Mohenjo-daro to Mumbai - Indian Streetscape

By
K. Munshi
Professor
Middle East Technical University
06531 Ankara, Turkey
Tel: 90-312-210 6205
email: munshi999@yahoo.com
I am thankful to the organisers of this
conference for inviting me to present a
paper. Time was short for preparation as
the invitation came on 3 April 2001 and the
paper was to be sent on 16 April 2001. I
therefore tried hard to do as much justice as
possible to the topic of this paper and to
complete it in time, as it would be pity to
miss the opportunity to meet eminent
designers of Turkey at the conference in this
great historical city of Istanbul.
From the title of this paper you must have
rightly guessed that I come from India,
Hindistan, as you know it, and these days I
am visiting professor at METU. You might
have also noticed that I chose the word
'streetscape' rather than street furniture. One
reason is that there is not any significant
activity regarding the design of street
furniture, as we generally understand from
European perspective. Therefore there are
not many modern, good, authentic and
honest examples of street furniture, which
could be shown at this conference.
Nevertheless, having such a long and rich
history, of architecture behind us, there are
many things, which could be presented. The
Indian streetscape is one such topic, which
can be discussed because it is so rich and
varied.
I have chosen a theme that takes us on a
journey of looking at streetscape from the

very earliest times of lndian (Indus)

civilisation through the Buddhist age, and
briefly discuss its impact on the streetscape
of recent times.
Harrapan age
The earliest civilisation of which we have
some record is the Indus Valley Civilisation,
known as the Harappa culture from the
modern name of the site of its two great
cities, one on the left bank of River Ravi in
Punjab and Mohenjo-daro, the second city,
is on the right bank of the Indus River, some
400 km from its mouth.

Harrapa Civilisation - Sites

It has been difficult for the historians to fix

the date of beginning of this civilization, but
from the faint indications, it seems that
Indus cities began in the first half of 3rd
millennium BC and continued well into the
2nd millennium.
Each city had a well-fortified citadel, which
seems to have been used for both religious
and governmental purposes. The regular,
rectilinear grid plan of the streets and strict
uniformity in such features as weights and
measures, the size of the bricks (1:2:4 ratio)
and even the layout of the great cities,
suggests of a single centralised state.

into large blocks, within which were

networks of narrow unplanned lanes.

The Main Street

The important feature of Harappan

structures apparently was, that they were
very utilitarian and devoid of any
architectural decorations or embellishments.
The street plans of Indus cities remained
unchanged for about 1000 years, with cities
having similar plans. To the west of each
was a 'citadel', an oblong artificial platform
30-50 feet high and about 1200 x 600 feet in
area.

Lanes on which the doors opened

Harappa CityHypothetical reconstruction

The main streets, some as much as 30 feet
wide were quite straight and divided the city

Standardised burnt brick of good quality was

the usual building material for dwelling
houses and public buildings alike. The
houses, often of two or more stories, though
varied in size, were all based on much the

same plan with a central square courtyard,

around which there are number of rooms.

Bath in Harrapa house

Central Courtyard in a Harappa house
This plan is followed today in buildings of
traditional type and even palaces, though the
materials used are varied.
The entrances were usually in the side
alleys, and no windows faced the streets.
This is a unique feature, which must have
presented a monotonous streetscape of brick
walls. There is however no evidence of use
of color to enliven the environment and, of
course the remains of that would not have
withstood the vagaries of time, if at all it
was there.

The houses had bathrooms, the design of

which shows that the Harappan, like the
modern Indian, preferred to take the bath
standing, by poring pitchers of water over
his head. The bathrooms were provided by
the drains, which flowed into sewers under
the main streets, leading to soak pits. The
sewers were covered throughout their length
by large brick slabs. This would have been
another unique feature of their streetscape.

Covered drains under the Main Street

Interior of a Harrapa house

Covered drains under the lanes

Stair-wells of Gujarat

The most striking of the few large buildings

is the great bath in the citadel area of
Mohenjo-Daro. This is an oblong bathing
pool 39 x 23 feet in area and eight feet deep
constructed of beautiful brickwork. It could
be opened by a drain at one corner and was
surrounded by a cloister on which opened a
number of small rooms.

Ghats on rivers
The Great Bath at Mohanjo-daro
This concept of tank has been carried
forward till today and we have many
examples, which can be found in temples
and palaces and stairwells of Gujarat.

