llainKiWeb.

com
I

MEASUREMENTS
Accurate measurement is central to the development of any science. The
importance of measurement was apparent to ancient ci\ ilizations. Throughout history, the
accuracy with which measurements could be made has been improved by the use of more
and more sophisticated instruments. At almost every stage, improved measuring
teclmiques have resulted in new concepts and ideas.
Q.J.l Descrioe the Importance of physics in daily life.
Ans:

Until about 1850, there are texts and courses in what was called natural or
experimental philosophy. As a result and conclusion of natural philosophy accumulated,
it became difficult for a single person to work in t11e whole fields and subdivisions
appeared.
There was a huge increase in the volume of scientific k.Jlowledge up till the
beginning of nineteenth centi~U"IIDIDi...necessa.!I._tO classify the study of nature
into two branches, the biol&~I'M ~fe\tA...a.G~fOt living things and physical
sciences which concern with non-living things. Phy~ics is an important and basic part of
physical sciences besides its other disciplines such as chemistry, astronomy, geology etc.
Physics studies particularly simple systems, such as sing!: atoms. Scientific
~ methods are often expressed more clearly in these simple systems of physics than in
~1any other sciences. Because of this, physics is often regarded as a model for the
~tmtific Method".
~
Althcuf~h Physics is a fundamental science, its principles underliij.Ci, ~clr. of
tech~gy, which is humankind's means of solving its probl_e~:~erthereforc,
importat'Q".gr technologists and for engineers, who actually design r n s to problems.,
to have a tlf'tO)aghP,ut understanding of the principles of physics'*~

. -.,"k

(Chapter 01)

Q.l.2 (a)
(b)

Define Physi~s. Describe the main frontiers of fundamental sciences.

De...!g;.t>e some new branches of Physics anPcDcJJe. of Physics in
~oping technology.
"'")'fj

6c,

Ans: .,.'f>i.HYSICS:
Ddh,JOn:

~'1>~..

MEASUREMENT

'rhe branch of science which deals with the study of mal/er and
energy and the relationship between them is called physics.)
.

O~

MAIN FRONTIERS OF FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCES:

1.

The world of the extremely large, the universe itself, Radio telescopes now gather
information from the far side of the universe and have recently detected, as radio
waves. the " firelight" oj1t!l..e~" ft:bil'\started off the expanding
uni verse nearly 20 billioUj:Mr~ '~~. 1 ,.. :- _.

2.

The world of the extremely small, that of the particles such as, electrons, protons,
neutrons, mesons and others.

3. /

The world of complex matter and it is also the w~d of "middle-sized" things,
from molecules at one extreme to the Earth at the other. This is all fundamental
physics, which is the heart of science.

(b)

BRANCHES OF PHYSICS:
By the end of 191h century, many physicists started believing that every thing
about physics has been discovered . However, about the beginning of the twentieth
century, many new experimentai fdcts revealed that the laws formulated by the previous
investigawrs need modificati0ns. Further researches gav~ birth to many new disciplines
in physics which are given as under:
Nuclear Physics:
The branch physics which deals with atomic nuclei is called nuclear physic!>
Particle Physics:
The branch of physics which is concerned with the ultimate particles of which the
matter is composed of is called
Relativistic Mechanics:
The branch of physics which deals with velocities approaching that of light is
called relativistic mechanics.

P3JttWnf(ciWeb.COm

Solid State Physics:

~c:L._ The br mch ot physics which is concerned with the structure and properties
solu:..-..,~;.ials ;s called solid state physics.
.
~l>
Role of~c~. in technology:
~
Physf6 pl. vs an important role in the development of ~ology and
engineering. S~~~ and technology are a potent force for change ~ the outlook of

tfl

A Hand Book of Physics Part- I

mankind. The i9{J~ation media and fast means of communicat~s have brought all
?arts o~ the~~d in close contact with one another. Events in ofip~art of the wort~
Imm~~~'reverberate round the globe. .
r'J~

~~e are

living in the age of information technology. The

computef~works

are

~aucts of chips, developed t1om the basic ideas of physics. The chips a~ade of
silicon. Silicon can be obtained from sand. It is upto us whether we make a sand~e or
~

a computer out of it.

Q.1.3 What do you mean by physical quantities? What steps are involved to
measure a base quantity?
Ans.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES:

llamKiWeb.com

Definition: ,
I Any numbei' or set of numbers used for a quantitative description of
a pHysical phenomenon is called a physical quantity. }
Physical quantity is a tenn which is used to include lneasurable features of many
different items. For example, area of a playing field, the mas.; of a bag of sugar and the
speed of an aeroplane are all physical quantities.(In quoting any measurement of a
physical quantity two things are to be stated:
(I)

Numerical value of the quantity.

(2)

Suitable unit.)

Types of Physical Quantities:

Physical q~antities are often divided into two catt!g,,r!t "
Distance
(m)

( 1)

Base quantities

(2)

Derived quantities

10-20

1.

Base Quantities:
( Base quantities are not defined in terms of other rhysical
quantities.

IJa

Typical examples of
mKtWco..,and
time) For other areas of physi-:c; other base quantities are;
temperature, electrical charge, luminous intensity and amount of
substance.
~ Step~ to Measure Base Quantity:

~~

(i)

~i)

The choice of a standard.

Diameter

10- 10

of an atom

=of a

100

~ Otameter

1oo

~ of the earth
Distance to the

wn

Ditance to the
nearest 1tar
1020

'lh. ~ The measurement of~. base quantity involves two step~ :

.,...,"'

Dtameter of a
nucleu1

Diameter 01 the
Milky way

~ I Dtst~ the

1():10

f '"f

new-galaxy

The establishment of a procedure for comparing

::t\e~
c the quantity to be measured with the standard so -----.+..~
OJ,llat a number and a unit are determined as the 1Jl'-'!!'er ofm a~ n itu de
-~easure of that quantity.
of ~om e di..,;tan..:L

[Chapter 01)

_2.

