0.

1. What is DMA controller?

2. What is DMA channels?
3. What happens during DMA transfer?
4. What is half duplex transmission?
5. What is the difference between the bandwidth of half duplex and simplex transmission?
6. What are the processes required to perform interfacing successfully?

7. What is single input output interface? How it is different from single ended interface?
8. How does data transfer takes place between memory and input output ports?
9. What is parallel data transfer process?
10. Differentiate between PPI and input output devices.
11. What is parallel to serial conversion?
12. Explain the working of stepping motors.
13. What are the data pins of microprocessors? What is their use?
14. What is working principle of Profibus and how it transfer data?
15. Explain zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown?
16. What is the need of filtering ideal response of filters and actual response of filters? What is sampling
theorem? What is impulse response?
17. What are advantages of dc supply over ac supply?
18. What is the voltage level of noise signal?
19. What happens when a magnetic material is heated strongly?
20. What is the effect of polarization of dielectric under heat?
21. Which number system is used in analysing and programming of microprocessors?
22. What happens when an inverter is placed between both inputs of S-K flip flop?
23. What is the chief characterstic of master-slave flip flop?
24. What logic function is obtained by adding an inverter to the output of an AND gate?
25. Which register which contains the instruction that is to be executed?
26. Which is used as storage location in the ALU and the control section of a computer?
27. What is simulator programme?
28. In C programming language, how many parameters can be passed to a function ?
29. Which filter has the highest Q factor?
30. What is multiplexing? Explain its primary advantage.
31. What is SSB modulation?
32. How can we remove unwanted sideband from SSB modulation?
33. How many channels are there in 2MB pulse code modulation?
34. What is cut off frequency?
35. Differentiate between pass band and stop band.
36. Explain Shanon-hartley law.
37. Why interlacing is used in television?
38. Which type of modulation is used in TV transmission?
39. What is attenuation?
40. Differentiate between transducer and transponder.
41. What is op-amp?
42. Differentiate between conductor and inductor.
43. What is meant by pre-emphasis and de-emphasis?
44. Which semiconductor device is used as a voltage regulator and why?
45. What are monitoring methods for Electronics activities?
46. What is an interrupt?

Electronics and communication engineering core

interview questions
1: What is difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller ?
2: Why is Zener Diode always used in Reverse Bias condition ?

3: Difference between FM and AM, which is preferred & its advantages.

4: Questions on different coding techniques ?
5: Questions on signal processing techniques ?
6: What is RS in RS-232 ?
7: What is Lenz law ?
8: What is Transmission Frequency of Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and Wi-MAX ?
9: What is difference between Piconet and Scatternet ?
10: What is Moore's Law ?
11: How many satellites comprise the GPS and expand it ?
12: What is ZigBee and its specifications ?
13: What is FPGA ?
14: What is MIMO ?
15: What is VOIP ?
16: On what principle do Transformers work ?
17: What is EDFA ?
18: What are different types of antennas ?
19: What is Yagi-Uda antenna ?
20: What is latest satellite from ISOR ?
..............................
................................................................................................................................
......................................
why the input resistance of an op-amp is high whereas it's output resistance is
low?
A.Loading at the input point and to pass the maximum output to the load is the
requirement of Op-Amp which is a current exchange device from input side to
output side.
Q.what do you understand by microwaves? why these are called micro
A.micro waves are those waves whose wavelength is less than a foot(30 cms) or
freq ranging from 1 GHz to 1000 GHz.Because of there tinyness these are called

