SixSigmaQuality:Concepts&CasesVolumeI

STATISTICALTOOLSINSIXSIGMADMAICPROCESSWITH
MINITABAPPLICATIONS

Chapter 6

PROCESS CAPABILITY ANALYSIS FOR

SIX SIGMA

2010-12 Amar Sahay, Ph.D.

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

CHAPTEROUTLINE
ProcessCapability

ProcessCapabilityAnalysis
DeterminingProcessCapability
ImportantTermsandTheirDefinitions
ShorttermandLongtermVariations
ProcessCapabilityUsingHistograms
ProcessCapabilityUsingProbabilityPlot

EstimatingPercentageNonconformingforNonnormalData:Example1
EstimatingNonconformanceRateforNonnormalData:Example2

CapabilityIndexesforNormallyDistributedProcessData
DeterminingProcessCapabilityUsingNormalDistribution
FormulasfortheProcessCapabilityUsingNormalDistribution
RelationshipbetweenCpandCpk
ThePercentoftheSpecificationBandusedbytheProcess
OverallProcessCapabilityIndexes(orPerformanceIndexes)
Case1:ProcessCapabilityAnalysis(UsingNormalDistribution)
Case2:ProcessCapabilityofPipeDiameter(ProductionRun2)
Case3:ProcessCapabilityofPipeDiameter(ProductionRun3)
Case4:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisofPizzaDelivery
Case5:ProcessCapabilityAnalysis:DatainOneColumn(Subgroupsize=1)
(a) DataGeneratedinaSequence,(b)DataGeneratedRandomly
Case6:PerformingProcessCapabilityAnalysis:WhentheProcess

MeasurementsdonotfollowaNormalDistribution

ProcessCapabilityusingBoxCoxTransformation
ProcessCapabilityofNonnormalDataUsingBoxCoxTransformation
ProcessCapabilityofNonnormalDataUsingJohnsonsTransformation
ProcessCapabilityUsingDistributionFit
ProcessCapabilityUsingControlCharts
ProcessCapabilityUsingxbarandRChart
ProcessCapabilitySixPack
ProcessCapabilityAnalysisofMultipleVariablesUsingNormalDistribution
ProcessCapabilityAnalysisUsingAttributeCharts

ProcessCapabilityUsingapChart
ProcessCapabilityUsingauChart
NotesonImplementation
HandsonExercises

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

Thisdocumentcontainsexplanationandexamplesonprocesscapabilityanalysisfrom
Chapter6ofourSixSigmaVolume1.Thebookcontainsnumerouscases,examplesand
stepwisecomputerinstructionwithdatafiles.

PROCESSCAPABILITY
Process Capability is the ability of the process to meet specifications. The
capability analysis determines how the product specifications compare with the
inherentvariabilityinaprocess.Theinherentvariabilityoftheprocessisthepartof
processvariationduetocommoncauses.Theothertypeofprocessvariabilityisdue
tothespecialcausesofvariation.
It is a common practice to take the sixsigma spread of a processs inherent
variation as a measure of process capability when the process is stable. Thus, the
processspreadistheprocesscapability,whichisequaltosixsigma.

PROCESSCAPABILITYANALYSIS:ANIMPORTANTPARTOFANOVERALL
QUALITYIMPROVEMENTPROGRAM
Thepurposeoftheprocesscapabilityanalysisinvolvesassessingandquantifying
variability before and after the product is released for production, analyzing the
variability relative to product specifications, and improving the product design and
manufacturing process to reduce the variability. Variation reduction is the key to
productimprovementandproductconsistency.
Theprocesscapabilityanalysisisusefulindetermininghowwelltheprocesswill
holdthetolerances(thedifferencebetweenspecifications).Theanalysiscanalsobe
usefulinselectingormodifyingtheprocessduringproductdesignanddevelopment,
selecting the process requirements for machines and equipment, and above all,
reducingthevariabilityinproductionprocesses.

DETERMININGPROCESSCAPABILITY

Thefollowingpointsshouldbenotedbeforeconductingaprocesscapability
analysis.

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma4

Process capability should be assessed once the process has attained statistical
control.Thismeansthatthespecialcausesofvariationhavebeenidentifiedand
eliminated.Oncetheprocessisstable,..
In calculating process capability, the specification limits are required in most
cases,Unrealisticorinaccuratespecificationlimitsmaynotprovidecorrect
processcapability.
Process capabilityanalysis using ahistogram or acontrolchart is based on the
assumption that the process characteristics follow a normal distribution. While
theassumptionofnormalityholdsinmanysituations,therearecaseswherethe
processesdonotfollowanormaldistribution.Extremecareshouldbeexercised
where normality does not hold. In cases where the data are not normal, it is
important to determine the appropriate distribution to perform process
capabilityanalysis.Incaseofnonnormaldata,appropriatedatatransformation
techniquesshouldbeusedtobringthedatatonormality.
:

SHORTTERMANDLONGTERMVARIATION
Thestandarddeviationthatdescribestheprocessvariationisanintegralpartof
processcapabilityanalysis.Ingeneral,thestandarddeviationisnotknownandmust
be estimated from the process data. There are differences of opinion on how to
estimate the standard deviation in different situations. The estimated standard
deviation used in process capability calculations may address "shortterm" or "long
term" variability. The variability due to common causes is described as "shortterm"
variability, while the variability due to special causes is considered "longterm"
variability.