MEASUREMENT

Derived ~ntities:

(Deriv~Qiuantities are those whose definitions are basef~ther physical

qu~~~~r example; velocity, acceleration and force etc. are usually~~ as derived

qu~~:

~cipa Characteristics of an Ideal Standard:

~6

+c

-'Q

An ideal standard has two principal-characteristics:

It is accessible
(ii) It is invariable
These two requirements are often incompatible and a compromise has to be made
between them. 1
Thus physics is inherenllamKiwab~gmrd Kelvin (1824 - 1907),
one of the pioneers in investigating energy relations in heat and thermal phenomena,
stated this principle eloquently:
I oft~n say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express
it in numbers. you kno'vv something about it. But when yol! can not express it in numbers.
Yours kn0" l~dg~ is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of
knowledgl!, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science,
whatever the matter may be.
Q.l.4 (a) what is International system of units?
(b) What are base units? Define the base units of SI system.
(i)

j:..

Ans.

(c)

What are supplementary units and derived units? Give some examples.

(n)

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS:

( In 1960. an international committee agreed on a set of definitions and standard to

descnbe the physical quantities. The system that was established is called the System
International, abbrivated by SI ) The advantage of the SI system of units is that any
quantitY. has only one unit in wlftch it can be measured. For example, in case of length the
metre is the only unit or length useJ, together with multiple units such as the kilometre,
anJ submultipll! unih 'iulr 11~ thtlijrtd(tWeb.COm
The syskm intcrnati0nal (~ l) is built up from three kinds of units:
i)
Base Units
ii)
Supplementary Units
ii~) Derievcd Units.

BASE UNITS

D~on:
.I~

.
1

0~

~!J
.uled with bast! quantltif!l' like length, mass an.d~

The t!
a/~led th~ Base Units.

~~

ThereP&.1even base units for various physical quantities n~1ty, length, _mus,
temperature,.ectric current, luminous intensitv and amount nf' cuhct'Q ..,.,.

A Hand Book of Physics Part-I

The names of base units for these physical quantities along with symbols are
given below in tabe~.

:oP

Table 1.1

.~...le

.. .

~,

,,9-~

Sl Unit

metre

Mass

kilogram

kg

Time

second

Electric current

ampere

Thermodynamics temp.

kelvin

Luminous

e~eo

cd

llaRJ Ki

Amount of substance

mole

mol.

Standard definitions of base units are given as under:

Metre:

The unit of length is named as metre. In 1889, a metre bar of platinum-iridium

alloy was choosen as the standard of length; this alloy ~s particularly chemically stable.
However, the use of such a bar as a world standard is cumbersome; replicas must be
made and compared with the world standard periodically. On October 14, 1960, the
General Conference on Weights and Measures in France changed the standard of length
to an atomic constant, namely, the wavelength of the orange-red light emitted by the
individual atoms of Krypton- 86 in a tube filled with Krypton gas in which an electrical
discharge is maintained. According to this; "One metre is a length equal to 1, 650, 763,73
times the wavelength in vacuum of the orange-red_light emitted by Krypton 86-atom.
However, in 1983 the metre was redefined to be the distance traveled by light in
vacuum during a time of 1/299, 792, 458 seconds. in fact, this latest definition establishes
that the speed'oflight in vacuum is 299,792, 458 ms- 1

11
"
ClfillKf.Web(;)COJ"ft

Kilogram:
The unit of mass 'i
defined to be the mass of a
particular platinum (90 %) and iridium ( 10%) alloy cyrinder, 3.9 em in diameter and
3.9 em in height kept near Pairs, France.
~

Se<:ond:

The unit of time is named as second. Until 1960, the standard of time was base<
~~n the mean solar day, the time interval between successive arrivals of the sun at it
~!lest point, average over a year. In 1967, an atomic standard was adopted. JN tw
f~1_t energy states of the cesium (Cs 133 ) atom have slightly differef,~ergie:
de~~ngon whether the spin of the outermost electron is parallel or
Arallel to tt
nucle
in. Electromagnetic radiation (microwaves) of precise!
roper frequenc
causes t
itions from one of these states to the other.
~~

(Chapter 01]

MEASUREMENT

One second is redefined as the time required in which the outermost.electron of

the cesium- 133 atom makes 9, 192, 631, 770 vibrations.
~

Ampere:
0~
~*'>~t;. ~
T ~f'of electric current is named as ampere. It is that constant ~,.t which if
main .%-two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible ctr~ crosssect'
d placed a metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductor~ ctsrce
~
to 2 x 10-7 newton per metre of length. This unit was established in 1971.
~

Kelvin:
The unit of thermodynamic temperature is kelvin. It is defined as "the fraction
11273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple-point of water.
It should be noted that the triple-point of a substance means the temperature at
which solid, liquid and vapour At~~~eom triple-point of water is
taken as 273.16 K. This standard l.f9!d~M i'b, 90/.
Mole:
The mole is the amount of substance of a system. It is defined as "the amount of a
substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in
0.012 kilogram of carbon -12.
It was adopted in 1971 . One mole of any substance contains 6.0225x 1023 entities.
Candela:
The unit of luminous intensity is candela. It is defined as the luminous intensity in
the perpendicular direction of a surface of l/600000 square metre of a black body radiator
at the solidification temperature of platinum under standard atmospheric pressure. This
defu\ition was adopted by the 13th General Conference of Weights and Measures in 1967.
Difftrent System of Units:
The commonly used system of units are given as under:

1.

F.P.S. system i.e., Foot-Pound-Second. This system is also called as British

Engineering System.
In this system of units len~~...is..mt'Ulft.UetJ~ pounJs and time in
second.
l an I I'I

2.
3.
(c)

C.G.S. system i.e., Centimeter-Gram-Second.

In this system length is measured in centimetre, m_ass in gram and time in second.
M.K.S. system i.e., Metre-Kilogram-Second.
~
~ In this system length is measured in metre, mass in kilogram and time in second. (JO

C,~PLEMENTARY UNITS:

.:t~J>.~

!"l1V~eral Conference on Weights and Measures has not yet classi~ertain

units of the 1f6under either base units or derived units. These Sl urj,.~e called
~
supplementary u~Q

/~

A Hand Book of Physics Part-1

Kind of Supplementary Units:

There are two kinds of supplementary units.