micro.
Q. how do microwave oven works??
A. Heart of microwave oven is magnatron which generates frequency of appox.
2.4 GHz.explain working of magnatron.
Q.What is CMRR? Explain briefly.
A. CMRR stands for common mode rejection ratio. It is a measure of the ability
of a test instrument to reject
interference that is common to both of its measurement input terminals. It is
expressed in decibels and it is the ratio of the actual or common signal level
appearing on the
two input terminals together to the measured level.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.
What is meant by D-FF? D Flip Flop (or did you mean to ask its working?)
2.
What is the basic difference between Latches and Flip flops? (Latches do not store
information, here, a bit)
3.
What is a multiplexer?
4.
How can you convert an SR Flip-flop to a JK Flip-flop?
5.
How can you convert an JK Flip-flop to a D Flip-flop?
6.
What is Race-around problem? How can you rectify it?
7.
Which semiconductor device is used as a voltage regulator and why? (zener diode in reverse
bias, why because it allows for a large variation in current for a negligible variation in voltage)
8.
What do you mean by an ideal voltage source? (Sources infinite current to any load without
any change in o/p voltage)
9.
What do you mean by zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown?
10.
What are the different types of filters? (low pass, high pass, band pass, band stop, resonant)
11.
What is the need of filtering ideal response of filters and actual response of filters?
12.
What is sampling theorem? (minium 2 samples per time period? not too sure of this)
13.
What is impulse response?
14.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of FIR filters compared to IIR counterparts.
15.
What is CMRR? Explain briefly. (explained by someone a few posts above)
16.
What do you mean by half-duplex and full-duplex communication? Explain briefly. (half duplex
- both sender & receiver can communicate with each other, but not simultaneously...full duplex - same
but simultaneous communication possible)
17.
Which range of signals are used for terrestrial transmission?
18.
What is the need for modulation? (transmitting over a distance, encryption?)
19.
Which type of modulation is used in TV transmission?
20.
Why we use vestigial side band (VSB-C3F) transmission for picture?
21.
When transmitting digital signals is it necessary to transmit some harmonics in addition to
fundamental frequency?
22.
For asynchronous transmission, is it necessary to supply some synchronizing pulses
additionally or to supply or to supply start and stop bit?
23.
BPFSK is more efficient than BFSK in presence of noise. Why?
24.
What is meant by pre-emphasis and de-emphasis?
25.
What do you mean by 3 dB cutoff frequency? Why is it 3 dB, not 1 dB? (3dB is the half power
value)
26.
What do you mean by ASCII, EBCDIC?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.
What is meant by D-FF?(D-flip flop stands for Delay flip-flop, it delays input by one clock
pulse)
2.
What is the basic difference between Latches and Flip flops?(Latches are monostable and
flip-flops are bistable)
3.
What is a multiplexer?(It is used to multiplex data from different sources normally used in
TDM)
4.
How can you convert an SR Flip-flop to a JK Flip-flop?
5.
How can you convert an JK Flip-flop to a D Flip-flop?( Connect J to D and K to not(D))
6.
What is Race-around problem? How can you rectify it?( Race around condition occurs in a JK
flip-flop when both the inputs are set to '1', it can be rectified using edge-triggered flip-flop or using
master-slave flip-flops)
7.
Which semiconductor device is used as a voltage regulator and why?
8.
What do you mean by an ideal voltage source?
9.
What do you mean by zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown?( zener breakdown takes
place when very high voltage is applied to the diode this results in very high reverse current, as
voltage is further increased minority carriers gain further momentum and strike atoms releases more
carriers, which results in further increase in temp. It becomes vicious cycle and leads to avalanche
breakdown or on other words "thermal runaway".
10.
What are the different types of filters?( analog filters n digital filters not sure wht u meant)
11.
What is the need of filtering ideal response of filters and actual response of filters?
12.
What is sampling theorem?( sampling frequency should be atleast twice the maximum freq
present in the signal)
13.
What is impulse response?( response given by a digital system when impulse signal is
applied to it. Used to find out stability of system)
14.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of FIR filters compared to IIR counterparts.
15.
What is CMRR? Explain briefly.( Common mode rejection ratio)
16.
What do you mean by half-duplex and full-duplex communication? Explain briefly.( halfduplex: either sender or receiver can use the channel at one time eg walky-talky and full-duplex:
sender or receiver or both can use the channel at one time eg telephone)
17.
Which range of signals are used for terrestrial transmission?
18.
What is the need for modulation?
19.
Which type of modulation is used in TV transmission?( video signal: vestigial side band
modulation and audio signal: FM)
20.
Why we use vestigial side band (VSB-C3F) transmission for picture?( why not DSBSC: large
bandwidth req.why not SSBSC: To over come distortion by filters used at receivers thus demodulation
becomes complex hence costly)
21.
When transmitting digital signals is it necessary to transmit some harmonics in addition to
fundamental frequency?( yup but not sure why)
22.
For asynchronous transmission, is it necessary to supply some synchronizing pulses
additionally or to supply or to supply start and stop bit?( for asyn tx it is necessary to use start and
stop bits as no common clock is there)
23.
BPFSK is more efficient than BFSK in presence of noise. Why?
24.
What is meant by pre-emphasis and de-emphasis?( used in TV Tx for voice signal not sure
why)
25.
What do you mean by 3 dB cutoff frequency? Why is it 3 dB, not 1 dB?
26.
What do you mean by ASCII, EBCDIC?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Hello puys,

I am posting some of the imp questions subject wise:

Following r some imp topics:
Semiconductor devices and circuits:
Resistance, inductance(dc short, ac open), capacitance (ac short , dc open)
Diodes:
types& definitions: p-n, zener(zener breakdown, voltage regulator),tunnel (tunneling effect),varactor,
Impatt,Trapatt, gunn, pin;
Transistors:
two types 1. Based on minority carrier(BJT:npn,pnp) 2. based on FET
principle(IGFET,JFET,MOSFET,MESFET);
Amplifiers:
types:LNA,Power amp,feedback,balanced,distributed amp
Active state (for CE conf):Base if FB and collector is RB:
Saturation:Both bas and collector are FB
Cut-off:Both bas and collector are RB
Untuned Amp:Class A,B,AB,C
Oscillator:total phase shift at input is 0 or multiples of 2pi.