The Indus Civilisation declined probably

sometime early in the second millennium
BC for the excavations reveal that its cities
were then falling into a state of decay. A
Greek writer relates that here were 'the
remains of over a thousand towns and
villages once full of men'.

Remains of a Harappa city

Vedic Age
After this decay, when art of building comes
into view, this no longer consists of well laid
out cities of finished masonry, but takes a
much more rudimentary form of humble
village huts constructed of reeds and leaves
and hidden in the depths of the forest.

Village hut - today

It is of interest to note that these mud and
thatch dwellings also do not have the doors
or windows opening on the main lanes like
what we see in Harappa culture.
Vedic Age style thatched huts as of today
This culture, where the elementary type of
forest dwelling appeared probably towards
the end of second millennium BC and in
course of time laid the foundations of Vedic
age.
We still find remnants of such living in
villages across India and therefore not
difficult to imagine the streetscape of those
times with mud walls of the huts on both
sides of main lanes, and thatched roofs
extended to cover the front verandah.

Indian village streetscape - today

It can probably be said that Vedic people
carried forward some visual architectural
features / symbols from the earlier Harappa
culture, although the technology of brick
making was lost along the way or it was

found expensive and not relevant to their

new way of living.
Two theories of exodus of the people of
Indus civilization from their abodes that
could be plausible are, one the devastating
floods and water logging ravaged their cities
and farm lands or changed course of rivers
creating draught, and two, they were
massacred and looted by foreign aggressors
forcing them to the East into the forests of
Gangetic plains, or basins of Narmada,
where they survived on forest foods, and
cattle which they brought along. Cattle have
been important for Vedic people as it was
for Harappa people, and probably became
the primary means of survival in difficult
times after migration,. The importance of
cattle is evident from the terracotta seals of
Harappa culture.

people moved to the South into the places,

which is now Gujarat and happened to retain
some of the traditions of the earlier times.

If we accept this, we can say that colourful

motifs that people of Kuchh use to decorate
the walls of their homes could possibly have
also come from their earlier aesthetic
traditions of Harappa.

Kuchh houses - today

Harappa terracotta Seal Sacred bull

The cow, which provided sustenance,
therefore, became Mother and Holy, in
Vedic Age as well; which it is even now.
Looking at the similarities in the use of
bangles all the way up the arms of women
from Kuchh and the bronze statue of
Dancing girl excavated from Mohenjodaro, it could be inferred that some of these

The stepped decoration and particularly the

profile on the walls of these huts is akin to
the brick arches of the windows, doors and
drain outlets of Harappa houses.
It does not seem possible that people with
high engineering and building skills as
Harappans, the civilized city dwellers, and
hygiene conscious people, could be so bereft
of any aesthetic sense, leaving the brick
walls bare, un-plastered and without
embellishments. One could probably assume

that walking along the wide avenues was a

colourful experience with plastered walls
painted with colored motifs as we see on the
walls of Kuchh village huts.

Having to protect themselves and their

properties from the ravages of wild animals,
Vedic people surrounded their little
collection of huts (Grama) with special kind
of fence or palisade. This fence took the
form of bamboo (easily available material in
the forests) railing, with the upright posts
(Thabha), which were supported by 3
horizontal bars called Suchi, or needles as
they were threaded through holes in the
uprights.
The important element of Indian streetscape
was the village fence or palisade, which later
became the emblem / icon of protection.

Drain outlets with stepped brick arches

From its bamboo origins it was incarnated

and immotalised in stone in Buddhist
architecture of Stupas.

Stepped motifs on mud huts in Kuchh

Thabha and Suchis in stone at Sanchi Stupa

The proportions and decoration on the Shiva

Pashupati Seal and the design on the
garment of The Priest King is a testimony
to their sense of aesthetic sensibility.

It was universally used, not only to enclose

the village, but as a fencing around fields
and to preserve anything of a special or
sacred nature. In the palisade encircling the
village, entrances of a particular kind were
devised. These were formed by projecting a
portion of the bamboo fence forward, and a
portion at right angle, to create an opening
on the side, so as not to have a through
passage. A portion of the fence is raised up
to create the gateway arch (Gramadwara).

This configuration of the fences and gates

continues to live in the architectural
conscience of Indian society and can be seen
in the design of fences in todays villages
and towns and are the noticeable elements of
Indian streetscape.