(i)

(i)

Radian

(ii)

Steradian

llamKiWeb.com

Radian:

The radian is the plane angle between two

radii of a circle which cut off on the circumference
an arc, equal in length to the radius. It is shown in
Fig. 1.1 (a).

(ii)

Fig. l.l(a)

Steradian:
\

The steradian is the solid angle (threedimensional angle) subtended at the centre of a
sphere by an area of its surface equal to the square of
radius of the sphere. It is shown in Fig.l.l (b).

llamKIWeb. coR,

Fig. l.t(b)

Derived Units:
The Sl units derived from the base and supplementary units are called derived
units. )

In SI system, the seven pL: :.teal quantities mentioned previously are regarded as '
ase quantities and their units an.: called base units. Other physical quantities, which can
fined in terms of these base quantities such as velocity, acceleration, force a~rk
etc.
, therefore, called derived quantities and the units associated with th~ ~anti ties
.~e
are c
derived units.

Note:

~ are obtained by the combination of more than one bas~Y

~

~11-

MEASUREMENT

[Chapter 011

Derived Unit
newton

joule

watt

w
c
v

coulomb
Electric potential difference volt
pascal
Pressure

Pa

Examples of Derived Units:

r;;

llamKiWeb.com

speed:

It is defined as "distance traveled in unit time". In Sl units, distance i:: measured

in metre and time in second. So the unit of speed will be:
Metre
Distance
=
Speed =
Second
Time
l

Unit of Speed = m = mss

Thus,
The unit of speed is ms- 1
(ii)

Acceleration:
It is defined as 'the rate of change of velocity". So the unit of acceleration will be;
Velocity = Distance/Time
Acceleration = Time
Time
Distance
= (Time)2
Unit of acceleratiolla~'We

b.com

,,

Thus,
2
The SI unit of acceleration is ms- .
(iii)
Force:
~
It is defined as ''mass times acceleration". So the unit of force will be;
~h.
.
Force= Mass x Acceleration
;,-,~
k
-2
"'1/J...

= g x ms
~ Unit of force= kg ms- 2

6c

Thus,

Tht! SI

un~t'dj force is newton (N)

( : Kg ms-2 = N)

A Hand Pook of Physics Part- 1

(iv)

0 (<\

Work:

It _i!.\~'t! as .. the product of force and distance''. So the unit ~~ork wi ll be;

~...,.,,

~.t. .

Work= Force x Distance

\\~~

..-~

= Nxm
Unit of work = Nm

(!!

()~

l11us,

(': l Nm = 1 Joule)

The Sl unit ofwork is joule (J) .

JlJouw,rtum:

(v)

It is detined as .. the

be;

rf
'1

pro~t

of mass and velocity". So the unit of moml.!ntum wi ll

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Momentum= Mass x Velocity

= kg x ms- 1

Unit of momentum= Kilogram metre per second (kg ms- 1)

Thus,
The Sl unit of momentum is kg ms- 1

Q.l.S (a)
Ans.

What is scientific notation and explain the use of prefix?

(b)

Write a note on conversion of unit.

(a)

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION:

Numbers are ex pressed in standard form called scientific notation, which employs
powers of ten. The 'internationally accepted practice is that there should be only one non
zero digit kft of decimal. Thus, the! number 134.7 should be -wTitten as 1.347 x 102 and
0.0023 should be expressed as 2.3 x 10-3.
Use of Prefix:

In physics, sometimes_ we use v;iW~e numbers and sometimes. very small

b!eo-trfmbers as mu!uplcs of ten.
numbers. Prefixes are used
For example;
One light year = 9460000000000000

toll&mK

= 946 x 10 13 m

~L
~~

Similarly,
= 9.46 x 10 15 m '
Radius of proton= 0.000.000,000,000,000,001 ,2 m

16

~
Another if!G~ Prefix:

co -- ~: ......... "'""

t<:P

= 12x I0- m
= 1.2 x w - ts m
nrP.fix

.A'\.

~~
~?).~

to exoress appropriate units. For example;

:0~

[Chilpter 01]

10

MEASUREMENT

Centi means II 100, therefore centimetre means 1/100 metre, or;

~ 1

vO

:o

100

.~e
~ . .

'!$"

~~

;~

Sm1llarly,

I m = 10 centimetres
_I_
_
m
I mm
1000

or

1m

and

~4?">).
~

m = 1 centimetre

fl)6c
oh..
~,

103 mm

1OOO km = I metre
or
I km = I03 metre
Hence centi, kilo, milli arc called prefix.
Conventions for Indicating

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Use of SI units requires special care, more

particularly in writing prefixes.
Following points should be kept in mind while
using units.
(i) Full name of the unit does not begin with a
capital letter even if named after a scientist
e.g; newton.

Table 1.4

Some Prefaxcs for

Powers ofTen
Factor

Prefix

Symbol

10-18

atto
femto
pico
nano
micro

10-15

to-2

(ii) The symbol of unit named after a ~cientist

to-9
has initial capital letter such as N for
.newton.
I 0-<i
(iii) The prefix should be written before the unit
10-3
any
space,
such
as
without
10-2
I X 1o-J m is written as l mm. Standard
to-
prefixes are given in table 1.4.
to'
(iv) A combination of base units is written each
with o.ne s~ace ap3ii .or Clji!Wllew.toi:
metre 1s wrttten as "tlla
J\.IVV ~ D 4~~ rrf
106
(v)

Compound prefixes are not allowed. For

exampie, 11-l.llF may be written as 1pF.