Some examples of "longterm" variability may be lottolot variation,

operatortooperator variation, daytoday variation or shifttoshift variation. Short
termvariabilitymaybewithinpartvariation,parttopartvariation,variationswithina
machine, etc. However, the literature differs on what is "longterm" and what is
"shortterm"variation.

Inprocesscapabilityanalysis,both"shortterm"and"longterm"indexes
arecalculatedandarenotconsideredseparatelyinassessingprocesscapability.The
indexes Cp and Cpk are "shortterm" capability indexes and are calculated using
"shortterm"standarddeviationwhereas,PpandPpkare"longterm"capabilityand

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma5
arecalculatedusing"longterm"standarddeviationestimate.Thesearediscussedin
moredetaillater.

DETERMININGPROCESSCAPABILITY
Followingaresomeofthemethodsusedtodeterminetheprocesscapability.
Thefirsttwoareverycommonandaredescribedbelow.
(1)Histogramsandprobabilityplots,
(2)Controlcharts,and
(3)Designofexperiments.

PROCESSCAPABILITYUSINGHISTOGRAMS:SPECIFICATIONLIMITSKNOWN
:
Supposethatthespecificationlimitsonthelengthis6.000.05.Wenowwantto
determine the percentage of the parts outside of the specification limits. Since the
measurements are very close to normal, we can use the normal distribution to
calculatethenonconformingpercentage.Figure6.2showsthehistogramofthelength
data with the target value and specifications limits. To do this plot, follow the
instructionsinTable6.2.
Table6.2
HISTOGRAMWITH
OpentheworksheetPCA1.MTW
SPECIFICATIONLIMITSFromthemainmenu,selectGraph& Histogram

ClickonWithFitthenclickOK
ForGraphvariables,..ClicktheScalethenclickthe
ReferenceLinestab
IntheShowreferencelinesatdatavaluestype5.956.06.05
ClickOKinalldialogboxes.

Histogram of Length
Normal
35

5.95

6.05
Mean
StDev
N

30

5.999
0.01990
150

Frequency

25
20
15
10
5
0

5.96

5.98

6.00
Length

6.02

6.04

Figure6.2:HistogramoftheLengthDatawithSpecificationLimitsandTarget

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma6
Histogram of Length
Normal
5.95

5.999

6.05
Mean
StDev
N

30

5.999
0.01990
150

Frequency

25
20
15
10
5
0

5.96

5.98

6.00
Length

6.02

6.04

Figure6.3:FittedNormalCurvewithReferenceLinefortheLengthData
Table6.4
CumulativeDistributionFunction
Normalwithmean=5.999andstandarddeviation=0.0199
xP(X<=x)
5.950.0069022
6.050.994809

Fromtheabovetable,thepercentconformingcanbecalculatedas0.994809
0.0069022=0.98790or,98.79%.Therefore,thepercentoutsideofthespecification
limitsis10.98790or,0.0121(1.21%).Thisvalueisclosetowhatweobtainedusing
manualcalculations.Thecalculationsusingthecomputeraremoreaccurate.

PROCESSCAPABILITYUSINGPROBABILITYPLOTS
Aprobabilityplotcanbeusedinplaceofahistogramtodeterminetheprocess
capability.Recallthataprobabilityplotcanbeusedtodeterminethedistributionand
shapeofthedata.Iftheprobabilityplotindicatesthatthedistributionisnormal,the
mean and standard deviation can be estimated from the plot. For the length data
discussed above, we know that the distribution is normal. We will construct a
probabilityplot(orperformaNormalitytest).
Table6.5
NORMALITYTESTOpentheworksheetPCA1.MTW
USINGPROBABILITYPLOTFromthemainmenu,selectStat& BasicStatistics
&NormalityTest

ForVariable,SelectC1Length
UnderPercentileLine,..type5084inthebox
UnderTestforNormality,.AndersonDarling
ClickOK

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma7

:
:

Foranormaldistribution,themeanequalsmedian,whichis50thpercentile,and
the standard deviation is the difference between the 84th and 50th percentile. From
Figure 6.4, the estimated mean is 5.9985 or 5.999 and the estimated standard
deviationis
^

84thpercentile50thpercentile=6.01835.9985=0.0198

Note that the estimated standard deviation is very close to what we got from
earlier analysis. The process capability can now be determined as explained in the
previousexample.

