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  • Graves - Teachers As Course Developers

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    1K vues21 pages

    Graves - Teachers As Course Developers

    Transféré par

    Phairouse Abdul Salam
    Graves_Teachers as Course Developers

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Téléchargez comme PDF ou lisez en ligne sur Scribd
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    ces ae ene mn ends Scon Lagi Lec by Sn Lee Mokiay ete Tchng in Sein Langage Css by Rca ond ‘cating Sond Language Cre: The whe hil he wl ‘derstanding Common a Second Language Casroans yarn on ‘The etre Teaser: Manag the ening proce by David an and Chance tat anton Hh Grammar Anetta rind languages ‘Teche helpers ied by Kalen Gane ‘taurom sed auton in Secind Langage Eden y Fred Giese ng Taher: a and rte oso aensine Rating in th Scand Language som yar Dy ad Langue Thing Avarenes A gue ering be pots yoy Gearon Raber Opa Crs Devdopmen in Lange Thing yc Chl Teachers as Course Developers Edited by Kathleen Graves Stl or lnematoalTing Based on the accounts of Mara del Carmen Blyth, Pat Fisher, Maria Estela Pinheiro Franco, Barbara Fujiwara, Laura Hull, and Johan Uvin CAMBRIDGE Acknowledgments ‘is ook te eat of olan on sone teaches nia prose fo pe tence ve and epee + ‘cara yiac inthe on end lane: crcl design. Ts {feneu ofthe bcs th stoves of th tence who desi hens Sd out ad up and Sowa of eel aus ‘ther cach also cove daring the ttesting fhe materi “hanks te ity tahoe ni ft und the mater a my come ‘Bape dase Shoal ene! Taig, api hanks 0 tay xs pou” Sue Mott, leane Leven, Bt Er Holly Tih ie Rasp, and Car ayer for tir sggetons and cots Steve Corel, Susan Pomeroy, an Suzanne Meyer read te mani sci an ofr ep onset a vros sas ns develope. {isehnont lev adethandin edn pron be ext Sci Howson A Hen Sh helped with he minds: My colleague Pat Moran ‘ovied me wih he mrdprolomatan and Las Kou me would a ke to thnk my t80 snoysous reviewers and Jack ita ered whosytesie he reviewer suggestions i ‘Sher plano acon “hank the edoral staf at Cambridge Uniersy Press ~ Boonie pile, Soe Ani, Mary Cason, and May Vaughn ~ for hi eto experi my halo Donald Frema eding between and bj the se I Teachers as course developers Kathleen Graves Purpose of this book (One afemoo, teacher came oto my office to dsuss an independent study." have bon asked fo design an evening English couse fo agus in fay town in Nicaragua” He paused and then continued, “ve never developed couse before Are thee any uielines? Is thea proce 0 flow? Whore do {sar I reaied a listned to im tha had herd hese questions many times efor, rom many tescor, the diferene ting the nature ofeach teacher’ station. For example one facet plained hat her school needed couse forthe presen wh bad fished thee children’s course but were to Young fo he ten course. Another tencer si, "'m given some books and then tld U can each ay way want” A four teicher explained "My ste are in danger of losing {hee ira lnguage ery. How do design scours that enables he ‘musi racy in both languages? The stations wee difeet but the Gustons were the sre: Are there any guidlines? What do 1? Where ols? "Test teacher’ situations ae ot unusual, a teachers ae increasingly being called upon to design the courses they teach (Breen 1987, Numan 198; Richards 1990; Yalden 1987). The calege for me, 362 wacker tdator, was both o help thes eiches draw on thei own experienc 0 Inswor those questions and to provide tem with a conceptual Famevork for making sense ofthe course development process. This book isan empath halenge from thos to perspectives, Fire lp teacher Se that they doa experience in couse development and recog as how that experene can serve a ass or developing new eau ‘modifying exising oes Second, the book wll desribea Framework of th famponents of couse development hat can help eahers make sense of Eomplox process Thus the purpose a his book i let teachers fo an Understanding of iow to develop courses fom thei ove experience as well ts frm the experiences and theres of ter atmpt 1 cape Ht 2 Kattieen Graves process in ston though the sais of si teachers, each of whom feveloped scours. Premises of the book Helping teachers understand how 10 make use of thir own experience a8 ws ah teres fh ons so te eltonsip be tween theory and practic, whichis fundamental question for teacher (tucher educators A distinction tween theory nthe general sense and ‘hear inthe personal ene may De seul Pau (1990) defines theory in the general Senc ay an bacon that tempts to unite diverse and em ples phenomena itu single pipe or stem of principles 3 a 1 Take sesso the phenomena Perel theory by conta i subjective Aertding fone patce oe "sense of plasty” that provides ‘Soherence and ition forthe eaher Boh the efforts foersto provide ‘hoes ad he acher sown experience and understanding of tht expe cet part hv teachers make sense of what hey do. I the words oF Mary Kennedy (1991: 2), "Teachers, ike ber eames inerpet ne omen though their exiting understandings and moity and reinxpst ‘ew ideas om the basis of what they aeay know or blieve.” This oe Pome of hs book i th teachers devel and change fom the inside ut through iid) practi and veecton, and fom te oie it, through conta wit he experiences and theories of thers ‘Qnhor premise sn couse development i grounded proces be cause tis about specif oure na given te and place witha given et ‘Stmope Ir isnot an orderly sequence of evens but aher compe, predictable and individual pres. The teacher hers the mos i= rrtnt vibe in he pcese A teacher develop a course in wy he [ect her experience and the vals and priors that ar product of ber ‘Caperience a wl the prevailing wisdom aound her. Te more aware {aeris