MPMC:
MP are memoryless.General purpose processors
MC have inbuilt memory and IO ports
to interface MP with ports 825 is used
MP types: 8085 (8-data, 16 address);8086(16data,16 address); 80186(16 data, 20 adddress);
80286(16 data, 24 address);80386(16 data, 32 address);80486 (32 data, 32 address); pentium (64
data, 32 address,Pipelining,More segmentations&memory banks);Pentium Pro(64 data,36 address)
MC: 4K rom, 128 bytes ram,2 timers,4 io ports,1 serial port, 8 bit cpu, 16 address lines, 40 pins

Control systems:
Definitions:
System:A no of elements are connected in a sequence to perform a specific function is called a
system.
Control system: system in which o/p is controlled by i/p.
Open loop system(o/p does not change automatically)& closed loop system (output changes
automatically)
Stability:BIBO condition :i/p=0 then o/p tends to 0.
Limtedly stable,absolutely stable and conditionally stable:
Three ways to check stability: Routh-herwitz criteria, nyquist criteria, root locus method

PS: Will be posting topics of other subjects soon.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.What are the flags in 8086?
Carry flag, Parity flag, Auxiliary carry flag, Zero flag, Overflow flag, Trace flag, Interrupt flag,
Direction flag, and Sign flag.
2.What are the various interrupts in 8086??
Maskable interrupts, Non-Maskable interrupts
3.What is meant by Maskable interrupts?
An interrupt that can be turned off by the programmer is known as Maskable interrupt.
4.Which interrupts are generally used for critical events??
Non-Maskable interrupts are used in critical events Such as Power failure, Emergency, Shut off
etc.
5.What is the Maximum clock frequency in 8086?
5 Mhz is the Maximum clock frequency in 8086.
6.What are the various segment registers in 8086?
Code, Data, Stack, Extra
7.Which Stack is used in 8086?
FIFO (First In First Out) stack is used in 8086.In this type of Stack the first stored information is
retrieved first.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.What are the various registers in 8085?
Accumulator register, Temporary register, Instruction register, Stack Pointer, Program Counter
are the various registers in 8085 .
2.What is Stack Pointer
Stack pointer is a special purpose 16-bit register in the Microprocessor, which holds the
address of the top of the stack
3.What is Program counter?
Program counter holds the address of either the first byte of the next instruction to be fetched
for execution or the address of the next byte of a multi byte instruction, which has not been
completely fetched. In both the cases it gets incremented automatically one by one as the
instruction bytes get fetched. Also Program register keeps the address of the next instruction.

4.Which Stack is used in 8085?

LIFO (Last In First Out) stack is used in 8085.In this type of Stack the last stored information
can be retrieved first.
5.What is meant by a bus?
A bus is a group of conducting lines that carriers data, address, & control signals.
6.What is Tri-state logic?
Three Logic Levels are used and they are High, Low, High impedance state. The high and low
are normal logic levels & high impedance state is electrical open circuit conditions. Tri-state
logic has a third line called enable line.
7.Give an example of one address microprocessor?
8085 is a one address microprocessor.
8.In what way interrupts are classified in 8085?
In 8085 the interrupts are classified as Hardware and Software interrupts.
9.examples of Software interrupts?
RST0, RST1, RST2, RST3, RST4, RST5, RST6, RST7.
10.EXAMPLES of Hardware interrupts?
TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTR.
11.Which interrupt has the highest priority?
TRAP has the highest priority.
12.Name 5 different addressing modes?
Immediate, Direct, Register, Register indirect, Implied addressing modes.
13.How many interrupts are there in 8085?
There are 12 interrupts in 8085.
14.What is clock frequency for 8085?
3 MHz is the maximum clock frequency for 8085.
15.In 8085 which is called as High order / Low order Register?
Flag is called as Low order register & Accumulator is called as High order Register.
16.Why crystal is a preferred clock source?
Because of high stability, large Q (Quality Factor) & the frequency that doesn't drift with aging.
Crystal is used as a clock source most of the times.

17.What does Quality factor mean?

The Quality factor is also defined, as Q. So it is a number, which reflects the lossness of a
circuit. Higher the Q, the lower are the losses.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.what is the differnce between SCR and diode rectifier?
ans: diode is a 2 terminal device, in scr gate controls the rectifing.SCR is used in High
frequency applications but diode is low freuency devices, SCR can be in high temparatures
but not diode.
2.whatis intersymbol interference
ans:In telecommunication, intersymbol interference (ISI) means a form of distortion of a signal
that causes the previously transmitted symbols to have an effect on the currently received
symbol. This is usually an unwanted phenomenon as the previous symbols have similar effect
as noise, thus making the communication less reliable. ISI is usually caused by echoes or nonlinear frequency response of the channel. Ways to fight against intersymbol interference
include adaptive equalization or error correcting codes (especially soft-decoding with Viterbi
algorithm).
3.Distinguish between Angle modulation and Amplitude modulation.
ans: In amplitude Modulation as the amplitude of given signal varies, the amplitude of carrier
signal also varies in the same way.
In angle modulation, the frequency or phase may vary according to the amplitude of given
signal
4.What is Biasing?
ans: biasing is a process of connecting dc voltage to a device by which we can select the
operating point of the device. by biasing actually we select the operating point of the device.
5.What do you mean by ASCII, EBCDIC?
ans:ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), is a character encoding
based on the English alphabet.
EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is an 8-bit character encoding
used on IBM mainframe operating systems
6.What do you mean by 3 dB cutoff frequency? Why is it 3 dB, not 1 dB?
ans:3db implies 70%(o.7o7) of the power,i'e we r interested to consider the bandwidth range
from peak to 70% b'coz uptp 70% its reliable.hence 3db is called as half power freq. 3db value
is the mean square value which is 70% of the maximum value.
7.What is meant by pre-emphasis and de-emphasis?
ans:Pre-emphasis
" Improving the signal to noise ratio by increasing the magnitude of higher frequency signals
with respect to lower frequency signals"
De-emphasis
" Improving the signal to noise ratio by decreasing the magnitude of higher frequency signals
with respect to lower frequency signals"
8.What is sampling theorem?
ans:It is defined as the sampling frequency should be greater than or equal to twice the