Probability Plot of Length

Normal
99.9

Mean
StDev
N
AD
P-Value

99

Percent

95
90

5.999
0.01990
150
0.314
0.543

84

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

50

10

1
0.1

5.950

5.975

6.0183

5.9985

6.000
Length

6.025

6.050

6.075

Figure6.4:ProbabilityPlotfortheLengthData

ESTIMATINGPERCENTAGENONCONFORMINGFORNONNORMALDATA:
EXAMPLE1

Whenthedataarenotnormal,anappropriatedistributionshouldbefittedto
thedatabeforecalculatingthenonconformancerate.
Data file PCA1.MTW shows the life of a certain type of light bulb. The
histogramofthedataisshowninFigure6.5.Toconstructthishistogram,follow
thestepsinTable6.1.

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma8
Histogram of Life in Hrs
Normal
150

40

Mean
StDev
N

494.1
484.9
150

Frequency

30

20

10

-600

600

1200
Life in Hrs

1800

2400

Figure6.5:LifeoftheLightbulb
ForthedatainFigure6.5,itisrequiredtocalculatethecapabilitywithalower
limit because the company making the bulbs wants to know the minimum survival
rate.Theywanttodeterminethepercentageofthebulbssurviving150hoursorless.

TheplotinFigure6.5clearlyindicatesthatthedataarenotnormal.Therefore,if
weusethenormaldistributiontocalculatethenonconformancerate,itwillleadtoa
wrong conclusion. It seems reasonable to assume that the life data might follow an
exponential distribution. We will fit an exponential distribution to the data and
estimatetheparameterofthedistribution.Todothis,followtheinstructionsinTable
6.6.
Table6.6
FITTINGDISTRIBUTION
OpentheworksheetPCA1.MTW
(EXPONENTIAL)Fromthemainmenu,selectGraph& Histogram

ClickonWithFitthenclickOK
:
ClicktheDistributiontab,checktheboxnexttoFitDistribution
ClickthedownwardarrowandselectExponential
ClickOKinalldialogboxes.

The histogram with a fitted exponential curve shown in Figure 6.6 will be
displayed. The exponential distribution seems to provide a good fit to the data. The
parameter of the exponential distribution (mean =494.1 hrs) is also estimated and
shownontheplot.InFigure6.7,twoprobabilityplotsoftheLifedataareshown;one
fittedusingnormaldistributionandtheotherusingexponentialdistribution.

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma9
Histogram of Life in Hrs
Exponential
150
Mean 494.1
N
150

60
50
Frequency

40
30
20
10
0

400

800

1200
1600
Life in Hrs

2000

2400

Figure6.6:ExponentialDistributionFittedtotheLifeData
The plot using the exponential distribution clearly fits the data as most of the
plotted plots are along the straight line. To do the probability plots in Figure 6.7,
followtheinstructionsinTable6.7
Table 6.7
PROBABILITYPLOTOpentheworksheetPCA1.MTW

Fromthemainmenu,selectGraph& ProbabilityPlots
ClickonSinglethenclickOK
ForGraphvariables,typeC2orselectLifeinHrs
ClickonDistributionthenselectNormal.ClickOKinall
dialogboxes.

Probability Plot of Life in Hrs

Probability Plot of Life in Hrs

Exponential

Normal
99.9

Mean
494.1
StDev
484.9
N
150
AD
7.566
P-Value <0.005

99
95
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20

Percent

Percent

99.9
99

10

Mean
494.1
N
150
AD
0.201
P-Value 0.954

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5
3
2
1

5
1
0.1

0.1

-1000

1000
Life in Hrs

(a)

2000

3000

10

100
Life in Hrs

(b)

Figure6.7:ProbabilityPlotsoftheLifeData

1000

10000

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma10

Table6.9
CumulativeDistributionFunction
Exponentialwithmean=494.1
xP(X<=x)
1500.261831
Thetableshowsthecalculatedprobability,P(x<=150)=0.2618.Thismeans
that26.18%oftheproductswillfailwithin150hoursorless.