oer values nd priorities he peatr her undersuning of why ern things make sense tober and the gene her ability Yo understand tnd resolve the cilemas she wl eonton, Contents of the book ‘his took is abou teachers 8 course developers in two senses. ti about teachers suchas the oes who aed the quests inte opening paragraph, 1 Fae a moll of bow aces omit a deren Fhe pris (Chon Sparse (1985, Teachers as course developers 9 sss al caches wh ate asking te same kinds of guetons.Chiptr ‘seuss teachers a course developers in ths general sense. Cheer 2 “escrtes a ramework of components couse development andes fo the teacher to consde i the process. The book i also about couse counts show teacher dealing with the unpredictable and contexte ‘sfeourse development sues a they ocr nel sittin, They laste the diemeas faced by these teachers and the web of fcr infoncing tee decisions. Second, hey Pihligh varios aspects ofthe faenrk in (Chapter 2, and yet, because they are tren, they cao! be interned in one way and ths cane be sobsimed into what Bruner (1988) sled Paradgatic knowlege” which “rues consistency and noncontadc tion (Caner 19937) Thus these aes conta o our andertandng of The framework componente by presenting them t us embeded the complexity of el stuations. Fal, Diese eaerete experenes povide ‘eaders with an opportunity to eximin thei own personal hore tn st ‘heir sone of pass, “The se teachers were asked 1 write a arate in response 10 the falowing questions, which rebated on the vw ofcourse Svslopeent as multe proces a hated in igus | 1. What proces di you follow in designing your cou? 2 How did you moi becouse once you sae esching i nd what prompted you to moi 4 Inreviewing the process you went through in Gesigning the course what woul you do differen, and why? (ln ober words, wat have ou leamed about course dese?) The teachers areal experienced ESL or FL teaches, with experiense a the time of wring he narrates ranging fom five twenty yea The Teachers as course developers. 9 . teachers an testa were chotent reflects rmeof contin ie E g felt glib nine sting Table sunt sno hc a e {Sisco he chery Svc ey 3 ‘Sos ano psy esp lh cone int road fel i a cf gi gee aching, ty can Tse» Sen fo iq : roaches sce are espn of cue Maeve lee 3 thse stn ote meno seaport aE : hw her om concurs, ns it header expo Je, The tacers approached tse stuations in diferent ways, not oly because a he dierences in tbe types of cours they wee developing but also beau ofthe diferences in heircomets and perceptions of tht thulleges of those comexts. Ip that sense, these ik teachers are Bath ‘eprseniave and unig ‘Suggestions for using this book Cote tte Indviealy ilo Ianguge ining | 8 B hi Advance ting : : Tipe fens ‘Workglae ESOL ‘Asis bok is asec theo premises developments 2 ‘ound procs and each conse ir undetandrgs ough | the maton of erin te gral see, ory ne pro ee ‘price one wa 1 posh hs bok with coun ini ‘ey of pounding what you rea. The couse can be se tht you re ‘eon or wl eveyone hat you have aad tug In eating ‘out he framework of cmponetsin Chaps yeu cn we your hese ous dtumine wih apes fe Fanework ee fl nao. te woe wy ap well a wich Sues explore. eng he {Eache sous nd subsequent mee, your own cone wil aly out deine wht i fl, oie ings ta yu may nat have ‘nowt of before and consider ter ways o approach ou design The tasks tht flo ech aeeot ae designed be cae ot ih eferese {0 your cmsen context The analy flows rahe hn precedes ch ‘ecb sohat you can tee ight Of yor ovm expen “Anat wa oad hisbok Bt coos en fe amon he ‘ramowork and aaa he yin which enh ihe se theo ont For example dos each ache as sent nee? Ho? How tbeseach herrea conten? How dos ach her ih ‘vataton? ‘third way 0 we the flowing uestons, which ae base one concep of podlenatizing alters wore Ihr high (ie ‘hood mlinatonl omgadt, Eevadein High schol, Brin Univers, Jpunese Busines personnel, ‘ution Chines Chapter Sade 5 Table 1 Teachers and corse features fated i this book at Fsher Mai el Camen Byah Maia Este Pinko Bata Fuyjivara aura Hl ‘chan Dvn 1, What steps di this cache ol in designing this course? 2. Where di his eacher start nthe process? Why? 5, What dhs teacher sce athe main hllenge or considerations in her 10 Kathleen Graves 4. What sem tbe he belies, valves and pronto hie teacher? 5 How did this teacher raw on Ber own experiene and expertise? How did his teacher guna perspectiveon what she was doing so that he could make sense of? Wht were ber “rektvougs,” and how ‘id they come abou? +. How did thisteachermake sense ofanduse ofthe taais and expertise ofthe? 1. Whatare the characteris ofthis tacers approach couse desig? {How wil this teacher's approach serve erin he development of ther Finally, you may simply wis to read the accounts a6 soi whose eotal figures are teachers engage io undesiondng and shaping their aching 85 fey expenene te setbacks, beakbvoughs, ables, and ‘compliments of developing sume References Been, M. 1987. Comemporty partis ia labus design. Longe Teaching 20 2-3) 81-92, 157-138 Brune, J. 98S, Narative and pina modes of toughen E ise, Leung and Teaching the Moy of Knowing (Bath yebook ofthe ‘National Solty forthe Stay of Euston, p 97-118, Chap Ue erty of Chiego Press. ‘cane, K-19. The place of stay ia te sudy of teaching and teacer ‘incon. Euscatonl Researcher 22(1) 12,18 ‘cto, A and G. Spans Langer 1998 A oncepual Fawr aude the development of teacher fefestion abd dein making. Jorma of Teacher Eaton 4 (1: 45-54 Frei, P1973. Eucaton for Chica Conon, New York: Seabury Muchas, T and A. Water. 