10

1012
10 15

~-fl>il

numb~r

1018

milli
centi
deci
deca
kilo
mega
giga
tera
peta
ex a

p
n
ll

m
c
d
da
k

M
G

T
p
E ,.~

scientific.~

l<t'

A
such as 5.0 x 104 em may be expressed in
as
~ S.O x 10m.
~
(vii) ~en a multiple of a base unit is raised to a power, the ~applies to the
;f?~ultiple and not the base unit alone. Thus, 1 km2 = I~i = 1 x I06 m2

11

A Hand Book of Physics Part-1

(viii) Measur_:KEnt in practical work should be recorded immediately in the most

conv~t. unit, e.g. micrometer screw gauge measure~ in mm, and the
_.l.~ of calorimeter in grams (g). But before calculation ~the result, all
-~""~easurements must be converted to the appropriate SI base u?;tf;..J..

6~

. ~~~xplain the terms crro-:- and uncertainty.

~s.

,.~

ERROR:

All physical measurements are uncertain or imprecise to some extent. It is vg,

difficult to eliminate all possible errors or uncertainties in a measurement. The error in a
measurement may occur due to:

(1)

negligence or inexperience of a person.

(2)
(3)

the faulty apparatus.lla

inappropriate methoa or t~ique.

K"'W b ,
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Types of Errors:
There are two major types of errors whidb ~ given below:
(i) Random error
(ii) Systematic erorr
(i)
Random Error:
Random error is said to occur when repeated measurements of the quantity, give
different values under the same conditions. It is due to mme unknown causes.
Reduction ofRandom Error:
Repeating the measurement several tim'!s and taking an average can reduce the
effect of random errors.
(ii)
Systematic Error:
Systematic error refers to an effect that influences all measurements of a
particular quantity equally. It produces a consistent difference in readings.
Occurre11ce ofSystematic rror:
It occurs to some definite rule. It may occur due to zero error of instruments, poor
calibration of instruments or ir.rJtrcct ma;i.iPiiitc.b
Reduction ofSystematic Error: 1ami\IVV~ .CO
Systematic error can be n: -i:R;..d by comparing the instruments with another which
is known to be more accurate. Thus for systematic error a correction factor can be
applied.
~CERTAINTY:
.
,

~ LThe uncertainty
occ~Jti}o
.

-(1$~ inadequacy <>r limitation of an instrument.

(2) crei!ral variations of the object being measured.

(3)

~
':()~

is also usually described as an error in a measurement. It

nat:OJ imperfections of a person's senses.

.~e

~'t;

~-

~'If.

jCh;'lptcr Oil

12

ivtEASUREMENT

Q. t. 7 Explain the significant figures and degree of accuracy. Give examples.

Ans.

SIG~I~NT FIGURES AND DEGREE OF ACCU~Y:

\~R,l! make some sort of measurement. the measured val~~ some error or

u~~~~ This error or uncertainty may be due to the faulty instrume' due to the

~essness. lack of experience or training of the observer. The instrument us~~y also
~~c responsible for this error. For example, if a certain thickness is measured with ~tre

rod, a sere\\ gauge or a vernier callipers. The error or uncertainty in the thickness isTflast
as measured with the screw gauge. To make this point clear, one may real ize that every
instrument is calibrated to a certain smallest division, which puts a limit to the degree of
accuracy which may be achieved on making measurement with it. A reading which may
be with in the two marked divJi~ffil(fV'tiW!etJ.rtfan therefore be considered
as correct.
Approximate Values ofSome Times lntervals<O
Suppose we want to measure
Table 15
Interval s
the length of a straight line with the
help of a metre rod calibrated in
Age of the universe
S.x 10 17
millimeters. Let the end pojnt of the A e of the Earth
1.4 X 1017
line lies between 10.3 and 10.4 em
7
One year
J .2 X 10
marks. By convention if the end of
One day
8.6 X 10~
~he line does not touch or cross the
midpoint of the smallest division, the
reaJ ing is confined to the previous
di vision. In case the end of the "line Period of typical radio waves
1 x 10- 6
seems to be touching or have crossed
1 x 1o- 13
the midpoint, the reading is extended Period of vibration of an atom in a solid
Period of visible light Wa\'eS
2 X I o-s
to the next division.
By applying the above rule the position of the edge of a line recorded as 12.7 em
with the help of a metre rod calibrated in millimeters may lie between 12.65 em and
12.75 em. Thus in this .examlilf the~~ ~erta~~ 0.05. em. lt is, i~ ~act,
equivalent to an uncertamty o~l4m~~,~~Me~Ycftln\ of the mstrument d1v1ded
into two parts, half above and half below the recorded reading.
The uncertainty or accuracy in the value of a measured quantity can be indicated
conveniently by using significant figures. The recorded value of the length of the straight
~ne i.e. 12.7 em contains three digits (1 , 2, 7) out of which two digits (1 and 2 ) ,
"'tely known while the third digit i.e, 7 is a doubtful one.
'V'\..~