CAPABILITYINDEXESFORNORMALLYDISTRIBUTEDPROCESSDATA
Process C apability (C p=1.0)

Process Capability (C p >1)

L SL

USL

L SL

USL

Process C apability (C p <1.0)

L SL

USL

MINITABprovidesseveraloptionsfordeterminingtheprocesscapability.Theoptions
canbeselectedbyusingthecommandsequenceStat&QualityTools&Capability
Analysis.Thisprovidesseveraloptionsforperformingprocesscapabilityanalysis
includingthefollowing:

Normal
Between/Within
Nonnormal
MultipleVariables(Normal)
MultipleVariables(Nonnormal)
Binomial
Poisson

10

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma11

DETERMININGPROCESSCAPABILITIESUSINGNORMALDISTRIBUTION
Thecapabilityindexesinthiscasearecalculatedbasedontheassumptionthat
theprocessdataarenormallydistributed,andtheprocessisstableandwithincontrol.
Twosetsofcapabilityindexesarecalculated:Potential(within)CapabilityandOverall
Capability.
PotentialCapability

Thepotentialorwithincapabilityindexesare:Cp,Cpl,Cpu,Cpk,andCcpk

Thesecapabilityindexesarecalculatedbasedontheestimateof within orthe

variationwithineachsubgroup.Ifthedataareinonecolumnandthesubgroup
size is 1, this standard deviation is calculated based on the moving range (the
adjacentobservationsaretreatedassubgroups).Ifthesubgroupsizeisgreater
than 1, the within standard deviation is calculated using the range or standard
deviationcontrolchart(youcanspecifythemethodyouwant).
According to the MINITAB help screen, the potential capability of the process
tellswhattheprocesswouldbecapableofproducingiftheprocessdidnothave
shiftsanddrifts;or,howtheprocesscouldperformrelativetothespecification
limits(iftheshiftsintheprocessmeancouldbeeliminated).

OverallCapability

Theoverallcapabilityindexesare:Pp,Ppl,Ppu,Ppk,andCpm
Thesecapabilityindexesarecalculatedbasedontheestimateof
^

overall ortheoverallvariation,whichisthevariationoftheentiredata

inthestudy.

According to the MINITAB help screen, the overall capability of the

process tells how the process is actually performing relative to the
specificationlimits.

Ifthereisasubstantialdifferencebetweenwithinandoverallvariation,itmay
be an indication that the process is out of control, or that the other sources of
variationarenotestimatedbywithincapability[seeMINITABmanual].

11

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma12

Note:Accordingtosomeauthors,CpandCpkassessthepotentialshortterm
capability using a shortterm estimate of standard deviation, while Pp and Ppk
assess overall or longterm capability using the longterm or overall standard
deviation.Table6.17containstheformulasandtheirdescriptions.

FORMULASFORTHEPROCESSCAPABILITYUSINGNORMALDISTRIBUTION

Table6.17showstheformulasfordifferentprocesscapabilityindexes.
Table6.17

CapabilityIndexesforPotential(within)ProcessCapability

USL=upperspecificationlimit

Cp

U SL LSL
6 w ith in

CPL

LSL=lowerspecificationlimit

x LSL
^

3 within

within estimateofwithinsubgroupstandarddeviation
Ratioofthedifferencebetweenprocessmeanandlower
specificationlimittoonesidedprocessspread

x processmean
C PU

USL x
^

3 within

Ratioofthedifferencebetweenupperspecificationlimit
toonesidedprocessspread

C PK Min.C PU , C PL

Takesintoaccounttheshiftintheprocess.Themeasure
ofCPKrelativetoCPisameasureofhowoffcenterthe
processis.If C P C P K theprocessiscentered;if
C P K C P theprocessisoffcenter.

CCPK

USL
^

3 within

:
:

:
^

CCPK

Min{(USL ),( LSL)}

^

3 within

:
:

12

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma13

Note:Inalltheabovecases,thestandarddeviationistheestimateofwithinsubgroup
standarddeviation.Asnotedabove,theformulasforestimatingstandarddeviation
differsfromcasetocase.Itisveryimportanttocalculatethecorrectstandard
deviation.Thestandarddeviationformulasarediscussedlater.
RelationshipbetweenCpandCpk

TheindexCpdeterminesonlythespreadoftheprocess.Itdoesnottakeinto
accounttheshiftintheprocess.Cpkdeterminesboththespreadandtheshiftinthe
process.
:
andtherelationshipbetweenCpandCpkisgivenby

pk

(1 k ) C

NotethatCpkneverexceedsCp.WhenCpk=Cp,theprocessiscenteredmidway
betweenthespecificationlimits.BoththeseindexesCpandCpktogetherprovide
informationabouthowtheprocessisperformingwithrespecttothespecification
limits.

OVERALLPROCESSCAPABILITYINDEXES(ORPERFORMANCEINDEXES)
MINITABalsocalculatestheoverallprocesscapabilityindexes.Theseindexesare
Pp, PPL, PPU, Ppk, and Cpm. The formulas for calculating these indexes are similar to
thoseofpotentialcapabilitiesexceptthattheestimateofthestandarddeviationisan
overallstandarddeviationandnotwithingroupstandarddeviation.Theformulasfor
theoverallcapabilityindexesrefertoTable6.18.

