The Persian Domination and Its Impact On Gandhara

-5The Persian Domination and its Impact on
Gandhara Region
Kiran Shahid Siddiqui
Abstract
The Gandhara region has always been a prey to foreign invasions
due to its geographical position, and has been a gateway to India
since the earliest times. The first foreign intrusion over this region
was that of the Achaemenid Persians in sixth century B.C. who
conquered it and made it a satrapy of the Persian Empire. The
Achaemenid Persians ruled this region for a period of two
centuries and left a long lasting impression over the society,
economy, religion, art and architecture of the Gandhara region.
The paper is focused on the Persian influence which was noticed in
every aspect of the cultural, social and economic life of Gandhara
region for a considerable period of time. The paper also refers to
the inscriptions of the Persian ruler mentioning Gandhara among
the Persian provinces.
The Persian Domination of Gandhdara Region and its Impact

Since ancient times, India has always been a fascinating land for
the western nations and was never away from their reach. The Persians,
Greeks and others, in different times, invaded the portions accessible to
them and annexed them to their Empires.
These incursions were through land and sea, which resulted in a
continuous foreign interference, and left a long-lasting impression on
the social, cultural, economic and political life of the occupied land.
Gandhara, the north western region of India, was one such land,
which had been an easy prey for many nations coming from abroad
either to rule or to plunder. This was due to its geographical location, as
Vol. 32, No.2, December 2009
Journal of Asian Civilizations

it lies at a confluence of important routes linking the west to east and
without getting the control over this region no invader could proceed to
capture the east.
While Magadha, in the eastern India, was emerging as a
paramount power for the first time in the history of India, Gandhara, a
region in North Western India, which included the present Kashmir, a
greater part of Afghanistan, present Peshawar valley and the upper
Punjab with Swat and Udyana in the North, submitted to the Persian
supremacy in the sixth century B.C. (Sen, 1999) The North-West fell
under the sway of the foreign intrusion due to its internal quarrels and
political disunity caused after the death of Pushkarasarin , a ruler of
Gandhara.(Jain, 1991). Taxila was his capital.
Gandhara was a prosperous and peaceful region in the times of
Pulsaki or Pushkarasarin- (Shah, 1938).There is no historical record
mentioning his ancestors and descendants. Only little is known about
himself. He and the ruler of Magadha, Bimbisara maintained friendly
relations and exchanged gifts with each other (Shah, 1938). Pulusaki is
said to have a wish to meet Bimbisara in person, and to appear in
attendance of the two great reformers of the time, Buddha and
Mahavira, who resided in Magadha.
Pulusaki proceeded towards Magadha but could not reach due to severe
illness and died onhis way ( Shah, 1938). There is no historical proof of
any of his successor who ruled Gandahara and it seems that the region
was thrown into political disorder after his death.
In the 6th century B.C., the Achaemenians established the first
paramount empire in the documented history after deposing the Medes
who had been ruling the north-west Persia with their capital, Ecbatana
(present-day Hamadan). Cyrus (ca. 558-530 B.C.), the founder of the
Achaemenian Empire, had knowledge about the wealth and prosperity
of India and was almost waiting for an opportunity to absorb it and he
was the first to invade Gandhara, making the most of its political chaos
(Shah, 1938). Pulusakis death provided him with this opportunity and
he began to draw away enormous amount of wealth from this region of
India, as a tribute. The exact limits of his eastern conquests are
unknown. He is said to have sent an expedition towards Kabul and
succeeded in extending his control up to Gandhara or Peshawar
(Ghirshman:1954). There is no evidence to prove these conquests of
Cyrus however, Darius (522-486 B.C.) mentions Gandhara in his
Behistun inscription as one of the countries, he inherited when he
Vol. 32, No. 2, December 2009
81
The Persian Domination and its Impact on Gandhara Region