f.b....

~~~

Dcfin~:

~- ~ :_..p~

~,(n any measurement, the accurately known digits ~-.me first

doub~~gil are called as significant digils.

13

r\ H.and Book ot l' hys1cs l';ut - 1

In other . ; . : a significant figure is one ''btl h

~be reasonably reliable. If the abo . e
is kno
menf
easurement is taken by a better measun1g
which is exact up to a hundredth ol a
timetre. it wpuld have been recorded as
12.70 em. ln this case, the number of significant figUJ es
is four. Thus, we can say that as we tmprove the quan trty
of our measuring instrument and techniquP.s, we extt nd
the measured result to more and more significant figu es
and correspondingiy improve the experimental accur .. c)
of the result.
General Rules:

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\la~nit~

Mau(kg)
1()-30

of some masses

"~~~

El

Prot

UraniiMTI ~

10-2&
1G-20
10- 15

(S

DNA motecu1e

' een

1()- 10

While calculating a result from t lie

1G-&
measurements, it .is. important to give due attention to
100
significant figures and we must know the followi ng
rules in deciding how many significant figures are to be
100
retained in the final result.(i)
All digits I, 2, 3,' 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are significa11t.
1010
Ou tanker
However, zeros may or may not be significant.
In case of zeros, the following rules may be
10111 .
adopted.
MountE~
1020
(a) A zero between two significant figures is
itself significant.
(b) Zeros to the left of significant figures are
not significant. For example, rione of th~.:
zeros in 0.00467 or 02.59 is significant.
(c) Zeros to the right of a significant figun: may or may not be stgni ticant. In
dttcimal fractiol)~iliJ'iUllt. g&llt ~!a sign11icant ! r g ur~.: Jrl.! stgrll ti -=,mt. Fo1
example, all ttll~
ltt.IW8D.'00fnrc sianiticant. However. in
integers such as 8,000 kg, the number of signiticant zeros is determ ined by
the accuracy of the measuring instrument. If the measuring scale has a least
count of.. 1 kg then there are four significant figures written in scientific
~
notation as 8.000 x 103 kg. If the leost count of the scale is 10 kg, then the
. ~~
number of significant figyres will ''e 3 written in scientific notation as
l

8.00 x 10 kg and so on.

~
0
!;1'\ld) When a measurement is recorded in scientifk notation or stand:\il'rm, the
~
figures other thart the powers of ten are significant fig~rlt!lf* example, a
4

+oQ measurement recorded as 8. 70 >< 10 kg has three signrfig~res.

till
In m~iplying or dividing number!, keep a number of\)1fniflcant figures. in the
'- - ----:"..,. In the leut ar ...uate factor i.e.,

the factor containing the least number of significant

comput~ofthe follo\ving using a calculator gives;

_..\e~

5.348

~,

~~As the

~~

14

MEASUREMENT

[Chapter 01]

10-l

3.64 X } 0
1. .>J 6
X

., ...

ici,

fig~s.

For example, the

~~

1.4576898 2 x 1o

factor 3.64 x 10', the least a~curate in the above <:alculation~e, three
significant figures. the answer sh 1uld be written to three significant tigureAr..rv.
The other figures are insignificant and should be deleted. While deleti~g,...-~e
ligures, the last signiticant figure to be retained is rounded off for which the
fol_}owing rule are followed.
(a) If the first digit dropped is less than 51 the last digit retained should remain
unchanged.

(b) If the first digit d~~Wti?,MeQ~gftlto be retained is increased

by one.
(c) If the digit to be dropped is 5, the previous digit which is to be retained is
increased by one if it is odd and retained as such if it is even. For example,
the following numbers are rounded off to three significant figures as
follows:
is rounded off as
43.8
43 .75
is rounded of: as
56.9
56.8546
is rounded off ac::
T'.. r;
73.650
is rounded off as
M4
Following this rule, the corre :t ansv.. er ol the computation given in section (ii) is
64.350

1.46

(iii)

103

In adding or subtractin!J. m:r,,h.._r, . rhr rll'mhlr of decimal places retained in the

answer should equal the 511\atksL llllllllll.:r of decimal places in any of the
quantities bl.!ing added or ~L,:'\racted. In this case, the number of significant
tlgures is not important. IL is the position of decimal that matters. For example,
suppose -w~ \\ish to add tti~'K4w.!~ Of.M1 in metres.
,
(a)

_..tbf

T.:.. l
3 42
0.003

~
75.523
C1&,~answer: 75.5 m

2.7543
4.10
1.273
8.1273

0~
:0~

8.13 m
~sc (a) the number 72.1 has the smallest number of decimal~! us the
e number
answer i/'8! ded off to the same position which is then 75 .5 m. In case
4. 10 has the~~lkst number of decimal places and hence, the answ~i): ounded off the
same decimal p~ns which is then 8.13 m.

15

A Hand Book of Physics Part- 1

Determination of ~ificant Digits:

1 cases:
Let u
find the number of si
5142 .- ...\' All digits are significant.
_,rJJ;..~""
All digits are significant.
so~. .
Digit 5 is significant, zeros may or may not be significant.
~00
0.2029
All digits after the decimal point are significant, but
decimal point is not significant.
All digits after the decimal point are significant.
0.1000
Digit 1 and 0 on the right are significant. Zeros on the left of I are not
0.0010
significant. This i;J.iue to ~.(a~t.th~~ the number is a fraction and may be
written as 10 X

lcJiaml\JtW"eo,.com

1.00

1o-

Digits 1 and 0, 0 before 1o-3 are significant.

1.0020
Q.1.8 Explain the terms precision and :.ccuracy.

Ans. 'P RECISION:

Defir6tion:
A precise measurement is the one which has less precision or
absolute uncertainty.

ACCURACY:
Definition:
An accurate measurement is the one ll'hich has lc!ss fractuma! or
p ercentage uncertainty or error.