Table6.18
Capability Indexes for Overall Process Capability

Cp

USL=upperspecificationlimit
LSL=lowerspecificationlimit

USL LSL

6 within

overall estimateofoverallsubgroupstandard
deviation
Thisistheperformanceindexthatdoesnottakeinto
accounttheprocesscentering.Continued

13

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma14

PPL

3 overall

Ratioofthedifferencebetweenprocessmeanandlower
specificationlimittoonesidedprocessspread

x processmean

U SL x

PP U

x LSL

o v e r a ll

PP K M in . PP L , PP U

C pm

C pm

Thisindexistheratioof(USLLSL)tothesquareroot
ofmeansquareddeviationfromthetarget.Thisindex
isnotcalculatedifthetargetvalueisnotspecified.A
highervalueofthisindexisanindicationofabetter
process.Thisindexiscalculatedfortheknownvalues
ofUSL,LSL,andthetarget(T).

USL LSL
n

( tolerance ) *

(x
i 1

UsedwhenUSL,LSL,andtargetvalue,Tare
known

T )2

n 1

T=targetvalue=(USL+LSL)/2=m

tolerance=6(sigmatolerance)

C pm

M in .{ ( T L S L ), (U S L T )}
n

to le r a n c e
*
2

(x
i 1

T)

USL,LSL,andtarget,Tareknownbut
T (USL+LSL)/2

n 1

:
:

(Note:TheaboveformulasareverysimilartowhatMINITABusestocalculatethese
indexes.SeetheMINITABhelpscreenfordetails).
In this section, we present several cases involving process capability analysis
when the underlying process data are normally distributed. The process capability
reportandtheanalysesarepresentedfordifferentcases.

CASE1:PROCESSCAPABILITYANALYSIS(USINGNORMALDISTRIBUTION)
In this case, we want to assess the process capability for a production process
thatproducescertaintypeofpipe.Theinsidediameterofthepipeisofconcern.The
specification limits on the pipes are 7.000 0.025 cm. There has been a consistent
problem with meeting the specification limits, and the process produces a high

14

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma15

percentageofrejects.Thedataonthediameterofthepipeswerecollected.Arandom
sampleof150pipeswasselected.Themeasureddiametersareshowninthedatafile
PCA2.MTW(columnC1).

The process producing the pipes is stable. The histogram and the
probabilityplotofthedatashowthatthemeasurementsfollowanormaldistribution.
The variation from pipetopipe can be estimated using the within group standard
^

deviationor

within

.Sincetheprocessisstableandthemeasurementsarenormally

distributed,thenormaldistributionoptionofprocesscapabilityanalysiscanbeused.

PROCESSCAPABILITYOFPIPEDIAMETER(PRODUCTIONRUN1)
To assess the process capability for the first sample of 150 randomly selected
pipes,followthestepsinTable6.19.Notethatthedataareinonecolumn(columnC1
ofthedatafile)andthesubgroupsizeisone.
Table6.19
PROCESSCAPABILITY OpenthedatafilePCA2.MTW
ANALYSISUsethecommandsequenceStat&QualityTools&Capability
Analysis&Normal
IntheDataareArrangedassection,clickthecirclenexttoSingle
columnandselectortypeC1PipeDia:Run1inthebox
Type1intheSubgroupsizebox
IntheLowerspec.andUpperspec.boxes,type6.975and7.025
respectively
:
:
ClickOK
ClicktheOptionstabontheupperrightcorner
Type7.000intheTarget(addsCpmtotable)box
IntheCalculatestatisticsusingboxa6shouldshowbydefault
UnderPerformAnalysis,WithinsubgroupanalysisandOverall
analysisboxesshouldbechecked(youmayunchecktheanalysis
notdesired)
UnderDisplay,selecttheoptionsyoudesire(somearecheckedby
default)
Typeatitleifyouwantoradefaulttitlewillbeprovided
ClickOKinalldialogboxes.
TheprocesscapabilityreportasshowninFigure6.11willbedisplayed.

15

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma16

Process Capability of PipeDia: Run 1

LSL

Target

USL
Within
Overall

P rocess Data
LSL
6.975
Target
7
U SL
7.025
Sample M ean
7.01038
Sample N
150
StDev (Within)
0.00971178
StDev (O v erall) 0.00946227

P otential (Within) C apability

0.86
Cp
C PL
1.21
C PU
0.50
C pk
0.50
C C pk 0.86
O v erall C apability
Pp
PPL
PPU
P pk
C pm

6.98 6.99

O bserv ed Performance
P P M < LSL
0.00
P P M > U SL 53333.33
P P M Total
53333.33

Exp. Within P erformance

P P M < LSL
134.53
P P M > U SL 66163.57
P P M Total
66298.10

7.00 7.01 7.02

0.88
1.25
0.51
0.51
0.59

7.03 7.04

Exp. O v erall P erformance

P P M < LSL
92.20
P P M > U SL 61212.82
P P M Total
61305.02

Figure6.11:ProcessCapabilityReportofPipeDiameter:Run1

INTERPRETINGTHERESULTS
1.