Torna from Mukhteswar temple at Bhubaneshwar

It is known as the Torii in Japan and the Piulu of China as a symbol of protection and
safety. The Torna gates at the Stupa in
Sanchi are well known examples.
Gramadwara inVedic village-Reconstruction

To-ri-i at a shrine in Japan and Torna at Sanchi

Village houses with Vedic style fences and

covered verandah

Through the Gramadwara the cattle passed

to and from their pastures. It survives in the
form of Gopuram (cow-gate), the entrance
pylon of the temple enclosures in the south
of India.
From the design of Gramadwara (villagegate) was derived the characteristic Buddhist
Archway called Torna, a structure which
was carried with that religion to the Far
East,

Towards the middle of first millennium BC

Vedic community expanded and the towns
arose at important centres. The traditional
structural features were reproduced on a
larger and in more substantial form. Due to
the rivalry between the various groups the
towns were strongly fortified. They were
surrounded by a rampart and wooden
palisades, which closely resembled the
original fences of Vedic village. This was
the era of timber construction of the Vedic
Civilisation.
Cities largely of wooden construction began
to appear at various parts of the country, and
according to Dhammapala, the great

Vedic Cities a reconstruction from rockcut Buddhist caves

Buddhist commentator, they were planned
by an architect named Maha-Govinda who is
stated to have been responsible for the
layout of the several of the capitals of the
north India.

Rajput Palace at Udaipur

Palace pavilions with water fountains

Vaishnava temple at Srirangam Grid plan

These cities were rectangular in plan and
were divided into four quarters by two main
thoroughfares intersecting at right angles,
each leading to a city gate.
In the royal quarter, the palaces were built
around an inner courtyard and had a large
central window for Darshan or salutation of
the king. This feature has been carried
through till recent times. The Mughal,
Rajput palaces had prominent central
balconies for the purpose of salutation.
Since these had to face the street to the full
view of the people and therefore became an
important feature of Indian streetscape.

The royal quarters had pleasure gardens with

pavilions having fountains and ornamental
waters attached. In Vedic age these
pavilions were of wood and thatch and later
marble and stone were also used. The
tradition carries on and in many modern day
public gardens, simulated wood and thatch
is also used for building pavilions.
With the rise of Mauryan dynasty towards
the end of fifth century BC, marked cultural
progress was made. Among other
achievements, art of building, stimulated by
royal patronage took notable steps forward.
Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador who
resided in the court of the Emperor
Chandragupta about 300 BC, gives a
striking picture of the Mauryan capital of
Patliputra - situated along the banks of
Ganges like immense castellated break
water (15 Km. long and 2.5 Km. broad),

surrounded by stupendous timber palisade

with holes for archers. It was protected by a
wide and deep moat around it. At intervals
were bastions with towers, over five
hundred in number and as many as sixtyfour gates. The moat had floated lotus and
other aquatic plants and was enclosed with
usual railing palisade.

The arched window admitted light through

its tracery. The echoes of this are found in
later day marble, wooden or bamboo
latticework called Pinjra.

Mauryan capital Pataliputra with surrounding moat

a reconstruction

Latticework examples in Buddhist caves

The balcony in front was minstrels' gallery,

and the projected casements on each side
were priests chambers. Covered balconies
and decorative structure are prominent
features of frontage of the houses on the
streets and important elements of streetscape
in Maurayan times and thereafter.
Especially noticeable are the city gates, all
of which were designed in much the same
way as gramdwara (village-gate) but in
much more refined form of Torna. Near the
gateways is what seems to be a formidable
angle-tower; while overhanging the walls
are pillared balconies, railed balustrades and
magic casements. Carpenters of the time
were highly skilled manipulators of wood
creating artistic results with embellishments
also having practical use, blending very well
the functional aspects with aesthetics.
Even in the Rig-Veda the carpenter
accorded a place of honour among
artisans, as village community depended
them for some of its most vital needs
construction and defense.

is
all
on
of

To filter the light and improve air circulation

through Pinjra was the architectural
response to the hot climate to keep the
interiors cool and lessen the glare.

Pinjra dominated faade of Hawa Mahal Jaipur

Pinjra concept has been extensively used in

Rajput and Mughal palaces and in the
colonial period bungalows of the British.