sampling frequency then we can generate the original signal if the condition does not satisfy
we get the signal in the distorted mannerit is given as ( fs >/ 2 fs)
9.What is Race-around problem? How can you rectify it?
ans: A condition in logic network in which the difference in propagation times through two or
more signal paths in the network can produce an erroneous output.in jk flip flop race around
problem will occur when both the inputs are high. it can be prevented by using master slave jk
flip flop
10.What is the basic difference between Latches and Flip flops?
ans:latch works without clock signal,but works with a control signal and it is level triggered
device.whereas flip flop is a 1 bit storage element and works with a clock signal.its a edge
triggered device. normally latches are avoided and flip flops are preferred.
11. what is Barkhausen Criterion?
ans:
1./AB/=1,i.e. the magnitude of loop gain must be unity
2.the total prase shift around the closed loop is zero or 360 degrees.
12.what are active and Passive Components?
ans:ACTIVE COMPONENTS The components which produce the energy in the form of current
or voltage are called as active components.Example:transistors etc,.
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
The components which stores the energy in the form of current or voltage are called as
passive components.example:inductors,resistors,capacitors etc

Technical Questions with Answers of Electronics

And Telecommunication
1. What are the differences between voltage and current controlled
devices?
Ans-In any (electronic) device controlling parameter is current it is called current
controlled
device. eg bilpolar transistor- output current is a function of base current.
In any (electronic) device controlling parameter is voltage it is called voltage
controlled device.
eg Field effect transistor- output current is a function of gate voltage.
It depends on the inherent physical mechanism which defines the primary
(independent)
controlling parameter.
2. What is the difference between Power Amplifier and Voltage
Amplifier?
Ans-Power amplifiers basically amplify both current and voltage (p=v*i). Voltage
amplifiers
only amplify the voltage.
In power amplifier feedback employed is current feedback and In voltage

amplifier voltage
feedback is employed.
3. why the bjt is known as current controlled device and fet is known as
voltage controlled
device ?
Ans- 1. In BJT because of the current the output will vary.
2. Where as in FET by means of Voltage the output is varied.
4. What is the difference between DCS & PLC & SCADA ?
Ans-PLC stands for Programmable Logic ControllerDCS for Data control
SystemSCADA for
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition SCADA involves supervision by a user
in most cases
the plant controller.Whereas PLC is the means by which he performs the function
of
SCADA.DCS on the other hand stand only to control the system and not to log
any datain the
process of controlling.DCS controllers are faster than PLCs In DCS controller we
can adjust the
scan time DCS are costly more inputs and outputs are there for DCS and SCADA
does not
have a dedicated controller. In a DCS system there is SCADA ystem already in it
but for PLC
sydtem addition all SCADA software must be provided.
5. What is the difference between Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS) and
Gate Turn-off Switch
(GTO)?
Ans-scs is nothing but it is the silicon controlled switch as an SCR but gate turn
off is that in
which one of the turnoff method of SCR
6. What is the difference between emulator and simulator?
Ans-Simulator: A software program impersonating a Hardware. Thus
SIMULATING the
scenarios faced in the original hardware.
Emulator: A Hardware (with or without software) impersonating another
Hardware. Thus
ELIMINATING the need for the original.
7. What is the difference between Circuit Switching and Packet
Switching?
Ans-Circuit
switching is the transmission technology that has been used since the first
communication
networks in the nineteenth century. In circuit switching, a caller must first
establish a