became the king of Persia.
For the knowledge of these events, we are dependant on the
writings of Herodotus, who has portrayed the periods of Darius I and
Xerxes, although the course of events is not very understandable.
Herodotus (ca. 484-425 B.C.), who relied on the oral and written
reports of the East, speaks about the Gandharians as the significant
nation since the ancient times. (Lach & Kley,1993). The Gandharians
held an outstanding position among the residing tribes between India
and Persia but they were included in the Indian rather than the Persian
nation. They were a warlike tribe conquered by Darius with a long
struggle after which they remained under the status of a submitted
nation till the advent of Alexander the Great. (Rawlinson, Creswicke,
Gardener,1864). He probably annexed the whole of the Western India
and the Indus Valley to the Persian empire (Ghirshman, 1954). An
eastern satrapy was carved out of these conquests which generated a
huge sum of gold transfer in to Persia. (Sykes,1951). The invasion is of
great worth because the chronology of Gandhara commence with this
occupation and this event is the contemporary of Buddhas life time.
For an ambitious king like Darius, there were several motives to annex
the land of Gandhara to his dominions.
The Persian Empire during the rule of Darius was divided into
twenty provinces or satrapies (Girshman,1954). The king had appointed
his governors or satraps in each of the satrapies. They usually belonged
to the old ruling families and were appointed for indefinite period
(Girshman, 1954). Satrap is derived from the Old Persian which means
protector of the realm (Gershevitch, 1985). A strap was responsible
for the maintenance of law and order in his province, tax collection
and remission of tribute to the central treasury, maintenance and
security of Royal high roads were also included in his duty (Marshall,
n.d ). The satrap had a local army with few Persian officers and a
contingent. The satraps were answerable to the king (Docherty, 2008).
Darius followed a harmonious policy towards all his subjects. Anyone
could enter into the military service and could serve not only in his
native satrapy but wherever the royal forces were at war. The
administration of the Persian satrapies was extremely centralized with
an objective to uphold effective control over such a vast empire. Each
satrapy had to pay a specific tribute based on a systematic survey of the
country and its wealth. The remarkable and unique addition to the
empire was Gandhara, who paid a tribute greater than any other satrapy
82

(Marshall, n.d ). The satrap of Gandhara had to send three hundred and
sixty talents of gold dust which was equal at thirteen times the value of
silver or 4680 talents. (Docherty, 2008) . Gandhara was thought to be
the richest and populous satrapy of the Persian Empire under Darius.
But during the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses there was no defined
amount of tribute paid by the conquered nations but they brought gifts
to the king (Gershevitch, 1985).
Darius built a fleet, at Caspatyrus (a town at the junction of
Kabul and Indus, perhaps modern Peshawar), under the command of
Scylax of Caryanda, a Greek admiral, and assigned him with a mission
to navigate the route to Egypt through Indus (Girshman, 1954). The
outcome of this plan was of much significance as it discovered the new
sea routes which linked up the eastern dominions of Persian empire
with its western dominions. It also helped to build up the trade links
between the east and west.
Darius was the actual empire builder and was fond of
construction (Frye, 1953).He built the Palace at Susa and shifted his
capital from Babylon to this new city, for the construction of this great
edifice he imported material from every part of his Empire. Men from
distant places were employed in the construction of this palace
(Boyle,1978) The details of which are mentioned by Darius in an
inscription at the palace of Susa:
This is the palace which I built at Susa. From afar its
ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug until
I reached the rock in the earth. When the excavation was made,
then rubble was packed down, the Babylonian people they did
(these tasks). The cedar timber, this - a mountain by name
Lebanon from it was brought; the Assyrian people, they
brought it to Babylon, from Babylon the Carians and Ionians
brought it to Susa. The yaka timber was brought from Gandhara
and from Carmania. The gold was brought from Sardis and
from Bactria, which was wrought here. The precious stones
lapis lazuli and cornelian which were wrought here, these were
brought from Sogdiana. The precious stone turquoise was
brought from Egypt. The ornamentation with which the wall was
adorned, that was brought from Ionia. The ivory which was
wrought here was brought here from Ethiopia and from Sind
and from Arachosia. The stone columns were wrought here a
83