Buddhist Architectural age

Third Mauryan ruler of Magadha, the
emperor Asoka ascended the throne in BC
274. In BC 255, he inaugurated Buddhism
as state religion of the country. With the
change in religious system of India also
came a marked advance in arts. The
principal contribution during this time were:
1) series of edicts inscribed on the rocks
Pinjras in palace windows

Colonial Bungalow with Pinjra (Jalis)

Later efforts were made to include stone
masonry along with wood to create city
walls. The beginnings are seen in the city
wall of Rajgriha, the ancient capital of
Magadha, now in ruins at Rajgir, near Patna,
in Bihar. The construction of masonry was
without mortar. These walls of great
strength and of cyclopean proportions were
made by piling of massive undressed stones
each between 3 & 5 feet in length but
carefully fitted and bonded together.

Massive stone masonry walls at Rajgir

2) construction of Stupas 3) monolithic

pillars 4) monolithic accessories to shrines
5) group of rock cut chambers. All these
were part of public architecture, mostly
meant for spreading the message of the
Buddha.

Wanting to immortalise the message of

Buddha, and symbolising the creed, a lofty
free standing column about 30 to 50 feet

high was devised and erected on specially

selected sacred sites, each carrying above its
capital a magnificent Buddhist emblem

Many of these marked the courses of a

Pilgrim's Way to holy places and so were
important elements of streetscape of Asokan
period and thereafter.

Pillars (Kos Minar) marking Grand Trunk

Road constructed by Sher Shah Suri

These were communication devices and

were distributed throughout Asokan Empire
and probably became the focal points in the
cities of those times.
While the stupas were significant for their
structures, the monolithic pillars could be
regarded for their artistic qualities.
Line of pillars at Rampurva, Laurya, Araraj,
Nandangarh and Kolhua were evidently
placed at intervals along the ancient royal
route from Pataliputra to the borders of
Nepal (sacred land of Buddhism).
Since then, many kings and emperors have
used this device (pillars towers and
columns) to commemorate the victories or
important events during their reign.

An important visual characteristic of all the

stone productions of Asokan period is the
high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel
with which the surfaces even of rock cut
chambers, were invariably treated. So
striking was this appearance that in fifth
century, it excited the admiration of the
observant Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien for he
writes that it was 'shining bright as glass'
despite weathering thousand years of harsh
climatic conditions of Indian plains.
The Buddhist emblem of Dharma Chakra
(24 spoked wheel) is now part of the
National Flag of independent India. The
four-headed lion, which is atop many
Asokan pillars, has become the seal of the
Government of India.

Amravati Stupa

During next couple of centuries the Buddhist

art of building flourished, as is exemplified
by Rock-cut architecture where the facades
were so intricately carved as if the material
was wood.

wood by stone. Chief among these is the

Stupa at Sanchi (reconstructed in B.C.150,
in Central lndia).

Buddhist cave architecture

Stupas also became bigger, more complex
and highly decorative. The style reached its
zenith in Amravati stupa, 250 AD.
The refinements took the form of replacing
the impermanent materials like brick and

Stupa at Sanchi
It is interesting to note the similarities in the
visual concept of the gates and fencing at
Sanchi, to the Torna (gate) and the fencing
in the early Vedic villages.

Brick architecture flourished mainly in the

alluvial plains of India where good quality
clay was available.

Sanchi Stupa Plan with 4 Torna gates

These elements have got so sanctified that
even now on special days, the Tornas made
from stringed flowers and leaves are placed
on the doors of modem houses, gates of the
buildings, shop fronts to 'preserve what is
inside and to ward off eviI. So deep rooted
is concept of Torna in Indian culture as a
symbol of safety, it is tied across the bonnet
on the front of the vehicles for protection, on
the auspicious day of Dasera, becoming an
important element of streetscape even now.

Immense
buildings
almost
entirely
composed of brick were constructed during
the early medieval period at Mathura and
Benaras. Stupa at Budh Gaya and Sarnath
and the shrines around it are good examples
of the brick architecture built in the 7th
Century AD. In these structures the gates
and fencing follows similar patterns of
Torna, Thaba & Suchi as in earlier Vedic
villages.
Great heights were a unique visual feature of
these brick structures. These were probably
built due to ease of handling bricks because
of their small size as opposed to stone,
which was heavy and could not be carried to

Stupa at Sarnath

such heights. Fa-Hien at the beginning of

fifth century and Hieun Tsiang in the
seventh century was much impressed by
their tall proportions.

can also be seen in later day temple and

other monumental structures.