Note: A precise reading will be taken -to large number of significant figures, but be

careful to use instruments of appropriate precision.

In measurements made in physics, the terms precision and accuracy are frequently
used. They should be uisti ttt.Atnlfli.Weftcl'il'iMn of a measurement is
determined by the instrument or Clevie~ ~~~g us~ancMM'e' Accuracy of a measurement
depends on the fractional or percentage uncertainty in that measurement.
For example when the length of an object is recorded as 25.5 em by using n metre
rod having smallest division in millimetre, it is the difference of two readings of the
~itial and final positions. The uncertainty in the single reading as discussed before is
~Las 0.05 em which is now doubled and is called absolute uncertainty e~'ti,!Jt
OJy~. Absolute uncertainty, ih fact, is equal to the !Past count of the ~ ing
instru"'lf~ ~t means that
Pr~ion or absolute uncertainty (least count) = 0.1 em ~:f'\
~~

.:t\e

O.q

16

MEASUREMENT

(Ch.lPter 01]

an d

.J\. Fract10na1 uncertamty

:\...

vo

_\~~
~'liyo.IOre,

0. 1 em
= 25 = 0.004
.::"1 em

;~

t9~
.
0.1 em 100
0.~
Percentage uncertamty = 25 .5 em x 100 = lOU
~

~~ Another measurement.taken by vernier callipers with least count a~l em is

,,~orded

as 0.45 em In this case

.
("
0
Precision or absolute uncertainty (least count)= 0.01 em
~
.
.
0.01 em
and
Fracuona1uncertamty = 0.45 em = 0.OJ
~
.
0.01 em 100
2.0
There,ore, Percentage uncertamtr ~ O.~cm x
~
100 ~ 2.0%
Thus thl! reading 25.5
ough less preci::. but is more
accurate having less percentage uncertainty or error whereas the reading 0.45 em taken by
vernier callipers is more precise but is less accurate. In fact, it is the relative measurement
wluch is important. The smaller a physical quantity, the more prt!cise instrument should be
used. Here the measurement 0.45 em demands that a more precise instrument such as
micrometer screw gauge with least count 0.001 em should have been used.

fiJ

~lqa{'tt~I)Yrf!~efiS

Q.1.9 How total uncertainty in the final result is assessed?

Ans.

ASSESSMENT OF TOTAL UNCERTAINTY IN THE FINAL RESULT:

To assess the total uncertainty or error, it is necessary to evalurte the likely

uncertainties in all the fa~tors involved in that calculation. The maximum possible
uncertainty or error in the firal result c~n be found as follows:
1.

For Addition and Subtraction:

Absolute uncertainties are added. For example, the distance x determined by the
differen~:e between two separate posttion measurements,
x1 = 10.5 0.1 em and x2 = 26.8 0.1 em is recorded as

2.

For

Multi~li;nt~n'7~~~~ ~\tiWe b.CO

Percentage uncertainties are added. For example the maximum possible uncertainty
in the vulue of resistance ]{ of a conductor determined from the measwements of potential
difterence V and current l ~Y using R = V/1is found as follows:
v = 5.2 0.1 v
I = 0.84 0.05 A
~
0.1 V .JOO
~~
~ ~e %age uncertainty for V is = 5.2Vx100

The~,uncertainty f~r I is =
,...

O.OSA 100
0.84 A X 100

17

A Hand Book of Physics Part-1

Hence total ~~inty in the value of resistance R when V is divided by I is 8%.

The result is thus ~Cl as;
~
52V
~~i
= 4 A = 6.19 VA- = 6.19 ohms with a o/oage unc..,-j~ of 8%.

:;_t\lli o.8

\\1>-~.e.,

R = 6.2 0.5 ohms

~
The result is rounded off to two significant digits because both V and R hav~o
significant figures and uncertainty being an estimate only, is recorded by one signific~
figure.

3.

For Power Factor:

Some Specific Temperatures

Multiply the percentage uncertainty by that power.

Fo_r example, in the calculation ~eE

~~

4
V = -n~
3

.%age uncertainty in V = 3 x %age uncertainty in

. . . . . . . . *.

radius r.
As uncertainty is multiplied by power factor, it
increases the precision demand of measurement. If the
radius of a small sphere is measured as 2.25 em by a
vernier callipers with least count 0.01 em, then the radius r
is recorded as;
akri'lium melta

r = 2.25 0.01 em.

Absolute uncertainty = Least count= 0.0 I em
100
%age uncertainty in r = O.Ol em x
2.25.cm 100
Total percentage uncertainty in

Thus volume V

V = 3 X 0.4%

lla K

= 0 4%

eb'9.--.......

= 3n~
4

~~.

= 3 x 3.14 x (2.25 cm)3

3

= 47.689 cm with 1.2% uncertainty

4'/il!us the result should be recorded as

86
3
V = 47.7 0.6 cm
4.

Fo;~rlainty in the Average Value of many Measure~ngs'

m -~~~ th,. Av~r~ae value of measured values.

w -

[Chapter 01]

(ii)

18

MEASUREMENT

Find deviation of each measured value from the average value.

{iii) Th~an deviation is the uncertainty in the average ~e.

(iv..)_ .~example the six reading of the micrometer screw ~to measure the
.~eV diameter of a wire in mm are
c-..'1/~
~'
1.20, 1.22, 1.23, 1.19, 1.22, 1.21.
~6
..._,.,.~
1.20 + 1.22 + t.23 + t.19 + 1.22 + 1.21
0~
'""
Then
Average =
6

c.

1.21 mm
The deviation of the readings, which are the difference without regards to the
sign, between each reading and average value are O.OC 0.01, 0.02, 0.02, 0.01 , 0.
. . - 0.01 + 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.01 + 0
M ean 0 fd evlatlOnS- II.

~.TJ,mm

KWeb .. com

Thus likely uncertainty in the mean diameter 1.21 mm is 0.01

1.21 0.01 mm.

5.

mm recorded as

For the Uncertainty in a Timing Experiment:

T rave time o r r121h t

The uocertainty in the time period of a vibrating

body is found by dividing the least count of timing device
by the number of vibrations. For example, the time of 30
vibrations of a simple pendulum recorded by a stopwatch
accurate up to one tenth of a second is 54.6 s, the period
T

54.6 s
---w-

.
= 1.82 s w1"th uncertamty

Moon to Earth

I min 20 s

Sun to Earth

8 min 20 s

Pluto to Earth

s h 20 s