village by name Abiradus in Elam from there they were
brought. The stone cutters who wrought the stone, these were
Ionians and Sardinians. The goldsmiths who wrought the gold,
these were Medes and Egyptians. The men who wrought the
baked bricks these were Babylonians. The men who adorned
the all, these were Medes and Egyptians.
(Boyle,1978,pp.21,22)
As mentioned in the above inscription, the Yaka wood was
transported from Gandhara for the construction of the palace of Susa, it
must be the teak wood which is believed to be very precious. It was
Darius who caused the mountain of Behistun to be engraved with
parallel inscriptions in three languages: Elamite, Akkadian and Old
Persian. (Frye, 1953). The Behistun inscription is a multi lingual
inscription located at the ancient trade route linking the Iranian high
Plateau with Mesopotamia. This inscription was ordered by Darius I,
the Great, when he ascended the throne of the Persian Empire (522
B.C.) The bas relief shows Darius with a bow, symbolizing sovereignty,
and crushing a figure before him.
The Behistun inscription mentions the name of Gandhara
among the name of the kingdoms ruled by Darius as follows:
King Darius says: These are the countries which belong to me.
By the favor of Ahura Mazda I was their king : Persia, Elam,
Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, the People by- the- sea,
Lydia, Ionia, Media, Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia,
Drangiana, Aria, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana, Gandhara,
Scythia, Sattagydia, Arachosia and Maka; altogether twentythree countries.These are the countries which belong to me.
By the favor of Ahura Mazda they are my subjects: they brought
tribute to me. What I said to them, either by night or by day, that
they did. (Docherty, 2008, p.12).
After the completion of the Palace of Susa Darius is also
attributed with the construction of Persepolis which was continued by
his successor Xerexes. The inscriptions of Persepolis are the best guide
to estimate the Indo Persian relationship (Docherty: 2008). Xerxes
84

(486-465 B.C.) continued to retain his eastern dominions. Soldiers from
Gandhara, carrying bows of reed and short spears, were present in his
army which he led against Hellas (Raychoudhury, 1953). The
Achaemenian supremacy weakened after the death of Xerxes but,
according to the Persepolis inscription, Gandharians remained their
subject nation till the reign of Artaxerxes II
(Raychoudhury, 1953).
Persian Contribution to Gandhara
It is hard to estimate the Persian influence over Indian history
due to lack of the literary and archaeological authentication. The
absence of Achaemenid coinage in India is one reason. Charsadda and
Bhirmound at Taxila are recognized with the regions of Persian
Achaemenid occupation but they are devoid of distinctive Persian
features. The foundation of Taxila is attributed to the Persian conqueror,
Darius because Bhirmound, the earliest of the cities of Taxila, was
founded a little later after the invasion of Darius (518 B.C.). The city
was irregularly planned, a pattern followed by the Persian town
planners which continued for a long time till the coming of the Bactrian
Greeks. Taxila was probably the capital city of the Persian satrapy of
Gandhara (Rawlinson, 2002).
Persian supremacy had influenced the social, economic,
religious and economic life of the inhabitants of Gandhara. Whatever
ideas were prevalent in Persia and its dominions were also customary in
Gandhara, which were transported in to this region by the coming and
going of the Persian soldiers and exported from here the beliefs to their
native lands. The Achaemenids contributed a lot to uphold commercial
activity and geographical explorations. They took away, from the
Gandhara region, enormous amount of gold dust, ivory and wood and
made the most of their rule, over this region, by utilizing the man
power from hereby giving them military services. (Raychoudhury,
1953). This ultimately resulted in the import of Persian culture in to this
region.
Writing system
The foremost contribution by the Achaemenids to Gandhara
85

was that of writing system which was a medium of official
communication throughout the empire. The government officials used
Aramaic speech and writing for dealings with their satrapies. (Jain,
1991). The Aramaic language became the lingua franca of the Persian
Empire. (Frye, 1953). It was in this period that Aramaic script was
employed by the locals of Gandhara, with various additions and
modifications , for writing Prakrit language (Marshall, n.d ) . This was,
without any doubt, the outcome of the interaction between the satraps
and locals of the region.(Jain, 1991). The fact is proved by the
presence of an Aramaic inscription found at Sirkap, the second city of
Taxila, dated back to early third century B.C (Marshal,1960,). It
continued to serve as on official script even after the end of Persian rule
in this region. This resulted in the evolution of the Kharoashthi script
which was first noticed in the inscriptions of Ashoka (3rd century
B.C.), in the Gandhara region. (Marshall, n.d ). Kaharoashthi played a
vital role in the spread of Buddhism in the North Western India where
the script was in vogue and continued to be practiced till the 5th century
A.D.
Religion
The Persians followed religious tolerance in their dominions.
The subjects were chosen to prominent civil and military posts, and
they were free to practice their religion and customs. The foreigners
who came to Gandhara embraced the Indian religions, most commonly
Buddhism than Brahmanism, due to its simple practices (Iliot, 1998).
Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Persia in the 6th and 5th century
B.C. The Zoroastrian practices were observed in the dominions of the
Persian Empire. The fact is endorsed by the inscriptions of Darius in
which he had started with the name of Ahura Mazda, Zoroastrian god.
It seems that Darius sought to use religion as an ally to his rule
(Docerty: 2008). The fact is endorsed by one of the Greek writers, who
accompanied Alexander the Great who during his visit to Gandhara,
states that the dead were thrown out to be devoured by
vultures(Boyce, Grenet, Beck, 1991, p.131), a rite of Zoroastrian
religion, still practiced by the present-day Parsis. He also reports that
there were numerous followers of Zoroastrianism in the region of
Gandhara especially in Taxila. (Boyce, Grenet, Beck, 1991).
86