connection to a callee before any communication is possible. During the

connection
establishment, resources are allocated between the caller and the callee.
packet switching is a more recent technology than circuit switching which
addresses a
disadvantage of circuit switching: the need to allocate resources for a circuit,
thus incurring link
capacity wastes when no data flows on a circuit. Packet switching introduces the
idea of
cutting data on a flow into packets which are transmitted over a network without
any
resource being allocated.
8.the number of columns in a state table for a sequential circuit with m
flip-flops and n
inputs is.
Ans-Its 2m+2n because.. If there are m flip-flops there should be 2m nodes. If
there are n
inputs then each node will have 2n.
9. Design a digital circuit which has one input two output and one select
line input should be
1000khz output should be 500khz and 250Khz
select line either 0 or 1
if 0 select 250khz
if 1 select 500khz
Ans-demux is the circuit which satisfies the given requirement if 0 is given to the
selectline
250khz o/p is provided else 500khz o/p is provided.
9- What are digital elctronic flip flops, State the different types of flip
flop and their uses.
Ans-Digital electronic flip flops are temporary single bit storage devices.
Different types of flip
flops are JK f/f RS f/f T F/F D f/f this flip flops are using as storage device delay
purpose as
counter for toggled as shift register etc
10- What is the difference between latches and flip flop ?
Ans-Latche is a bistable circuit which responds to change of logic level as they
occur. It has no
external inputs.
Flip flop is a basic element of memory. It stores a single bit. It has a multiple
input.
Latches are level sensitive devices where as Flipflops are edge sensitive device
so it is said that
latches are level triggered and flip flop is edge triggered.

11-What is the Tri State of a Signal?

Ans-In digital ciruit the gate output can be only high or low. In highstate the
output source
current at a minimum voltage greater than ~2.8V if load(fan out ) is proper. In
low state it will
sink current at max output voltage less than ~0.8V.
Some times it is desirable to have a state output both not high or low. with
neither sinking or
sourcing (with high output impedance). This is called tristate. Tristate output
cannot change
output condition of succeding logic gates unless tristate is disabled.
12- what is the main difference between 8085 and 8086 processors?
Ans-8085 is a 8 bit microprocessor,having 16-bit address bus.8086 is a 16-bit
microprocessor
having 20-bit address bus.
13. What is a sequential circuit and What is a combinational circuit? Is
there any difference
between them? If yes what is it?
Ans-Combinational circuit are those whose output depends only upon the
present inputs but
in sequential circuit the output depends upon both present and past inputs. that
is the
difference
Combinational circuit does not have any memory in the feedback path but the
sequential
circuit has memory in the feedback path.
Ex of SEQ Circuit: Encoder Decoder etc
Ex of Comb Circuit; Flipflop
14. What is the difference between masking and non-masking?
Ans-In 8085 processor TRAP is a non maskable interrupt.
Whereas RST 7.5 6.5 5.5 intr are maskable interrupts.
Maskable means this interrupts can be left without considering during the
execution of the
program.
Non maskable depicts that it has to be taken into account during the execution
of the
program
15. What is difference between Fixed-Bias Circuit & Self-Bias Circuit?
Ans-Fixed bias circuits get their bias voltages from independently designed
reference voltage
sources (or even something as simple as a voltage divider). Often is the case
that the bias may
be left for the end-user to give some control over the operation point of the

circuit.
Self biased circuits get their bias voltages from the circuit itself often in the form
of a negative
feedback. This is very useful when a circuit is extremely sensitive to bias points
and it becomes
impractical to provide external biases that are correct to very high accuracies.
This can happen
in high gain amplifiers with very high impedance output nodes such as a
common source
amplifier with an active load. The operation of the circuit dependson the bias of
the active
load. It would therefore be desirable to sacrifice some of this gain by providing a
negative
feedback from the output to the gate of the active load. This way you wont have
to bias the
circuit yourself but will lose some of the gain of the circuit as a price.
16. What is meant by filter? What are the different types of filters?
Ans-Filters are the components of a circuit which remove distortion or
ripples.Types of filters :
1. High pass filters
2. Low pass filters
3. Band pass filters
17. what is meant by virtual ground in the op amp ?
Ans-Ideally the output of op-amp should be zero. So for this to happen the 2
inputs must be
same. Hence one of the input is considered to be low or at ground potential. But
this input is
not actually ground hence it is called as virtual ground.
18. What is meant by saying at what current is transistor biased?
Ans-Bias current of a transistor is the preset DC current when no input voltage
signal is applied
to it.
19. What is Race Around Condition in a JK FlipFlop?
Ans-IN J-K FF , The clock time is higher than the output toggling time then for
J=1 & K=1 , the
output will be changed irrelavent of our input. This condition is known as "RACE
AROUND
CONDITION"..
20. How to Convert Binary to Excess 3 Code and vice versa?
Ans-A number i binary can be converted to excess-3 just by adding the binary
equivalent of 3
to the binary number.similarly a number in excess-3 can be converted to binary
just by

subtracting the binary equivaent of 3 from the binary number.