Nalanda Ruins
Referring to 'a great Vihara (Buddhist
shrine) some two hundred feet high and to
another shrine containing a copper image
more than eighty feet high in a six storied
building, the Hieun Tsiang writes about the
Nalanda, the great centre of learning - 'the
soaring domes reached to the clouds, and the
pinnacles of the temples seemed to be lost in
the mists of the mornings'.
They also talk about glittering metal roofs,
the glazed tiles of brilliant colours, the
pavilion pillars richly carved in the form of
dragons, the beams painted red or
ornamented with jade, the rafters
resplendent with all the colours of rainbow
and the balustrades of carved open work.
This profusion of colour and ornamentation

Temple at Buddh Gaya when first built a

reconstruction

Geometric patterns found at Sarnath

In these brick structures, besides sculptural

and organic motifs, geometrical patterns are
also visible. While Nalanda is in the ruins,
Buddha Gaya is the sole living example of
this style.

preserved many buildings, which provide a

testimony to the British period Classical
style in Calcutta.
Magnificent
European
architecture
dominated the new business and port city of
Bombay with large public buildings, like
Railway stations, Post & telegraph offices in
Victorian Neo-Gothic style, and private
buildings in similar styles along the main
streets like DN Road.

Railway Terminus, Mumbai- Neo Gothic

Mahabodhi Temple at Buddha Gaya

Modern age streetscape
During the early years of twentieth century
India saw a surge of big metropolitan cities
like Calcutta, Bombay, New Delhi and
others. The city of Calcutta served as the
capital of the British Raj till 1911 and has
Streetscape D. N. Road, Mumbai

Writers Building, Kolkata - Classical

Marine Drive, Mumbai Art Deco Style

Art Deco building in Mumbai

Art Deco, a distinct new style of
architecture, was introduced in Mumbai in
the 1930s. It was well adapted to the city
along with the Victorian Gothic of the
earlier century.
New Delhi became the capital of British
India in 1911, which was planned by
Architect Lutyens.

Broad Avenues of New Delhi

seemed less of planning than was in
evidence in the past. Agricultural land
around the old cities was converted into
urban land. This activity gained tremendous
momentum during post independence era
due to partition, when millions of refugees
settled around big as well as small cities.
Another important factor was migration
from rural hinterland to cities because of
rapid industrialization in and around cities
and lack of opportunities of work in rural
areas. First the houses came up and long
after, they were connected through
pathways, lanes or so called roads. Electoral
politics played the usual role and took the
toll. All these resulted in overcrowding and

Rashtrapati Bhawan Viceroys Palace

The initial precinct usually referred to, as
Lutyens Delhi is known for its wide, treelined boulevards and numerous significant
structures. The city was laid around two
central promenades with focus on the axial
planning.
In the last 100 years or so many Indian cities
have grown through slow evolutionary
process and building activity took place
wherever the land became available. There

Slums of Mumbai
development of slums without social and
urban amenities. Notable examples are

Bombay, Calcutta, Kanpur where huge

slums rose right across the cities because of
this unplanned process. Due to political
patronage, the slums have become
permanent urban features. Almost half the
population of Bombay lives in these slums.

attention was paid to streetscape. Streetscape

emerged as default.

Along with this unplanned growth we see

many
examples
of
planned
city
development. One good example is
Chandigarh - the capital city of northern
state of Punjab, which was designed by
celebrated French architect Le Carbusier.
Chandigarh Streets

Chandigarh Grid Plan

Chandigarh was a grid plan with sectors for
residences, commercial areas, offices,
markets etc. Emphasis was also put on
creating monuments - the buildings for
legislature, high court, but little attention
was paid to objects of smaller scale like

Another example of new city was the

development of Navi Mumbai (New
Bombay), which was supposed to be a
counter magnet to the growing population of
Bombay. We made the same mistakes again.
Architects with pretensions of city planners
laid emphasis on apartment blocks, office
blocks, market blocks, and not on habitat
considerations, sociology of the spaces,
community interactions. Dynamics of living
was completely ignored. And Navi Mumbai
succumbed to the forces of evolutionary
processes. Now we see the hawkers
occupying the pavements, pedestrians
spilling on the roads and vehicular traffic in
chaos.