1987. Bxelah for Specie Purposes 4 ‘Learning Centered prone, Caneige: Cage Univer Pres. ‘ake, LK 989A devon making Fame forth coherent rage ‘rid. In RK Johan ed, The Second Language Carica, 1728, Cambs Cambridge Univer Pres Kemnay. M19. An Agenda for Rescarch on Teacher Learn. Est ans ing Miia Sate Universi, Natonal Cn for Reseach oe Tesch sing Nunan,D. 1987, The Teacher at Curie Developer. yey: Nationa ‘Curiam Resource Cone, Adit Migr: Education Program, Fra, NS, 190, There so Bot method. Why? TESOL Quay 242 ears, J 1990 The Language Teaching Maris, New Yoo: Catidge University Pres Teachers as course develooers 11 Sula, L. 1986, Those who understand: Knowldge growth in taching. “Educational Researcher 5 2) 4-1 White. 988. The ELT Carel: Desig nnnation ond Management ‘Oxf: Bckvel alder, 11967. Principles of Curse Design or Langage Tachng. New ‘York Cambridge Univesy Press. 2 A framework of course development processes Kathleen Graves CCuicuum design specialists have developed vious fameworks that breakdown he prcesof curicalum an cure develope ins compo reas and subprocesses (sc. for example, Dubin and Olstsin 1986, Hutchinson and Waters 1987 Johason 1989: Nanan 1985, 1988, 98H, Richards 1990; White 1988) A tamework of component is wet for several reasons: provides am organized way of eosin fa complex Processes oth domains of nur forte teacher, shat ach compo et pts arth idea a wel as aes issues for the eacher pire provides ast of arms curently wedi ing aboot sour development tnd thas» common profesional vocabulary and access to the iss of tes The framework dsoibd ere, while dang onthe ork of t= ‘inca tems of my own work wih teachers Its nt Tamework of | ‘ual parts: Ech inva coment determines which procesres nee the ‘most time and atenion, Farhemore, the processes arent necessity ‘Segueatil but maybe erie on athe pasting teaching and replanning ‘Sages of couse development Tn Table, ech component denied and setae in gueson form to clay is meaning Needs assessment has are my sade needs? How ean Lass them so that I can aes then? ‘Whats needs assessment! ard why does a teacher undertake i? Att ‘mos base, needs assessment involves fading out wha the lamers no fndcan do and wht they need oan ord ota he ous can beige ‘he gp (or some part of). Thus need sessment nvlves seeking an ‘merpreting infomation about one's student neds that the our wil {Se Pome one gods hey spe paces Rete ‘notes ebeming cm eet aa le apg leo fe a ® A framework of course development processes 13 “tle Prumenek component Needs assessment: ar are my sadn nei? How can Tans thm so the cn ss them? Determining goals and objectives: Wha ar the purposes nd inode ‘ucomes ofthe cose? Wt wil my sens need door orn chee ee goa? Conceptasizing content What wil be th backbone of wha I ach? Who nt my ol? Seecting and developing mera and atv: How and with whor ‘tach the curse? What smal? What remy sade roles? Organization of coment and ates: Howl ogee the content ‘nd aces? What tems al deep? valunion: How wil assess wha ude have eared? How will sess he eons of he conse? Consideration of resources and constrains What re the given of my adress them effectively. However, how oe defines student's ed is ‘complex issue open to nerpretation Oe way of eonepilizing oad to distinguish Between objective” and “subjective” owds (Ricerch 1980, Briley (1989: 70) dees objective needs at “derivable fom oficency snd language difcuies” nd mubjecive needa" cog five and five pede of he lea inthe Ing station, deiable ‘Hom infoenation abou Tete and cogiiive actos sch personaly, confidence studs, eae’ wats and expecaton ith rps othe Tearing of English and thei individual cogiive syle snd esing stapes” Inasesing objective neds, on can neue intoematio bout student backgrounds ~ counuy and ulti, edseatio, family, profession, 988, languages poker and oon; tudes abies o prosceney in spenkiag, understanding, eaing, and wring Eglh: and sade” neo with re Sect tow they will seo deal wih Engst tsi of the elas, In Ssesing subjective needs, ope can inlude infomation abou stages" toes toward the age anguage and clare, toward leaing an o- ‘ward themselves a leaers: sent expectations of thames and of the course stents underying purposes ~ or lack tert ~ in studying English: and suds" preferences with respect to how they wil eam, 14 Katheon Graves Dire stuns have dient needs, athe infomation gathered trough needs assesnet can hep a teacher make choices a 1 what > feschad now fo ach or evap, students who wish io tend nives- ‘Stes in English-speaking counties wil hive needs related to aeademic tasks and aademie discourse. Objective information about tee pio expe- tence in academic stings, their eve of English, andthe eld of sty ‘in contribute tthe teacher's decison abou er ouee Thee sbjestie reeds may be related concerns abou adjusting to he uversty Sting {nd 04 ew cule, thet evel of slkconidencs, or their expectations ‘egardng wht and how they wil be aught Subjective needs ue offen ‘ipa as objective needs. Teaches ay fins akan Uvin (Chapter 3) ‘in his course for Chines esth-eare workers tt uns subst ‘eds are ake int acount, bjetve nods may not be met ‘Who provides information sbout needs? Who determines the nods? A needs assessment ean include input ftom students as wel as fom de ‘aos people connate othe cous, sich teachers funder, paren, ‘inisaton, and employer. na university ESL. sting, fr exam Information fom the sunt Turse professes regarding wha he ss dans wil be expected to read researc, and preset ci ely the teacher Shape her couse (Tarone and Yul 1989). Tethers may have to work wih 2 conception of seeds determined by thir nstition o ther party and ‘nds ther assessment coring. Te stent ee in Uris wok lace ESOL couse were ily defied by the insttuton a the angge fd behavior needed for the workers ofinction in thei work seing. ‘When does one conduct «needs assert? Depending on one's on ‘ext nnd assessment canbe condeted in sage, he planing stage in stage 2, he eaching