21. How to convert Binary to Gray Code
Ans-Take XOR of binary no. starting from right with the next bit. Add 0 as
leftmost bit to get
answer eg. 111=7
gray code 0 xor 1,1 xor 1, 1 xor 1 i.e. 100 ans.
22. What is the meaning of Tristate Signal in Electronics?
Ans-Tristate device is 3 terminal device & it has three states. They are logic 0
logic 1 & high
impedance state or tristate. This device can be used as switch. For ON logic 0 or
logic 1
(depending on active low or active high appl) OFF as high independence state.
23. When a sample of germanium and silicon having same impurity
density are kept at room
temperature then Resistivity of silicon will be higher than that of
germanium, Why?
Ans-The answer is simple. Consider the PN diode for Ge 0.3eV is the breakdown
voltage and
in the case of Si its 0.7eV since the impurities are added in the same amount the
bond due to
the other atoms of the Si makes it resistive compared to the Ge.. thats all!
24. Why gold is added to the p-n junction?
Ans-To reflect heat. To reduce the recombination time.
25. Why are the 2 input terminals of an op-amp are called as inverting &
non-inverting
terminals?
Ans-Because if we give input to one input means that will produce the same
phase output
where as the other(Inverting) pin produce 180 degree phase shifted output.
26. What is the equivalent of negative logic AND gate?
Ans-Negative logic of AND gate is NAND.
27. What are the main advantages of synchronous circuit?
Ans-All the inputs are feed at the rising or falling end of the clock signal. This
makes the circuit
to perform task in sync. so that the functional integrity of the logic device is as
expected.
28. How does a Signal differ from a Wave
Ans-Signal means information. Wave is something that carries the information
from source to
destination.

29. Why do we use two ground pins in the pin diagram of 8086?
Ans-There are basically two reasons for doing so one is to remove GROUND
BOUNCE one
more reason is circuit complexity demands a large amount of current flowing
through the
circuits and multiple grounds help in dissipating the accumulated heat so that
device will be
safe.
30. What is the difference between Power Amplifier and Voltage
Amplifier?
Ans-Power amplifiers basically amplify both current and voltage (p=v*i).
Voltage amplifiers only amplify the voltage.
31. How to manufacture the CMOS inverter?
Ans-It can be made by using pmos and cmos in series. Both gate are connected
together and
act as input. Source of pmos is connected to supply. drain of pmos is connected
to drain of
nmosand it serves as output. source of nmos is grounded.
32. What are the advantages of using C band for satellite
communication?
Ans-Its frequency ranges from 12 to 18MHz
33. What is a BCD? What are its advantages and disadvantages? Why is
an excess-3 code is
called an unweighted code?
Ans-BCD means Binary coded decimal its advantage is it can represent decimal
numbers in
the form of binary value says (0000-0 to 1001-9).
Binary codes are divided into weighted binary code and non weighted binary
code Excess 3
code is an example of non weighted codes since the position of each bits in
excess 3 code does
not have weights says like ones tens hundred in decimal and 2^0 2^1 2^2 in
binary.
34. What is power electronics?
Ans- Power electronics is the technology associated with high power which is
more than 430v 3
phase supply.Generally it is consider in industries for the efficient conversion
control and
conditioning of electric power by static means from its available input form into
the desired
electrical output form.

35. What are the differences between microprocessor and micro

controller.
Ans-The microprocessor is the integration of a number of useful functions into a
single IC
package.
These functions are: The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry
out user defined
tasks. The ability to be able to access external memory chips to both read and
write data from
and to the memory.
Basically a microcontroller is a device which integrates a number of the
components of a
microprocessor system onto a single microchip.
So a microcontroller combines onto the same microchip : The CPU core Memory
(both ROM
and RAM) Some parallel digital I/O Essentially a microcontroller is obtained by
integrating the
key components of microprocessor RAM ROM and Digital I/O onto the same chip
die. Modern
microcontrollers also contain a wealth of other modules such as Serial I/O
Timers and Analogue
to Digital Converters.
36. What is function of ALE in 8085 microprocessor?
Ans-AlE stands for the address latch enableit 's working is that it differentiate
the address and
data bus in microprocessor.when it is high it select address bus .when it is low it
select data bus.
37. Why we are using the bridge rectifier in most of the circuits instead
of full wave rectifier
eventhough the output of both are same?
Ans-In bridge type (FWR) rectifiers center tapping transformer are not required
so small
transformers are used and we will get twice of the out put voltage that of the
center tapped
FWR.
38. What type of architecture is used in 8085 microprocessor?
Ans- INTEL 8085 is a 8-bit microprocessor.
It's based on Von-Neumann architecture in which the data and instructions are
in the same
memory space without any distinction between them.
Data line: 8-bits--Can process 8-bits of data at a time.
Address line: 16-bits--Can address upto 2^16(64KB) of address space.
39. What is Edison Effect?
Ans-Edison Effect is also refferred as "Thermionic emission". Here the charge