The Persian culture was widely influenced by the foreign
cultures. Gandhara, Media, Babylon, Lydia, Greece and Egypt were
governed by the Persian Empire, which resulted in the wider cultural
communion among the Persian dominion. The Persian religion which
was based on sacrifices and fire worship was evolved in to
Zoroastrianism in the times of Darius (Roberts, 1997). The Persian
religion spread swiftly with the Persian rule in every part of the
empire.
Art
The Art of Achaemenid Persians was chiefly a Court art
intended to exalt the supremacy of the monarch, portraying the talent
and genius of their Babylonian, Egyptian, Greek and other subjects
(The British museum, 1971). During the Achemenid domination of
Gandhara, there is no ample evidence of the Persian influence over the
art of this region. But many architectural and sculptural elements in
later times owed their origin to Persia. This cannot be suggested when
and how these elements stretched their roots in Gandhara. Most likely,
the Persian styles and some of the Iranian motifs found their route to
Gandhara when it was under the Achaemenian control; if not then they
would be brought by the Parthains who ruled this region in the 1st
century A.D.
The Ashokan palace of Kumrahar at Pataliputra (now Patna)
was a construction surprisingly influenced by the Achaemenian palaces
of Susa, Persepolis and Ecbatana (Hallade, 1968).
The borrowings from Persian style remained for long and it
came to be noticed at Gandhara (Hallade, 1968). The Gandhara
sculpture is highly influenced by the Graeco-Roman styles, but the
Persian expression is not at all absent in the art. The art of Gandhara
developed as mixture of all classical designs borrowed from Greece,
Rome and Persia mingled with the native Indian style employed
together to produce a distinguished art form. The architectural features
of the palaces of Susa and Persepolis were most abundantly used in this
region for a long period before and after the Christian era.
The bell shaped Persepolitan capital surmounted by the animals
in high relief is duplicated in bas relief at Gandhara (Hallade, 1968).
The appropriateness of the animals depicted on the abacus, their typical
carving technique, truly indicate Persian or more specifically
87

Achaemenian influence (Craven, 1987). The decoration in the art of
Gandhara appear to be of Achaemenid origin which features motifs of
high relief and frontal animals, mythical creatures of many kinds
(winged lions, griffons,etc.), the Tree of life the vase with spouting
water, palmettes, rosettes and fish (Hallade, 1968).
The decorative techniques particularly the lavish employment
of colours, the use of enameled and metallic tiles upon the roof, the
gilded rafters and the elaborately painted ceilings, the rich capitals of
the pillars, the application of inlaying in the sangharamas of Gandhara
region are also thought to be a result of Persian Achaemenid influence
(Banerjee, 1961, p.68)
The Achaemenian styles also influenced the Buddhist art and
architecture of Swat valley which can be observed in the form of
Persepolitan capitals over which the bulls and lions are installed.
(Khan, 1993)
The origin of Buddha image has always been a controversial
subject. Most of the art historians assert that it is inspired by the
Roman cult of the emperor but they both originated from the Persian
art, as the cult of the Great King has always been a key focus of
Achaemenid art, highlighted at Pesepolis. (Ball, 2000).
Commercial Relations
The Persian Empire was linked up with all its dominions
through a network of roads which stimulated the fusion of cultural
activities in all parts of the empire itself. Various skills were carried
from one region to the other under the patronage of the government
(Roberts, 1997). Daius was the emperor who introduced coined money
on a world scale (Frye, 1953). Daric, a fine gold coin with a weight
of 130 grains, was the only gold currency of the ancient world. (Sykes,
1951). Darius also issued silver coins. Persia and Gandhara had
established commercial relations during the Achaemenian rule which is
proved by the discovery of early silver coinage found from Taxila,
strucked on the Persian standard. The pieces being equivalent to
double sigloi, half and quarter sigloi. (Marshall, 1960, p.11). Known
to the rest of the world by their sophisticated looks, the similar Persian
standard and technique was utilized in the minting of coins of this
region dated to relatively later period. Darius launched a standardized
weight and coinage through out his empire. It was due to his monetary
88