stage apd loin tage 3, the replanning se, one ‘determines tat the ssesment must be modfed i some way. Teaches ‘who have contact with tei stuns prior to teaching the couse can Undertake a prespire neds assesment. In many cust, however, fom recourse needs tsesent is neler necesary nor apropate, Some Teachers are able to make fiy accra assumptions about he sens ress ith respect othe courte on the bso pr experience withthe ours or with tose peur tants In many cise, pecors asec ‘ment sipy not ese because the weacher doesnot have comt with the stern he ist ay of eas, ‘Anoier imporant factor in deaiding when 10 asess needs isthe teacher's view o he purpose of eed assessment Needs asesament can tis bea teaching el because ica lp suns become more war and ‘more purposeful i thie leaning- Many teacher se i at ongoi pa ff teaching, on the one hand, besa may ae ine fo eae he Kind ‘of rapor with tudes ht allows fru clr undrtanding of neds an fon the ther, ecause they view it ata teaching oo that embls thm 2 A framework of course develooment processes 15 ‘woo in parterhip with heir stents to determin ses and ensue that ‘he course meds those needs. “Teachers wh use needs assessment san ongoing pst ofthc clases doveop setvites tat help students clarify ng fess thei ness, Sach setvites can inclode mindmapping (creating word maps) and student- erated questionaies (Grant nd Shank 193), Fr example na wit ing els, student begin to ariculae thot needs bse en "na sound the word writing. Teachers may xe dlogue joumals, discason, ‘oc writen responses 6 focus questions — for example, 5 sugested me ‘by Don Chery, one's Bet and worst leaning experiences, Many fiiliar tivities canbe given a neds asessment foes by he teacher, How des one conduct a needs sessment? Teachers sea variety of methods, Questionnaires ara common needs assesment ol They canbe ‘writen n English or, when propriate and este te matve language {ofthe students. One of the challenges in designing questonaite Is ‘hoosing questions that wil be itreeedeurcty and wil provide the jnforation soup especially sone is seeking bjestive data. Interviews ‘with sudents and others (sich as employers or professor) are anther common Way of ding out tude” needs Other mean nl beers tion for in ome cases, patciaton in the situations in which sods lls: English Teachers ay obi sales of writen material, ch as ‘manuals o textbooks tha stents wil ave to use. Sten (1992) cations aunt gthering so much data ta oe ato analyze and pat to we. “Tess and itrviews ths messreprofceny ae also put of needs assesses Because they help determine what Stade lea know sp ‘whore they ar lacking, Many insttations administer proce tet for placement purposes. Teaches may also desig ius setvites forthe Fist days of class that measure students’ priceney in reading ting, speaking, o Uistening Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 54) make a distinction between sarge reed what the leaner eos odoin he ag sitton) and larg reeds (hat the lear needs o in ode team") Needs assesment [Seleaty a sensible underaking when tdeas have target needs rea fe language needs anda cones for using the langue sills gine class, 1 for immigrats tan English-speaking county, students studying oF Planing to study in English-speaking school, people whose English ‘their work. However, even when needs ao ler, with immigrants Teaming to funtion in new culture, they may be 50 general tat the teacher ba 10 find ways Lo aes ad define them so tht they ca be trnsned int elite goals. The challenge Boomes fusing te neds sessment so 2510 provide adequate but at overhling da on wich to base decision In ter contexts — paicuarly, but ot only, EFL. contexts — teachers 16 Kattioon Graves fice diferent problem becuse many oftheir sadents have no target reeds, a clerly scp efor thesis sine trugh stad. Engh bay bea requirement for an ete nance exam, Iemay be viewed 33 subject ike math or een, rt may bea sci undertaking lithe sul ‘of music. For these tens, te ation of ees ouside the classoom is tenuous The foes ofthe needs assessment shi to the leaning oad oF subjective needs ofthe student so a5 increase motivation ant help "ent ind purpose ad interest in what they are ding in he course. For trample, Gort (1991) deseribes a fechngue for eling stent 0 fonvrstion classi Japan ariclate their needs and set pevodie and Acbievabl goal fo mee! those neds Issues Needs assessment isnot a valeee process. It i inflvenced by te teachers view of what he couse fe about, the lstitaionl consi and the stuns perceptions of what is being asked of them. For example, ne teacher of knits ight ak thom flit stuns a which they se oF expect ose English, with the aim of providing instruction in the language tndbehavir neces o deal with hse situations. Azahar acer might ‘sk the same stents toatult or enc robles they fe nating tothe new culture, withthe am of helping tem exe conuol over the For many stents, ads assessment san afar procedure, and they may have difieity arcing thee purposes r nee. The process itself may engender unceriny i the sadn, a knowing tin needs is Presumably the responsiblity of the eacker or institution Questions ay be interprte dere by ieent students oe may not lt he atic ted annvers, Stade’ pereepon of needs may nt much hose of te Teacher, To tacher’s view of the stent’ eds ay Cnc with hoe the ntton, ‘Te content and method of needs assessment shoul be eve 9 ppropriteness and efectvenes in achieving their purpose of ieciying the neds ofthe stdes,fe may take several re fo devs este Deeds asearent tole. Those foals should not be viewed a "ae tine tony” processes, Ness assesment should be viewed an ongin pro es, both ns development an in is ws Determining goals and objectives What are the poses a intend outcomes of