The upper left box reports the process data including the lower specification
limit, target, and the upper specification limit. These values were provided by
the program. The calculated values are the process sample mean and the
estimatesofwithinandoverallstandarddeviations.
ProcessData
LSL 6.975
Target 7
USL 7.025
SampleMean7.01038
SampleN
150
StDev(Within)0.00971178
StDev(Overall)0.00946227

2.

ThereportinFigure6.11showsthehistogramofthedataalongwithtwonormal
curvesoverlaidonthehistogram.Onenormalcurve(withasolidline)..

16

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

3.

Thehistogramandthenormalcurvescanbeusedtocheckvisuallyiftheprocess
data are normally distributed. To interpret the process capability, the normality
assumptionmusthold.InFigure6.11,

4.

Thereisadeviationoftheprocessmean(7.010)fromthetargetvalueof7.000.
Since the process mean is greater than the target value, the pipes produced by this
processexceedtheupperspecificationlimit(USL).Asignificantpercentageofthepipes
areoutsideof

5.

Thepotentialorwithinprocesscapabilityandtheoverallcapabilityofthe
processisreportedontherighthandside.Forourexample,thevaluesare

Potential(Within)
Capability
Cp
0.86
CPL 1.21
CPU 0.50
Cpk 0.50
CCpk 0.86
OverallCapability
Pp
0.88
PPL 1.25
PPU 0.51
Ppk 0.51
Cpm 0.59

6.

ThevalueofCp=0.86indicatesthattheprocessisnotcapable(Cp<1).Also,Cpk=
0.50islessthanCp=0.86.Thismeansthattheprocessisoffcentered.Notethat
whenCpk=Cpthentheprocess

7.

Cpk=0.50 (less than 1) is an indication that an improvement in the process is

warranted.
:
:

17

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

8.

Higher value of Cpk indicates that the process is meeting the target with
minimum process variation. If the process is offcentered, Cpk value is smaller
comparedtoCpeven

9.

TheoverallcapabilityindexesortheprocessperformanceindexesPp,PPL,PPU,
Ppk,andCpmarealsocalculatedandreported.Notethattheseindexesarebased
ontheestimateofoverallstandarddeviation.

10. PpandPpkhavesimilarinterpretationasCpandCpk.Forthisexample,notethat
CpandCpkvalues(0.86and0.50respectively)areveryclosetoPpandPpk(0.88
and0.51).WhenCpkequalsPpkthenthewithinsubgroupstandarddeviationis
.

11. The index Cpm is calculated for the specified target value. If no target value is
specified,Cpm..

12. .Forthisprocess,Pp=0.88,Ppk=0.51,andCpm=0.59.Acomparisonof
thesevaluesindicatesthattheprocessisoffcenter.

13.

The bottom three boxes report observed performance, expected within

performance,
and expected overall process performance in parts per
million (PPM). The observed performance box in Figure 6.11 shows the
followingvalues:
ObservedPerformance
PPM<LSL
0.00
PPM>USL 53333.33
PPMTotal
53333.33

Thismeansthatthenumberofpipesbelowthelowerspecificationlimit
(LSL)iszero;thatis,..
Theexpected"within"performanceisbasedontheestimateofwithinsubgroup
standarddeviation.Thesearetheaveragenumberofpartsbelowandabovethe
specificationlimitsinpartspermillion.Thevaluesarecalculatedusingthe
followingformulas

( LSL x
P z ^
*106

w ith in
fortheexpectednumberbelowtheLSL

18

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

(U S L x
P z ^
*106

w ith in
fortheexpectednumberabovetheUSL

notethat

x istheprocessmean.

Forthisprocess,theExpectedWithinPerformancemeasuresare

Exp.WithinPerformance
PPM<LSL
134.53
PPM>USL 66163.57
PPMTotal
66298.10

Theabovevaluesshowthe.

14.