03.0ls = 0.003 s

Thus period T is quoted as T = 1.82 + 0.003 s.

Hence, it is advisable to count large number of swings to reduce timing
uncertainty.

Example 1.1
The length, breadth att~We:heCQM33. m, 2.105 m and 1.05
em respectively. Calculate th~ ft!ddt~ "b'r"~"tKew'"sli'eet correct up to the appropriate
significant digits.
Solution:
Given data:

=
=

f. = 3.233 m
b

= 2.1 OS m

1.05 Cm = 1.05

Volum~e sheet = V

Length of sheet

~~readth of sheet
/~kness OfSheet

To

deter~~

o-l m

19

A Hand Book of Physics Part-1

Calculations:
_'((\
As we knoMJtat;
.-.l~~me = Length x Breadth x Thickness
..t.~,
.
~TJt
V = ( X bX h
~~ Substituting the values, we have;
V = 3.233 m x 2.105 m x 1.05 x 10-2 m ..
V = 7.14573825 x 10-2 m 3
or
As the factor 1.05 em has minimum number of significant figures equal to three,
therefore, volume is recorded up to three significant figures. Hence,
V = 7.15 x 10-2 m3
Ans.

llamKiWeh

Example 1.2
The mass of a metal box measured by a 'revS9aDJce is 2.2 kg. Two silver
coins of masses 10.01 g and 10.02 g measured by a beam balance are added to it.
What is now the total mass of the box correct up to the appropriate precision.
Solution:
Given data:
Mass or a metal box = m1 = 2.2 kg
Mass of 151 silver coin= m2= IO.~lg = 0.01001 kg
Massof2ndsilvercoin = m3 = 10.02 g = 0.01002 kg
To determine:
Total mass of the box= M = ?
Calculations:
Total mass when silver coins are added to box
M = 2.2 kg+ 0.01001 kg+ 0.01002 kg
or M = 2.22003 kg
Since least precise is 2.2 kg, having one decimal place, hence total mass should be
to one decimal place which is ~~l.P~ate precision. Thus,
Total mass = M
Example 1.3
The diameter and length of a metal cylinder measured with the hrlp of
vernier callipers Df least count 0.01 em are 1.22 em and 5.35 em. Cah:ul.ah tht>
~volume V of the cylinder ud uncertainty in it..

1\IWeb.com

~~tion:

. .

Ga~ata:
.
~tcountofvemiercallipers = 0.01 em

oi~ of m~tal cylinder

--~ - - ..... 1

,.._,1t",4,_p

=d =

=l

1.22 em

= S.3Scm

[Chapter m)

20

MEASUREMENT

To determine:

Volume ~e cylinder

u~q;inthevolwne

V = ?

= ?

Calc~s:

~~Absolute uncertainty in length=

~"

%age

unce~ty in length

0.01 em
0.01 em 100 _
20
5.53 em x 100 - 0 Vo

Similarly,
Absolute uncertainty in diameter = 0.01 em

Vo age uncertamty m

d'

0.01 em
100
0 .s%
antmKi'Wib:tiMn

As we know that;
2
xa
v = 4l

......... (i)

Hence
Total.uncertainty in V = 2 (% age uncertainty in diameter
+% age uncertainty in length)
= 2 X (0.8 + 0.2)

= }.8o/o

Now, substituting the values in equation (i), we have;

V = 3.14 x (1.22 cmi x 5.35 em
4
V = 6.2509079 cm3

or
Where

Uncertainty in volume= 1.8%

3

Thus,
V = (6.2 O.~cm
KlWjbo~(ijfi29 = 0.1)
3
where 6.2 cm is calculatMiDl~ ~!~1 em ~s the uncertainty in it.

Q.l.lO What is meant by the dimensions of physical quantities? Explain with

exaamples.
Ans.

DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES:

It is sometimes convenie~t to express a unit in terms of base units only. BecalJ!e~

multitude of names of units, and because the same units can be expre~n
ays, a comparison of units can best be made by ~ing this form.
.~e

Definitio

~-

~..P.

'::
"1'14f-,s'~~ers of the base units in terms of whi'h a phys~uantity
can be reprpynted are known as dimensions.

21

A Hand Book of Physics Part-I

The dime~ of a physical quantity can be obtained by exJZssing that physical

quantity in t'-<f~Y~bois of base units. .
~
, -fymbols of length, mass and time denoted by L, M and ~ctively are
~nd~eate the dimensions of a physical quantity. Square brackets
used to
. . .ote the dimensions of a physical quantit)'.

[t'ftE

$6

OA.

Dimensions of Some Physical Quantities:

(i)

Velocity:

.,,

The dimensions of velocity are:

As we know that>
Velocity=

(ii)

. ,KiWeb.com

So,

[V]

= [

or

[V]

= [Lr']

Acceleration:

The dimensions of acceleration are:

As we know that;
Acceleration =

Velo~ity

Time

Distanceffime
Time

Distance
Acceleration = (Timei

Dimensions of acceleration
(iii)

=[~]

Force:
It can be written as:

llamKiWeb.coni
Force= Mass x Acceleration
Velocity
= Mass x Time

~
v~

~L.. .
~

Force

M
Distanceffime
ass x
Time

Dsitance
= Mas!; x (Time)2

~C'0Dimensions offorcc ~ [~~J

~-~~~~~~~- r F 1 =

[MLT2]

(Chapter 01)

(iv)

22

MEASUREMENT

Work:
Weknow ~t:

vo

_fll.l>.

~~,

.~~

Work= Force x Distance

~~
= Mass x Acceleration x Distance
~
Velocity
.
6.L
= Mass x T'
x Distance
4U
Ime
Distanceffime
.
= Mass x
T I' me
.
x Distance
Distance ' .
= Mass x Time2 x Distance

~'IJ.~

(Distance/

l~a~iW'eb.com
Lr J

Dimension of worlC =
[W]

[ML2r

2]

Power:

(v)

We know that
Power =
=

=
=
=
=

Work
-Time

Force x Distance
Time
Mass x Acceleration x Distance
Time
.
Acceleration
Mass x D Istance x
T'I me
.
Velocityffime
M ass x D Istance x
T'I me
.
Distanceffime
1
T'
x -T.
Mass x Distance x
Ime
1me
.
Distance
1
Mass x D1stance x T'Jme2 .x T---:-1me

Dimensionofpower=l~~lWeb.CO~
= [~]
[p]

~ .

(v~

[ML2rJ]

Area:

C$)'1/s

"

Area = Length x Length

ens ions of area= [L x L]

[A] = [L2]
... 0
~

.,..

0~
\

23

A Hand Book of Physics Part-1

(vi)

Volume:
As

e"Q~

Volume

~"~

0~
=

Area x Length

IF Length x Length x Length

Dimensionsofvolume

(L x L x L)

[ v] = [L3]

Applications of Dimensions:
Using the method of dimensions called the dimensional analysis, we can check
the correctness of a given formula or an equation and can also derive it.

(i)

Checking the HomogemflatftKi Wett.'eom

Jn order to check the correctness of an equation, we are able to show that the
dimensions of the quantities on both sides of the equation are the same, irrespective of the