he course? What wll my anudnt need to do o loom to achieve thse goals? A tramework ofcourse development processes 17 ‘Wht are goals and objectives and what i the elaonship baween them? Goals ae geraal statements a the overall longterm purposes of the course, Objectives expres the speci ways in which the goals wil be achieved. The oss oa course represent the destination the objectives the “rious points ta char tbe cure toward th destination. To arive athe sestnaton one mus pas each of these pois. Lets consider th example of Chapter 4, Pat Fisher's social studies course for seventh rade ESOL, Students Objectives permit Fs to define er goals more precisely by brenking them down into concrete and achievable teaching and lesring sctvies. For example one of Fisher's goals storie er sade othe Parisian skills, vocabulary, and thetrcl yee ofthe soil sciences. Some ofthe objectives that lp move the children toward tat oa ae fo students o “beable to rend map, graph, and chats with demented Understanding” ano know the pographi, opis, and eimai Features ‘ofthe msjor regions ofthe Easier Hemisper.” ‘Wiy set goals and objectives? Seng goals and objectives provides a sense of drection nda coherent emework forthe teacher in lamin her ‘couse Breaking gals doen ito objectives i very much ike making = imap othe erty tobe explore tis» way forthe teacher concept ize her cure interns of tachble hanks Clear olsun objesives give the teacher a basis for deteoining which content and activites are appro ‘rt for her course. They als provide a ume or for evasion ofthe ‘ectiveness or worth fan activity: Di itp students seieve or make ‘ogres load the goal and objectives? Cle, there are many routes {cbjecves) oa given destination, some more cicuous tan ote, bb The Length and nature of the rate wil depend on one depart pot How des one choose appropriate goals and objectives? There i 90 simple answer tothis question, Toure athe gals one wsks the question, “What are the purposes and intended outcomes ofthe course?” The answer maybe infloened by an analysis of ude aes, the pois of the Insti, abd he way the leeher concepts cone among other factors Stem (1992) proposes four types of gals for language lear: proficiency goals copntive goal alate goals, ad transer oa Profie ‘enc gals inde general competeney, mastery of the fur hil peak ing listening. reaing, and wen 0 mastery of specie lnguage be- Ives Cognitive goals inclule misery of linge knowledge an ‘mastery of cultural knowledge. Affective pals inelode achioving postive ius and feelings abou the ure anguage, achieving conience a 8 ‘ir ofthe langunge, and achieving coaidence in oreo asa etme ‘Transfer goals itvaive Teaming how fo lar s atone can eal upon leering lls pine in oe situton to es ure learning challenges ‘Thus goals may adress ot cn the atten of knowledge a kilt also the development faite and aware. 18 Katheon Graves Goals should also realizable Ricard 1990: 3) gv the example of 8 pl sated “Sinden wll develop favorable ates toward the Poza" He goes to pot out, “However, we this oa mit pe Sen a sincere wish cm the prt ofeach it shuld appea 4 program ‘oa only if iis to bears coer inte rogem, ‘The formulation of objectives provides the checks vo whether the goals willbe adtesse. To arrest objectives, one asks, “What do students ned to leam or dot achieve these purpose?” One of te slg nfo uiting objectives is thinking OF objectives that ae congruent wh he ‘and haan so mow ht hey mesh the eer ina wee sary evel of ds ow does ne sate objectives? As Nanas (198: 6) has pote ut, “Otjetvesave relly nothing mor than piu way of formulating Sting content and aetivites” Tus bow one ancepnizes st ats ‘objetives depends on how one encepualizs he content ofthe cour, Comeat Kooi might be sued as“Stacens wl iw Ste ea wil ea the or Stents wil un dat» Cote aki ihe sated Sdn wil beable. Stade wl kw bow to. or “Sides will develop the silty wo." Performance behevil objectives are most fe associ wth omen kl hee rts representa narrow view a thy speci emia behav ther ‘than the evelopment of sil, such a the needed ote, wi sen and peak efeively (Richards 1990). Contet sata and avarene Youd be stated a “Stans wil be aware tit" “Stadt wil develop anavarenesaf..y*“Stadents wll develop avai of “Shades wl expo inate towards" Objectives sed i ‘his way can lp teachers dss affective aspects of eaming ‘Te examples given suggest wha tents wl a, kaw hw to do, or be amare of at a esl ofthe course, Objectives may alo be nated fa ‘en of what stents wil din the course, Sapie and Gower (1987) ist five kinds of jetvs, all inerrelated, The fst thee concer what les wil do the ast wo, wha they il have mastered. Coverage objectives articulate what wil costed, Example: He will cover the fst ve wit of the course Bok. 2. Aesviobjecives aniclte what the staets will do, Examples: Sm ‘dens wt writes differen kinds of paragraph, Sade il de pare gaph developmen eters, 3. Involvement ebectves articulate howto maximize ste involvement interest Example: Stet illengage in dcursions abou which paragraphs they ke best. Sten will ratstorm lis of intresting topes to write at A ramework ofcourse develogment processes 19 4, Mastery objectives arcuate what students wil beable o doa result ‘of theitime inchs. Example: Stems wl Be abl owrtean interes ing paragraph ha contains «topic sentence and supporting deal 5, Crise! thinking objeciver aril wish leaning sls sens wil ‘eveop. Example: Student il Be ale to determine characters of {good paragraph ond say why they thnk a paragraphs god. esi tn ee oe aid ary hs cau te tine crt an leo tne oF dove ‘uaa bt cveipond ty tine altel ins oylaba Ts tenon cam ete mar for teachers who moet te the tat inthe slab ew oer at ers ave mated the tattle ovingon The non ca slept