carriers flow from

a charge-carrying surface due to vibrations caused by thermal energy.
This phenomenon can be seen in the house-hold electrical bulb in which is a
metal filament is
heated by the thermal energy from electricity.
40. how to design a software IC using VHDL ?
Ans-you can use software like altera write the required programme download to
the chip
here is your software ic
41. What are semiconductor devices ?
Ans-Semiconductor Devices is nothing but a device which conduct semi /partially
conducting (
semiconductor which conduction property lies between conductor and
insulator)is termed as
semiconductor device.
42. Why the input resistance of an ideal OP-AMP is infinite and output
resistance is zero?
secondly, how can we measure these resistances(input and output) in
case of an ideal OPAMPand
Real OP-AMP in the following conditions when
1- load is not connected.
2- load is connected.
Ans- Ideal OP-AMP is a power ful concept.
If one goes through the history of amplifying devices it becomes clear that less it
loads the
previous stage better the output signal. ie. it is a trend toward higher and higher
input
impedances.
Also it is better to maintain the signal level irrespective of the LOAD connected
at the ouput.
Lesser the output impedance less the signal amplitude reduction when load is
connected. ie. it
is a trend toward lower and lower output impedances.
As ideal opamp is a concept by virtue it has zero output impedance and infinite
input
impedance and they are not physically measurable but has to be taken for
granted for the
use in theoritical analysis.
To measure input resistance of non ideal opamp connect a known source at the
input and
give a signal (within Specifications) through a current meter of sufficient
precision. Input
voltage by current gives the input impedance.
To measure input resistance of non ideal opamp connect a known source at the
input and

give a signal (within Specifications) through a current meter of sufficient

precision. Input
voltage by current gives the input impedance.
To measure output resistance of non ideal opamp connect a known source at the
input such
that the output does not saturate and connect a load (within Specifications )
through a
current meter of sufficient precision and meaure the output voltage. Output
voltage by
current gives the output impedance.
Can refer application notes by device manufacturer available in internet for more
precise and practical solutions.
43. What is Pulse Width Modulation?
Ans-Pulse width modulation is a modulation technique in which the width of the
pulse is
varied in accordance with the message signal. Pulse width Modulation is
abbreviated as PWM.
PWM can be used to reduce the total amount of power delivered to a load
without losses
normally incurred when a power source is limited by resistive means. This is
because the
average power delivered is proportional to the modulation duty cycle. With a
sufficiently high
modulation rate, passive electronic filters can be used to smooth the pulse train
and recover
an average analog waveform.
PWM is used in sound synthesis circuits.
44. How many type of resistor are there in diode?
Ans-They are two types one is forward resistance
1.Forward resistance
2.Reverse resistance
1.Forward resistance-This is the resistance offered in forward bias condition of
the diode. It is
calculated by with the help of graph for voltage and current characteristic.
2.Reverse resistance-This resistance is offered in the reverse bias condition of
the diode. It is also
calculated by the same method.
45. Why the shape of OP-AMP is triangular not other shape?
Ans-The Triangular shape symbolizes that it works for continous signals and
hence forth it is an
analog device. ex: Opamp
If it is square then it is digital device. ex: Multiplexer
If the shape is both triangular and square then it is mixed signal device. ex: ADC
DAC

46. What is Interfacing?

Ans-The peripheral (simple input/output devices ) connected with computer to
perform tasks
is known as interfacing.
47 How microprocessor works without internal memory?
Ans-microprocessor works without internal memory because it consists of
adreess data and
control buses with some registers to process the task given to processor through
the external
memory.
48. What is a sequential circuit and What is a combinational circuit?Is
there any difference
between them? If yes what is it?
Ans-Combinational circuit are those whose output depends only upon the
present inputs but
in sequential circuit the output depends upon both present and past inputs. that
is the
difference.
49. What are digital elctronic flip flops, State the different types of flip
flop and their uses.
Ans-digital electronic flip flops are temporary single bit storage devices.different
types of flip
flops are JK f/f RS f/f T F/F D f/f this flip flops are using as storage device delay
purpose as
counter for toggled as shift register etc
50. What CMOS Transistor?
Ans-CMOS-->>Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
Complementary metaloxidesemiconductor (CMOS) is a major class of
integrated circuits.
CMOS technology is used in chips such as microprocessors microcontrollers
static RAM and other
digital logic circuits. CMOS technology is also used for a wide variety of analog
circuits such as
image sensors data converters and highly integrated transceivers for many types
of
communication.
CMOS is also sometimes explained as complementary-symmetry metaloxide
semiconductor.
The words "complementary-symmetry" refer to the fact that the typical digital
design style
with CMOS uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type
MOSFETs for
logic functions.
Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low

static power
supply drain. Significant power is only drawn when its transistors are switching
between on and
off states; consequently CMOS devices do not produce as much heat as other
forms of logic
such as TTL (transistor-transistor logic). CMOS also allows a high density of logic
functions on a
chip.
The triple compound "metaloxidesemiconductor" is a reference to the nature
of the physical
structure of early (and interestingly now the very latest) field-effect transistors
having a metal
gate electrode placed on top of an oxide insulator which in turn is on top of a
semiconductor
material. Instead of metal current gate electrodes (including those up to the 65
nanometer
technology node) are almost always made from a different material polysilicon
but the terms
MOS and CMOS nevertheless continue to be used for the modern descendants of
the original
process. (See also MOSFET.) Metal gates have made a comeback with the advent
of high-k
dielectric materials in the CMOS transistor as announced by IBM and Intel for the
45
nanometer node and beyond
51 . What is Virtual Grounding?
Ans-Virtual grounding is the shorting of the inverting and the non-inverting
terminals of the
op-amp.
The i/p resistance of opamp is v high. thus the base currents are v less approx
0. thus no
current flows thru i/p resistance. thus we can say that both the NI and INV
terminals of opamp
are virtually shorted. i.e the voltage across both terminals is same. thus if NOW
one terminal is
grounded due to virtual short other terminal also will be grounded.
52. Why the input impedance of OP-Amp is so high?
Ans-In OPAMP we have 4 stages 1st stage i.e the input stage is a dual i/p
balanced o/p opamp
whose i/p resistance is v high. and if we use FET in case of BJT for 1st stage
diffamp then i/p
resistance will be v high in M ohms.
53. what is meant by virtual ground in the op amp ?
Ans-The op amp connected in a negative feedback configuration that is the o/p
connected to