TheExpectedOverallPerformanceiscalculatedusingsimilarformulasas
inwithinperformance,excepttheestimateofstandarddeviationisbased
onoveralldata.
Forthisprocess,theExpectedOverallPerformancemeasuresare
Exp.OverallPerformance
PPM<LSL
92.20
PPM>USL 61212.82
PPMTotal
61305.02

Thesevaluesarebasedon..continued

19

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

CASE3:PROCESSCAPABILITYOFPIPEDIAMETER(PRODUCTIONRUN3)
Process Capability of PipeDia: Run 3
LSL

Target

USL
Within
Overall

P rocess Data
LSL
6.975
Target
7
USL
7.025
Sample M ean
7.00016
Sample N
150
StDev (Within)
0.0067527
StDev (O v erall) 0.00640138

P otential (Within) C apability

Cp
1.23
C PL
1.24
C PU
1.23
C pk
1.23
C C pk 1.23
O v erall C apability
Pp
PP L
PP U
Ppk
C pm

1.30
1.31
1.29
1.29
1.30

6.976 6.984 6.992 7.000 7.008 7.016 7.024

O bserv ed P erformance
P PM < LSL 0.00
P PM > USL 0.00
P PM Total
0.00

Exp. Within P erformance

P P M < LSL
97.43
P P M > USL 117.13
P P M Total
214.57

Exp. O v erall Performance

PP M < LSL 42.47
PP M > U SL 52.06
PP M Total
94.53

Figure 6.13: Process Capability Report of Pipe Diameter: Run3

CASE4:PROCESSCAPABILITYANALYSISOFPIZZADELIVERY
APizzachainfranchiseadvertisesthatanyorderplacedthroughaphoneorthe
internet will be delivered in 15 minutes or less. If the delivery takes more than 15
minutes, there is no charge and the delivery is free. This offer is available within a
radiusof3milesfromthedeliverylocation.
Inordertomeetthedeliverypromise,thePizzachainhassetatargetof122.5
minutes.
Usingthe100deliverytimes(showninColumn1ofdatafilePAC3.MTW),a
processcapabilityanalysiswasconducted.Toruntheprocesscapability,followthe
instructionsinTable6.20.TheprocesscapabilityreportisshowninFigure6.14.

20

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma
Process Capability of Delivery Time: 1
LSL

Target

U SL
W ith in
O v erall

P rocess D ata
LS L
9.5
T arget
12
USL
14.5
S am ple M ean
12.511
S am ple N
100
S tD ev (Within)
1.07198
S tD ev (O v erall) 0.986517

P otential (Within) C apability

Cp
0.78
C PL
0.94
C PU
0.62
C pk
0.62
C C pk 0.78
O v erall C apability
Pp
PPL
PPU
P pk
C pm

10

O bserv ed P erform ance

P P M < LS L
0.00
P P M > U S L 10000.00
P P M T otal
10000.00

11

12

E xp. Within P erform ance

P P M < LS L
2486.06
P P M > U S L 31768.74
P P M T otal
34254.80

13

14

0.84
1.02
0.67
0.67
0.75

15

E xp. O v erall P erform ance

P P M < LS L
1135.93
P P M > U S L 21891.80
P P M T otal
23027.73

Figure6.14:ProcessCapabilityReportofPizzaDeliveryTime:1:
:

CASE6:PERFORMINGPROCESSCAPABILITYANALYSISWHENTHEPROCESS
MEASUREMENTSDONOTFOLLOWANORMALDISTRIBUTION(NONNORMAL
DATA)

TheprocesscapabilityreportisshowninFigure6.21.
Process Capability of Failure Time
Using Box-Cox Transformation With Lambda = 0
U S L*

transformed data

P rocess D ata
LS L
*
Target
*
USL
260
S ample M ean
107.115
S ample N
100
S tD ev (Within)
66.3463
S tD ev (O v erall) 74.8142

Within
O v erall
P otential (Within) C apability
*
Cp
C PL
*
C P U 0.60
C pk
0.60
C C pk 0.60

A fter Transformation
LS L*
Target*
U S L*
S ample M ean*
S tD ev (Within)*
S tD ev (O v erall)*

O v erall C apability

*
*
5.56068
4.46632
0.611239
0.647763

Pp
PPL
PPU
P pk
C pm

3.2

O bserv ed P erformance
P P M < LS L
*
P P M > U S L 60000.00
P P M Total 60000.00

3.6

4.0

E xp. Within P erformance

P P M < LS L*
*
P P M > U S L* 36694.81
P P M Total
36694.81

4.4

4.8

5.2

5.6

*
*
0.56
0.56
*

6.0

E xp. O v erall P erformance

P P M < LS L*
*
P P M > U S L* 45566.78
P P M Total
45566.78

Figure6.21:ProcessCapabilityReportofFailureTimeDatausingBoxCox
Transformation

21

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

PROCESSCAPABILITYOFNONNORMALDATAUSINGJOHNSON
TRANSFORMATION
J o hns o n T r a ns f o r m a ti o n f o r F a i l ur e T i m e
99.9
99
90
Percent