ans os wth th students orth san if the ecter Sever tar sac fe teed og demons mastery bate ues exe coverage oro, Iesves ‘Themain isu is that many teachers do not Formulate gos and objectives taller dos only aferhaving thought abut what bey wil ach and how. Studies on eche planing undencore thi fat (Clark and Peterson 1986), My own work wth teachers has sown that they cose he seing of gous and objectives a valabe process but ene tht they Find ical to Scale and organize, They fel tht they mt ft be lee about what ‘heya teaching ab how they View the content. They report rom exper- ence har thy cannot clearly Yona ther goal an objectives nt er ‘hey have taught the couse atleast once. (Returning te the map analogy, fone cannot mapa fate ul ne bas avelad t) Ths for many enher {his othe entry point int the proces ofcourse development ‘Another ise volves clay with respect to vent nets is easier tot goalsinstuatons where thse needs ar cere, th goalsof the course may shi and be redefiod asthe course progress. ily, souls and objectives ae a statment of tent, subject reexamination nd ‘lange onc the coure sane 3 Conceptualizing content What willbe the Backbone of what I tack? What wll inte in my plas? ‘When a echer onceptulize cones iguring ut which aspects 20. Kaiicen Graves of lnguag a fnguagelaming se wl inca, emphasize, i inte atin her course, Ths ot he reaively simple process once was Two decades ago, language teaching vas stil Rsv ifluesced by a structural view of langue (Richards and Rodge's 1986). This infoence resulted "one siz ial!” approach to conten and methods meaning ha for example an EFL teacher coal use the se textbook end the m6 ilo pater practie fr fciony workers, cllge side, ni hose: ‘wives. Thee was not mush question abou content It was Srmmtial ‘trstrs and vcsbuliry "Much has changed in ecent yun the Fels applied linguistics a language acqustion and i approaches to language teaching, The prof ‘leney movement te concept and various modes of cmuncatve co pene the advent af ESP (English for specte purposes ie poifation of methods of language teaching, and the dversfeaton ofthe population ‘oF Engish eames have provid the teacher with nny mor options ‘onsiderin deciding what wl eth backbone of er course (Canale 1983, Hutchinson and Waters 1987, Onaggo Hadley 193; Richard 1980; Sv inom 1983 Yalden 1987). Now tecoices a ater maesare ch more cnlex-dependent ands invlve a aumber of factors such who the students thei gels ad expectations in euming English the aches ‘em conception of what language is and what wil best mee the stds eet the nature ofthe couse, ad he institutional curl. A eoue ‘or immigransn an English-speaking county wl likely sts diferent ‘onc tan a course for high school aden in their own county, A ‘nune fr colege students on seuion ian Engi peaking count it ikl ses erent content hana couse or these stds prepa totes anierty there tw look at some ways of conceptiing end eategorizing content. ‘The boundaries betwen categorie re perme thy Overiap concep tual ad are not exclusive of each ter The teacher's challenge st fina out which nes are appropriate fr er course an how she wl inpratethem. They wil e described and then oui ina syllabus rd, which wil beaded o with ech sucoesie component. Inmy experince, teachers do nt usally use syllabi grid ty ut the content of ours (caly on teacher inthis volame has neo) bas esa graphic way to ‘Maat posse catego, “The tational way of concealing content, which many teachers hve experienced in thei ow lenming of ngsgs grammar te "ures sentence ptems, and vorabulry. Those aspects of langue te ‘tively systematic apd ule-governed and ae oe the basis of cote found in textbooks. Thay ies les of word fomaton (morphology), ‘ls of pronunciation (phology, and sama tutes and ea ‘A tamewotk of couse development processes 2 ionships among word at the sentence level (syntax) A syllabus gd hat inclaes these aspects of Language might look ike hs = [Recension eee Fo language tac, the possiiies for what nude in syabus ‘opened up with heaven of what has some fe called the sors te approach Laser- Freeman 1986), The work of soiling sh = Hymes (1972) and Halidy (1973, 1975) and of apie nga ssh Wikins (1976 and Van Ek (197) as lp reat hiking bot he nature of language. he communicative approach is based on seas about language, onthe on and and about the purposes of language learn, om the other Language is sed ina conte, which determines abd consti the choices tht anguge users make with espest fo pup, ye, ei tej andtopie- Leases mus use the anguge and have purposes fr wn it rom the pint of sew of conceptualizing conten, he communicative approach added seve dimensions Fis, ted the dimension of ln tage functions, sochas to aployze, to pesuae, io convey infomation, Teabo added the densi of notions. whch form a cotnaum from tener concepts such as time, sac, abd relatonship to specie wpie- Tented notions sucha boute and hon, wea, an personal ieee tion (Van EK 1978), Language was scent being wed for communica poses in situations with oer peopl, which call onthe eset to poy [eto to both the conte! of he language snd appropriseness with respect formaliy,ron- vel behav tne and soon. Communicative Stations iat ince ordering Tod i a restaurant, tung stamp the postolice, extending nvitaontoa social event Ths we un ad hee “neporis to or sla grid [Fae ers adtps | Connoneiv ating co Pron Ves ‘The proficiency movement and he development of profiiney gui lines have emphasized a fourskilstased approach 1 albus design (Omaggie Hadey 1993) For sone teachers, these sls ae «given stents hve to se sme combination of speaking. stein, rating and ‘witing in cass. Hoseer, because becoming proficient in cach of these Sills entails mastery of set of sbskils ad process, many