concern of his empire that Herodotus declared Cyrus was a father,
Cambyses a tyrant and Darius a tradesman.(Docherty: 2008). Besides
the Imperial currency, separate coins were struck by the Persian satraps
in their own satrapies, sometimes bearing the portrait of the satrap,
while others bear a traditional motif, depicting a fight between the king
and a wild animal.(The British Museum, 1971).
Persia established its trade relationships with India since
Gandhara had become a part of its domain. Items like peacock and
sandal wood were exported from India to the west by sea in the fifth
century B.C. Rice were exported from India and planted in the Near
East (Roberts, 1997). While items like silver, gold, gems, pearls and
corals were exported from Persia to India. (Jain,1991)
A road system was established by Darius throught his empire to
confirm a
speedy contact with all his satrapies for efficient
government. These Royal roads also helped in the development of
commerce across the empire. Trade was encouraged by the safe
guarding of high roads for the welfare and betterment of the satrapy.
The road system was stretched up to Kabul and Gandhara with the
expansion of Persian rule in east (Docherty:2008).
The Scythian influence was noticed in Gandhara region, in the
late 6th century B.C., brought here by the Achaemenians. The presence
of Scythians was reported in the northern belt of their empire and
beyond (Vogelsang, 2002). Herodotus states that the natives of
Gandhara were using the Scythian weapons and costumes which
differed from the Persian ones (Vogelsang, 2002).
Conclusion
Gandhara has been a western gateway to the subcontinent since
its earliest times. This region has always provided access to different
nations in different times to penetrate in India. Some of the invaders
only entered to acquire the wealth of India and they returned back to
their native lands while others, inspired of the wealth and the vastness
of the region decided to rule and never to leave India. The invaders left
a lasting effect on the religious, economic, social and cultural life of
Gandhara creating a jumbled culture which can be traced in every
prospect.
The Persian occupation of Gandhara in 6th century B.C. is the
earliest event in recorded history in the region. This event is stated to
89

be the beginning of the history of Gandhara. The Persian domination
left its influence over the religion, art and architecture of the conquered
nation.
There has been a long debate estimating the Greek and Roman
influences over the art of Gandhara since the time of its discovery.
Researches led to the conclusion that the art of Gandhara was
influenced by the Greek, Roman, Scythian and Parthian elements,
besides its indigenous nature; although the Persian influence over the
art can never be denied as the Gandhara region had been an
Achaemenian satrapy for a period of nearly two centuries, a time
sufficient for an administration to leave behind its imprints over a
subdued nation, which had a tendency to absorb the exotic elements.
Persian influence could not be traced in the early art and
architecture of Gandhara when it was under the control of the
Achaemenians, but it began to assert itself after the Achaemenians lost
their mastery over this region. It seems that the Persian influence
penetrated in Gandhara with the coming of Alexander the Great and
after, which can be noticed in the architectural and plastic arts of the
region. And there can be no doubt that it was through this region that
the Persian influence stretched its roots as far as the Pataliputra in the
extreme eastern India displayed in art and architecture of the Mauryan
period.
Thus, this can be inferred that India, in general, and Gandhara,
in particular, had close political, economic, social and cultural
relationships with the west before Alexanders invasion. The
Achaemenians showed the way of invasion and cultural transmission to
the conquerors from the west. These contacts built up in the days of
Persian domination paved the way for further intrusions in to India
which started with the coming of Alexander in this region and the IndoPersian elements in the architecture and art of Gandhara were most
widely used and almost copied directly.
90

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Figure 1: Persepolitan Pillar at Persepolis
Figure 2: Persepolitan capital depicted in the panel of Gandhara Art
93
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The Persian Domination of Gandhdara Region and its Impact

Journal of Asian Civilizations