S e le ct a T r a n s f o r m a tio n

N
AD
P-V alue

100
4.633
< 0.005

50
10

P-Value for A D test

P r o b a b il it y P l o t f o r O r ig i n a l D a t a

0.77

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

R ef P

0.0
0.2

1
0.1

200

400

0.4

0.6

0.8
Z V a lue

1.0

1.2

( P - V alu e = 0.005 m ean s < = 0.005)

P r o b a b i li t y P lo t f o r T r a n s f o r m e d D a t a

99.9

N
AD
P- V alue

99
Percent

90

100
0.249
0.743

P -V a lu e fo r B e st F it: 0 . 7 4 2 7 8 7
Z fo r B e st F it: 0 . 7 7
B e st T ra n sfo rm a tio n T y p e : S L
T ra n sfo rm a tio n fu n ctio n e q u a ls
-6 . 6 7 2 4 4 + 1 . 5 2 0 9 3 * Lo g ( X - 3 .5 8 4 4 6 )

50
10
1

0.1

-4

PROCESSCAPABILITYUSINGDISTRIBUTIONFIT
Theotherwayofdeterminingtheprocesscapabilityofnonnormaldataistouseadistribution
fit approach. In cases where data are not normal, fit an appropriate distribution and use that
distributionrather than a normal distributionto determine the process capability. We will
illustratethemethodusinganexample.

Probability Plot for Life of TV Tube(Days)

G oodness of F it T est

E xponential - 95% C I
99.9

99

90

90

50
P er cent

P er cent

N orm al - 95% C I
99.9

50
10

N orm al
A D = 3.359
P -V alue < 0.005
E xponential
A D = 0.303
P -V alue = 0.818

10
1

1
0.1

-2000

0.1

0
2000
4000
L ife o f T V T ube ( Da y s)

10
100
1000
L if e o f T V T ube ( Da y s)

Weibull - 95% C I

50

50

P er cent

P er cent

90

99.9
99
90

10

10

0.1

0.1

0.1

1.0

10.0

100.0

1000.0

10000.0

Weibull
A D = 0.323
P -V alue > 0.250
G am m a
A D = 0.309
P -V alue > 0.250

G am m a - 95% C I

99.9

10000

0.1

L ife o f T V T ube ( Da y s)

1.0

10.0

100.0

1000.0

10000.0

L if e o f T V T ube ( Da y s)

Figure6.26:ProbabilityPlotsforSelectedDistribution

22

Chapter6:ProcessCapabilityAnalysisforSixSigma

PROCESSCAPABILITYSIXPACK

Anotheroptionavailableforprocesscapabilityanalysisisprocesscapabilitysix
pack.Theprocesscapabilityusingthisoptiondisplays
x

Achart(orindividualchartforsubgroupmeans),

AnRchart(Schartforasubgroupsizegreaterthan8),

Arunchartormovingrangechart,

Ahistogram,

Anormalprobabilityplotoftheprocessdatatocheckthenormality,and

Thebetween/withinstatisticsandoverallcapabilityindexes.
Between/Within Capability Sixpack of Shaft Diameter
I ndiv id ua ls C ha r t o f Sub gr o up M e a ns

C a p a b ility H isto g r a m

Individual Value

UCL=75.01672
75.01
_
X =75.00095

75.00
74.99

LCL=74.98518
1

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

74.98

M o v ing R a ng e C ha r t o f S ub gr o up M e a ns
Moving Range

0.02

75.02

LCL=0
1

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

74.96

UCL=0.04854
0.04
_
R=0.02296

0.02
0.00

LCL=0
1

11

13

15

17

19

75.00

75.04

C a pa bility P lo t

R a nge C ha r t o f A ll Da ta
Sample Range

75.01

__
MR=0.00593

0.00

75.00

No r m a l P r o b P lo t
A D : 0.593, P : 0.119

UCL=0.01938

0.01

74.99

21

23

S tD ev
B etw een 0.0028568
Within
0.00987
B /W
0.0102751
O v erall
0.0105927

B /W
O v erall
S pecs

25

C apa
Cp
C pk
C C pk
Pp
P pk
C pm

S tats
1.62
1.59
1.62
1.57
1.54
1.57

Figure6.34:ProcessCapabilitySixpackofShaftDiameter

INTERPRETINGTHERESULTS
ThereportshowsthecontrolchartsforXbarandR.Thetestsforspecialcausesareconducted
andreportedonthesessionscreen.Nospecialcauseswerefoundindicatingthattheprocessis
stableandincontrol.Thecapabilityhistogramshowsthatthe..
Chapter 6 of Six Sigma Volume 1 contains detailed analysis and
interpretation of process capability analysis with data files and step-wise
computer instructions for both normal and non-normal data.
To buy chapter 6 or Volume I of Six Sigma Quality Book, please click on
our products on the home page.

23