tesshers ‘hoose to emphasize cern aks or find ways to iterate them. For example 0 Became point in writing, «iden most lam how #0 Struct praraps, ow fo use cohesive devies, the theta! sles of 22 Kathion Graves writen English, editing nehnigues and soon To ofthe teaches in his (at dewnhr muree dened primary to developing one sk writing | CGapter 6 and listening ia Chaper 7. Thus we can a6 th Following ‘egies o ur syllabus Tssergante [Sinan nite [Reng ate [Wai ‘The emphasis on consmuniaive competence as based on and brought aout by itencton bas prompred a vie of language a not jst someting ‘ne leas bu something one das, Thu eaher ay coneive of tht Syllabus in ters of what he sade wl o inte classroom as aii tr fais, asks have been variously defined Prabhu (1987: 24) defines « Usk sen ect tat ques leames are tan outome fom given Information tough some proces of hove” suchas deciding on an Iinerery based on train tintbles or composing telegram to send to Some. Tasks hve alo been defined as projet in which emers work Together o pads sorting, ich as «ping togetier a newspaper oF ‘onducing survey uchinson 1984. Numan (1989) poposes © task Centinuum, with ve-wor tasks stone end and pedagogic tasks athe ‘ee Real werd aks ask students to use language mays th ty might ‘side the loom, chs senng oh ado, edi the newspapey, ring arin schedule. Pdagogi sks ae ones that would not ocur fuuide of the classroom but help students develop skills necessary 10 Fanci in ht worl, sch as information gap ase. “The compes-based approach to sya design was developed inthe United Sues in tesponse to the inf of ianigrnt n the 1970s and 1980s is omni of he commanistive and sk based upreaches| tnd as been ed in ete fo teacing insgrans, who have immediate teed with spect 0 fanctoning im English the community ain he Mrkplacs, Competencies ae “aseainted goals writen infers of be bao objtves tha ielae language behuior” (Centr for Applied ings, 198%: 9). They are the language and behavior necesry (0 Fanci in shuaton elated ving inthe ommusty abd Ting nd ‘ailing job. Competeneie reled 0 iving inthe community ave Uso been ale Uieshis. Those relied to jobs have een eiled vee: Tonal sil See, oe example, the Califia SI Model Stndads for ul education 1983) Homever ane defies them tasks canbe geared one's specific group of learere For busines perganl, aks might inclode giving a business A framework ofcourse develoomont processes 23 resentation or wring a report for university student tasks might include tine esearch pape eeparing a ep mn ale a actu In Chapter Carmen Bh describes the developmen ofan EAP (English for aadernie purposes couse or posters student in which she con ‘cepualizes content interms oF academe st, sch asliseing ote, and the sls necessary to carry ov such tak, such sot taking ad Tisening for gist We can ad wo oer ctegres ou slabs gr a Tg is [Speake ste [ashe | Wir a ‘The role of culture in language ering i rcxvingiseasing tention, Cle provides brosier and deeper context for how one knows ot eermins what i ale appropeate, on even fee sed why, Damen (1986) calls clare the “ith dimension of language teaching” Krasch (0993) asserts that elt is not jst» fh sill or even apet of onnmuncative competence bal th nding dimension fll one knows tnd does. One teacher, Vitoria Nomrie, desorbed cult "the ‘ise that makes everthing else "make ene’ tat enables conection to be made beween the language and how to seit, when to wef whom © expt fom, and what kind of response to expt after you use Ths ‘teacher who views culture as am mega pr of labor might inside the development of awareness ofthe role clue plas in human itr scion, ow to understand and interpret the cultural specs of la spe and bshavior andthe developmen of skis im Bebuving a re sponding in ultra appropiate ays in addon to Knowledge of the et calure The leaming of language though of conjunction With subjst mater canal be the focus oF lnguape course. Such courses have been cll ‘ontn-bsed becase they tnteae “patil conte! with language teaching aims" (Brinion, Show, and Wetce 198), Such content ay school or work-related - for example, history, economics, or compuier feeinology. content-based course ay taht subj! tr diel oF se sujet mer as the bass fr languageeaing eons. Ths de tage language can be both a meas for an by-product of leaning the see mater. Conten-ased approaches ply ei ein lingual rogram for hen a well tn ESP courses sod ieeasinly, in EAP ous. We can add culture and conte wo our sys rd 24 Kathioon Graves ‘A kamenork ofcourse development processes 25 Sanat [renaeisr | vena _Avoier mir change in bow teachers conepaize conten his come out eco the ew that one esches learnt just langage, The “phason fhe ane his inrodued oe important elements into 3 eather’ comseption of what ake will teach the Fares affect, which incor ates, selEconidence, ad moivaon, and the leamer’s ap prom we leumng, which includes both understundng and developing fw’ leaning sil, Howto improve leaner selfconfidence or helping Tarn cone ate of trated ward he target cle may Be ‘epi ced lbs asmny aes dat ep ears came fre oftheir songs and overcome ther weakness a learners. The ‘kvlopnent of éeintons, taxonomies, and mead of developing keam- Ings one way in wich he cops on ping ares become “elf as influenced slabs design (O'Malley and Chant 190; ‘Oxford 19%) Fisher (Cher 4) combines elements oma content-based preach, a eames aning-bed approach, alan aeademic language Ted peach ne slabs or er socal sues ESL cose For each rea lesunpe, content and strategies she ist objetives for developing ‘eet swarenexs and tudes, knowledge and shi or some teachers enabling dent 0 partipt in determining the content oft course oth wha they of clas gives them he ons 0 Cope it and change what they