form of the formula. This is called the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.

(ii)

Deriving a Possible Formula:

The success of this method for deriving a relation for a physical quantity depends

on the correct guessing of various factors on which the physical quantity depends.

Example 1.4

/E!

where v is the speed of

Check the correctness of :he
. relation v = -\Jm

transverse wave on a stretched string of tension F, length land mass m.

Solution:
Given equation:

v=~
In order to check the CO'ai.~~ i. ~laii_on, we compare dimensions on both
II Cl Jl II'\ I YV 9 0 CO
.
sides of an equation.
Dimensions ofleft hand side of the equation

[v]= [L1

1
]

.........

(i)

Dimensionofrighthandsideoftheequation = ([F] x [/] x [m- 1 ])~

~~

- ([ML12] x (L] X (M"

~~

;e~
v

[L2r2J2 .

[L!]

])l

0~

e~~

.~...,\1

~;:t'-:': ....

(")

Fr;~Qwations (i) and (ii), we-come to know that dimens~~both sides of the
""nn~tinn ~re ilif.bme. therefore, equation is dimensionally correct.

"
(Chapter
01]

24

MEASUREMENT

Example l.S
Derive ~ relation for the time peri~d of
(Fig. 1.2) us~imensional analysis. The various possible tAf'tnrr~
perioM~Y depend are:
~~ength of the pendulum(/)
.
~'b~ Mass of the bob (m)
Angle 9 which the thread makes with the vertical
Acceleration due to gravity (g)
e
Solution:
To determine:
Relation for the time
Calcuhltions:
The relation for the time period T will be of the
fonn:
T oc m X X 9c: X gd
m

..
.

peritlefftKiWe8:CGm

..
.

..

..
.

T = Constant m f 9c: gd
.... ... .. (i)
or
..---' .
where, we are to find the values of powers a, b, c and d.
Fig. 1.2
Writing the dimensions of both sides of the equation (i), we have;
[T] = Constant x [Mt [L]b {LL- 1t [Lr2]d
Comparing the Q.imensions on both sides, we have;
[T] = [Tr2d
[Mt = [Mt
[L]o = [L]b+d+c:-c:
Equating powers on both the sides, we have:
or

-2d =
a

= --

LLamtQY'J,&.com

.I
9 = [LL-It = [L0t = 1
and
b = -d =2
Substituting the values of a, b, 9 and d in equation (i), we have:

or

~A
"~

I.

= Constant ~x x ii x I x g-:;

= Constant

m;
-

:0~0~

.~.10

..L~'
i9RJ11erical value of the constant cannot be determined ~~mensional

analysis, ho~tv%can be found by experiments.

~'II-

25

A Hand Book of Physics Part-1

relati

q.

O~

Example 1.6

dimensions and hence the SI units of coefficien~~iscosity in the

toke's law for the drag force F for a spherical object o
s r moving
~ocity v given as F = 6n11 rv.
.
~
~~
~

.
t IOn:

0~

Given data:
Drag force for spherical object = F
Radius of the spherical object = r
= v
Velocity of the object

IIa K"W

To determine:
.
Dimensions of coefficient of viscosity
SI units of coefficient of viscosity

=
=

com

?"
?

Calculations:
In the given equation i.e. F = 6n11rv, where 6n is a number having no dimensions.
It is not accounted in dimensional analysis. Therefore,

[F]

= [11rv]
=

or

[F)
[r][v]

Substituting the dimensions ofF, rand v in R.H.S, we have;

[11 ]

_ [ML1 2]
- [L][L1 1]

[11]

[ML- 11

1
]

SUM.M.ARY
~

~>

Physics is the study of entire physical world.

The most basic quantities that can be used to describe the physical world~e
~~
mass, length and time. All other quantities, called derived quantities,
be
escribed in terms of some combinations of the base quantities.
+

..>

~o5euntries of the World is International System (S~'J.t:!.

It consists of
of
ternationally adopted system of units used by all the s

e"'fl1.

seven o~e units. two suoolementary units and a number

ts anq almost

derived units.

[Chapter 01)

,.._>

26

MEASUREMENT

Errors due Jt\_ incorrect design or calibratio~s of the measu~g device are called
system~p~rrors. Random errors arc due to unknown cause~ fluctuations in
t~i~tity being measured.
~

~> ~1 accuracy of a measurement is the extent to which systematic e~&'akes a

~'b~ m.easured value differ from its true value

i)->

+c-

The accuracy of a me_asurement can be indicated by the number of signift~

figures, or by a stated uncertainty.
The significant figures or digits in a measured or calcu.Jated quantity are those
digits that are know11: to be reasonably reliable.
The result of multiplicatt~Mifi\VW~tlo e0'11'fnificant figures than any
factor in the input data. m>~JJ ~rf your caT'c"ulator result to correct number of
digits.
In case of addition or subtraction the precision of the result can be only as great as
the least precise term added or subtracted.
Each basic measurable physical property represented by a specific symbol written
with in square brackets is called a dimension. All other physical quantities can be
derived as combinations of the basic dimensions.
Equations must be dimensionally consistent. Two terms can be added only when
they have the same dimensions.

SHORT QUESTIONS

ANSVVERS

&

1.1

Name several repetitive phenomena occurring in nature, which could serve

as reasonable time standards.

Ans.

.l:
~

Any phenomenon that ree~ats itself after r~~~lar time intervals can be used as a
time standard. The rotaticfla
KiW~C:Gm determines the length of
the day, has been used as a time standard from the earliest times. Some other
repetitive. phenomena, which can be adopted to define a time standard, are
(i) Heart beat (ii) Human pulse rate (iii) Oscillations of a simple pendulum
(iv) Revolution of the moon around the Earth (v) Characteristic vibrations of
crystals such as quartz crystal (vi) Radioactive decay rate of some substances i.e~
Half life of a radioactive substance.
(JO

Ans.

~;ow that the period of a pendulum is

1.2~"t:&e the drawbacks to use the period of a pendulum as a time stan~c!}O

o+oo

- ni

T = 2n -\j

11-~

g~----~----~~~---