Chandigarh Streetscape
street furniture - lampposts, bus stops etc.
Since Chandigarh became a model for
development for many cities, naturally no

Khargar Railway Station, Navi Mumbai

Notable exceptions have been design of

suburban rail stations in New Bombay area,
which are modern, clean and have well
regulated traffic.

Now builders are competing to outdo each

other resulting in this neo eclecticism. And
that is what we have now in suburban
Bombay.

The trend that was recently witnessed was

the rise and fall of builders' lobby
particularly in Bombay. Archaic rent control
laws coupled with large influx of people and
limited land availability resulted in very
high real estate prices. Builders of apartment
blocks, office blocks started making huge
profits. At one time real estate prices were
matching New York prices and with
woefully less amenities.

Hiranandani
Mumbai

Upmarket Apartment Block, Mumbai

This trend is very disturbing to the purists

and modernists, as one can understand, but
their
voices
are
quite
subdued.
Conservationists have however started
making some mark. One of the south
Bombay streets which is flanked by very
fine examples of colonial architecture has
been declared as heritage precinct and
efforts are made to show this in its full glory
by removing very large advertisement
hoarding, sign boards which hide these
beautiful facades.

This resulted in many businesses shifting

offices to suburbs or to other cities. Less
number of people came to Mumbai resulting
in the slump in demand. Builders having got
used to high prices tried very hard to
maintain the price line. They offered
additional and fancy amenities. The
apartment blocks came with club facilities,
swimming pools, gymnasiums, satellite dish
connections etc. Building facades became
highly decorative particularly with European
motifs. Gothic started rubbing shoulders
with art nouveau.

Kotachawadi Village in South Mumbai

Columns and fountains sprung at road

crossings. Landscaping was done along
roads and around buildings. So one would
see a totally new ambience in these areas.

Conservationists have also succeeded in

getting heritage status for the pre-colonial
villages, which are nestled in the city and
fortunately have so far retained their

Gardens

Precinct,

Powai

architectural exclusivity, despite tremendous

change around them. The people living in
these villages are really proud of their
heritage and want to continue living there,
bearing many inconveniences and pressures.
Heritage listing will fortunately help them.
One of the recent movements spearheaded
by design institutions along with young
conservation architects, was the study of the
heritage precinct of South Bombay, to make
recommendations about its upkeep and
beautification, and also for the design of
street furniture, which will harmonise with
the streetscape of this area. These are mere
reports and we are not sure when these will
be implemented.

Performance at Kala Ghoda Festival

Jehangir Art Gallery in Mumbai

Street Art Gallery

Our institute contributes in a small measure

to this activity. A few years back, I
organised an exhibition titled 'Sculpture in
Light'; at Jehangir Art Gallery, the premier
art gallery of Bombay situated at KalaGhada.

This area being architecturally so very

interesting, many artists are patronising it.
Street art galleries have come up where
artists display at a very nominal charge. In
winter when the weather is good, every
Sunday a festival is held, now known as
Kala-Ghoda Festival named after the
prominent crossing in the area.
These are organised by groups who are keen
on enhancing the cultural scape of Bombay
streets.

Neons defacing building facades

The theme was to bring the fluorescent neon

lights, used for advertising and which are
such eyesores on the beautiful facades of the
buildings around that area, into the interior
spaces and create objects of art from a very
interesting though highly abused material
(lighted neon tube). These are some of the
small though significant steps taken to
humanise the streetscape elements of this
vast metropolis of Bombay, known in local
Marathi language as Amci Mumbai (our
Mumbai).

Neon Sculpture for the interior

I am afraid that this paper has not said
everything about the streetscape from
'Mohenjo-Daro to Mumbai '. I have skipped
important periods of architectural history of
lndia, notably post Buddhist Hindu and
Mughal period, which are better known, and
well documented, but I hope it will arouse
some more curiosity about the subject. If
that happens I will be happy.

References:
1. Brown Percy, Indian Architecture
(Buddhist and Hindu Periods), D.B.
Taraporewala Sons & co. Pvt. Ltd.,
Bombay, 1959.
2.
Basham A.L., The Wonder that was
India - A survey of the history and culture of
Indian sub-continent before the coming of
the
Muslims,
Taplinger
Publishing
Company, New York, l967.