will encounter outside ofthe clasoom i the focus of oer our Thus fey ak he ares to erga in paricia- tory proves that lp them undorstuné the cial context oftheir po Tema ke contol of the peonal nd professional ves trough work init chssoom (Aertach 1993 Avetboch and Walrsiin 1987) The Problomposing and experi eaing techniques escebed by Uv in Chapter’ iste hs approach oslabus design NWevean now ald wo tore categories to he sybus gi, leaming srtepes and pricpatary processes. The completed gid is shown in Fw “Teaching ivlves making choices. [is ot possible to teach a yabus ht {xplilyeteompases all the reas moaned hee so teachers mis c I ‘Gone a ‘eam mrteoes [ea care Tala aes [Censors Ear Cie dene elon [eee aa See, |e Fries [hors cs [ Commancte snore semaine ed ene Binsin | Semen tag ea ‘pccmen pees. | froma score ‘aking sie — ==, ae oe Soe |e [Bross er = Sn, Sees ce, |S |e en, rn sooasn [feet | Soe sane, ona) Bee Figure The completed slabs grid have conversations about?) How wil go abou doing ta? What kinds ‘of questions shuld Task hen? Ifthe assesment shows tht th abilty islow, I ned 0 fous on the kindof pepaaion and Foundation work reessary for conversation fo ike place. ‘+ How can 1 ger them 10 work together 10 have these conversations? Casto mamagerent is anise 1nd to lok t avalible materia ‘withcarefulystctred etiites as meas of lasso management (r pets could ask ober teachers what has worked for the inthis 1 How can I monitor heir acy? 1 ned to examine my role in the flasom. also need to think abou te ype of montoing and eal tion mechanisms {will se in theca. 4 What haz worked inthe past? Une t thik abot the atvis oe ‘loses in whic I lc a things weat wel Why they go well? What ‘an Fake om those suecose an uid int this couse? These are questions that | propose. Were the teacher to go though & Similar process, se might ask diferent ones or respond othe ste ones Aieent ays because of her inmate knowledge of her content and het rol init Fo exarpe how students are ade, wheter there ise equied ‘ext and atendance ates would al inuens th ind gestions she woul! ask | nce the question about pst successes because teachers any thelr experience ovr fom ane cntet ote ten td being ole Uundestnd what has been success and why can provide foundation for ‘4 Kathleen Graves planing course. nth context under discussion, tbe teacher bad lead "Gupte course ad tha ou be realise inher expectations abou what ‘he could hope to acomplih with this poupof sade. tangible thers no. Tesshers wark with gr wihou physical and mati) resource such s book, trilogy, classroom, and iriure, The ack Uf physical resources my encourage a teacher o use avaiable eouresin free way. The avait of teclogy ray allow a teacher t have rope dene work independent Tine another important conir- Sinn designing a sourse How ols, how lng, and over what period of time wil the cle mee” How uc te i avaiable to the teacher prepare forth cure andthe elses? teacher may aust her facing Prities according to the length ofthe course. The kinds of activites she Ezsiens may Be ffvted bythe amount of ese hs oth in cas an bor ls. “he instuonal philosophy, policy. and cual are ipa spvens Having to work thin existing eurcular guidelines is both ‘oma end a resource; 20 having f0 devise one's own silabys. The {ppeof admnsaive and ler support rovide bythe aston aes Teacher's choices Fac example, lick of clencal suport wil suggest fhreumlining paerwors and material. Soport fom te adinstation for {novation wil encourage experimentation, “The nubers eves and cat brcrounds fhe stent are both constatand a resource, Forerample, ale clas may case a teacher to focus on classroom management. A mulvel class may inloence the teachers selection of materi or acts. "The ocho elf the mot important given, Her background, experi- cnc, and belies play a significant oe in the choices she makes. For ‘rome, oe teacher wil focus on cei content because she deems it ‘halt svcesfl language leasing, while anoter wil ignore the Slime concn. A tencher who usally develops er ow materials my hone fo se published materia when teaching eure whos conten i ew to ber “The givens of tation cover abroad range of fctors and fest every evnon a tacer ale Teachers plan abd teach courses notin the a Sct but inthe concrete cosrt abd esoures For example, an ESL teacher ho teaches in an terse English progam, whose sen Change fom one progr oe next, way need 1 investigate he back (oun and profeteney of her stents, whereas fr a high seboot EFL {Eacet hs may boa given Deas she knows the stents. The teacher the casive Engh program might Dia wa a question sich a ow ‘Sh fin our the cura backround meds my students 0 chat |e es those needs effectively in he sx Weeks of the course” The high A ramework ct couse development processes 35 schol reaches intial question ht be quite fret, sy, ite differen say, “How ca ‘sep my students motivated i a equred couse Course developmen, "eechg spate nn pcs ot aconleone hich sein ag mulple faster an presen nt Issues “The ens oom techn statin bth angle and age sn tangle cmt be igure Eecting change reqter ah ies bah reaping wha can fe changed un ccpng what Cann The “Ire aye ty te hd te tecbology only me had quite soon, tony oor ‘aes were more mtv} caer change tly th No, fst (el a il ever wo my tn Po Jematcng enon steacarto dose win sc co change, sha and where to start — Conclusion ‘The components discussed jn tht chapter and summarized in Tale 1 shoud serve nots cee Yr he teacher bu ae ast of too fr ‘aking about, understanding, and cet the procs curs develope ‘nem. ach components ceniaget on every lhe component For kam Die sesnent dope on how ore eancepusizes cme oa hn ne nee sen eds, Cncaling it i ences th

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