the inverting terminal tried to produce the same voltage at the inverting node as
we applied
to the non-inverting terminal no matter whatever be the o/p. This happens
because the
opamp has a very high differential gain. so only way to not to clip or saturate the
o/p in either
positive or negative side is to make their both i/ps at the same potential. so
when you apply
the i/p to the inverting terminal and you connect the feedback to the inverting
node and your
non-inverting terminal is grounded then op amp tries to force the inverting node
at the
ground potential and whatever the difference between these two nodes are
amplified.
54. Which one is faster between NAND-SR FF and NOR-SR FF?
Ans-well both deals with same principle.but i think NAND-SR FF is faster than
NOR-SR FF
55. Cost of storing a bit is minimum in
1. Cache 2. Register
3. RAM 4. Magnetic tape
Ans-Magnetic Tape
56. How many characters per sec (7 bits + 1 parity ) can be transmitted
over a 2400 bps line
if the transfer is synchronous (1 start and 1 stop bit)?
1. 300 2. 240
3. 250 4. 275
Ans- 2400/(7+1+2) 240
57. What does CE mean..U will see it on almost every chip(IC)..
Ans-The CE mark is a mandatory European marking for certain product groups to
indicate
conformity with the essential health and safety requirements set out in European
Directives.
The letters 'CE' are an abbreviation of Conformit Europenne,
French for European conformity. The CE mark must be affixed to a product if it
falls under the
scope of the approx. 20 so called 'New Approach' Directives. Without the CE
marking, and
thus without complying with the provisions of the Directives, the product may
not be placed in
the market or put into service in the fifteen member states of the European
Union and
Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein. However, if the product meets the provisions
of the
applicable European Directives, and the CE mark is affixed to a product, these

countries may
not prohibit, restrict or impede the placing in the market or putting into service
of the product.
Thus, CE marking can be regarded as the products trade passport for Europe.
The CE mark is
not a quality-mark. First, it refers to the safety rather than to the quality of a
product. Second,
most quality markings are voluntary opposite to the CE marking, which is
mandatory for the
products it applies to. CE indicates conformity with mandatory European safety
requirements.
European conformity is certified by following clear and understandable
procedures, the socalled
conformity assessment procedures
58. What is the difference between PLC and DCS?
Ans-PLC means Programmable Logic Controller, which can be used to control one
particluar
control system such as a boiler or a injection system.
but DCS is Distributed control syetem, which is used to monitor and control the
total process
plant. in DCS we have no of controllers connected to a single monitoring system.
59. why the feeding frequency to a microprocessor s twice the operating
frequency.
Ans-since 8085 microprocessor operating frequency 5 mega hz but operating
frequency is 10
mega hz because crystal effect in processor
60. Do we have any negative frequency?
Ans-no it can't be negative because freguency is simply the reciprocal of time
and time can't
be negative.
We use negative frequencies in our calculations just for easieness but remember
at last we
neglect it also
61. what is angle and amplitude modulation? what is noise in
modulation?
Ans- modulation means change. to send a message of low frequency to a far
distance we use
a carrier of high frequency to carry the message. while transfering we change
some
parameters of carriers for faithful tranformation of message signal. if the
amplitude of the
carrier is varied in accordance with frequency of message signal then it is called
amplitude
modulation. if either phase or frequency is changed in accordance with the

frequency of
message signal then it is called angle modulation.
noise is an unwanted signal which enter in signal while transfering a signal and
makes the
signal distorted.
62. what is selective flooding?
Ans- Selective Flooding is a method to compute the Qos of the system
63. what is fixed bias with and without decoupling capacitor
Ans- with ta decoupling capacitor u cannt get o/p bcz it blocks the DC and allows
only AC
ok.... is u dont us it it give the o/p but it's DC only so no use to hav a DC voltage
in O/P
64. what is the main application of scr in electronic field as well as in
software field?
Ans- SCR is a rectifier we use this in power handling applications .
By varying on time and off time of the scr i.e by giving the pulse to its gate we
can vary the
average output power from the main power supply to the required device .
software part
we can use micro controller and write a programme so that to generate required
pulses to
control the SCR.
65. What is Biasing?
Ans- Biasing is process of applying potential across any electronic equipment in
order to make
it operate as we require.