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INVERTEBRATES
CHAPTER 7 Cnidarians
CHAPTER 8 Marine Worms
CHAPTER 9 Mollusks
CHAPTER 10 Crustaceans
CHAPTER 11 Echinoderms
171
Cnidarians
When you have completed this chapter, you should be able to:
DISCUSS the characteristics and life cycle of the jellyfish.
COMPARE and CONTRAST the corals and sea anemones.
EXPLAIN how coral reefs are built up over time.
DESCRIBE some important features of the hydroids.
7.1
Jellyfish
7.2
Sea Anemones
7.3
Corals
7.4
Hydroids
172
7.1 JELLYFISH
Jellyfish are typical members of the phylum Cnidaria. Members of
this phylum, called cnidarians, are characterized by two cell layers,
a saclike digestive tract, and tentacles. In addition, cnidarians tentacles, which are long, flexible appendages, are arranged in a ring
around a central mouth, thereby giving these animals radial symmetry. Cnidarians have no brain, so there is no central coordination of movement. Instead, a network of nerve cells and receptor
cells make up the nerve net, which is a simple nervous system;
when one part of the body is stimulated, the whole animal
responds. (See Figure 7-1.)
The jellyfish is not, in fact, a fish. Jellyfish differ from true fish in
many ways; the most fundamental difference is that the jellyfish, as
an invertebrate, does not have a backbone. Now you can understand
the meaning of the expression Youre as spineless as a jellyfish.
Jellyfish are members of the class Scyphozoa. All members of
this class have an umbrella-shaped structure called the medusa,
with tentacles hanging down from it. The medusa is composed of
two membranes: an epidermis, or outer membrane, and a gastrodermis (meaning stomach skin), or inner membrane. Lying
between the two membranes is a jellylike mass called the mesoglea.
The shape and thinness of the membranes, and the low density of
Medusa
Mesoglea
Epidermis
Gastrodermis
Digestive cavity
Mouth
Tentacles
Cnidarians
173
Are there any jellyfish in the water? Bathers will often ask a lifeguard this question before diving into the ocean. Swimmers are concerned because some species of jellyfish, such as the lions mane
jellyfish (Cyanea), can inflict painful stings. The sting of some jellyfish, such as the sea wasp, has even been known to cause death. Jellyfish use their stinging tentacles for defense and for getting food.
The tentacles contain stinging cells, called cnidoblasts. Inside each
cnidoblast there is a coiled thread with a barb at the end, called a
nematocyst. (See Figure 7-3.) In most species, the barb contains a
paralyzing toxin.
The nematocysts can be discharged in response to either a
mechanical or chemical stimulus. Just touching a tentacle (an example of a mechanical stimulus) is sufficient to cause a nematocyst to
Cnidoblast
Cnidoblast
Discharged
nematocyst
Coiled
nematocyst
Trigger
Barb
174
Marine Invertebrates
175
Mature medusa
Young medusa
Young polyps
Mature polyp
(asexual stage)
Comb Jellies
Marine Invertebrates
An animal that is often mistaken for a jellyfish, but is not a cnidarian, is the comb jelly. The comb jellies are classified in their own
phylum, Ctenophora. They all have eight rows of long, fused cilia
that look like combs, hence the groups name. (See Figure 7-5.)
The beating of the cilia helps move the animal through the water.
ENVIRONMENT
Floating Beauties, Stinging Beasts
Have you ever seen, or been stung by, a jellyfish? Beware, jellyfish are found everywherefrom the Arctic to the Antarctic seas, and from
the ocean surface down to the great depths.
These largely transparent, often beautiful creatures look very delicate and vulnerable as they
gently pulsate through the water. But dont be
fooled. Jellyfish are among the invertebrates that
possess deadly stinging cells for feeding and for
protection. Most marine animals have learned
to steer clear of jellyfish, with the exception of
the loggerhead sea turtle, which regularly preys
on them. Humans, too, have learned the hard
way just how dangerous the jellies can be for
people who enter the marine environment.
There are more than 20,000 species of jellyfish,
but only about 70 are potentially harmful to
humans. Which jellies are the most dangerous?
Marine biologists agree that, of the dozens of
jellyfish species that can deliver a painful and
toxic sting, the following three top the most
dangerous jellyfish list. (Being largely transparent, jellies are difficult to spot in the water.
Check on jellyfish conditions before swimming.
If you do get stung, wash your skin with vinegar
or rubbing alcohol and immediately notify a
lifeguard.)
Sea Nettle
(Cyanea capillata)
(Chrysara quinquecirrha)
(Chironex fleckeri)
Location: Atlantic Ocean, from Massachusetts to Florida and the Gulf of Mexico;
Pacific Ocean, from Alaska to Southern
California. It is particularly common in
Chesapeake Bay, Virginia.
Danger: The sting causes painful reactions; most dangerous of all jellies, it can
be deadly. Kills dozens of swimmers in
Australia every year. Its toxins attack cardiac, respiratory, and nervous systems.
Location: Pacific Ocean, near Australia
and the Philippines.
QUESTIONS
1. Which jellyfish is considered the most dangerous? Why?
2. How do the stinging cells of a jellyfish aid their survival?
3. Why are most victims unaware of the presence of jellyfish?
Cnidarians
177
Along with short tentacles, the cilia also bring food, such as copepods, to the mouth. A nerve net controls movement of the cilia.
Most species also have long tentacles to help capture food. One
species of ctenophore has nematocysts in its tentacles. Comb jellies
usually float on or near the surface of the water. They are bioluminescent, and light up when disturbed. Comb jellies release their
gametes into the water for external fertilization.
Mouth
Tentacle
Base
178
Marine Invertebrates
Cnidarians
179
from pieces of the polyps base that are broken off as an adult
anemone moves along the substrate. They can also reproduce sexually. Anemones produce embryos that develop into planula larvae,
which settle and develop into adult polyps.
7.3 CORALS
One of the most spectacular structures in nature is a coral reef. Some
are huge, like the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia, which
is about 2000 km long and 80 km wide. However, the organism
responsible for the formation of reefs is so small that it might escape
notice outside of its stony home. In fact, the coral animal is so tiny
that some can be seen only through a microscope. Yet, different
species of coral animals are capable of building a variety of structures that range in size from small and gemlike to the massive reefs
that can pose a danger to ships. Corals come in a variety of shapes
and sizes, often resembling familiar objects for which they are
named.
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Marine Invertebrates
are the sea fan, sea whip, and sea plume. (See Figure 7-7, and refer to
Figures 3-19 and 3-20.)
The basic structure of the coral animal is the coral polyp,
shown in Figure 7-8 on page 182. As you can see, the coral polyp
resembles a very small sea anemone. Life activities such as ingestion, digestion, sensitivity, exchange of gases, and reproduction are
similar in both anemones and coral polyps. Due to their similarities
in structure and function, corals are placed in the class Anthozoa
along with the sea anemones. However, unlike sea anemones, which
live alone or in small groups, coral polyps live in large groups as
colonial animals, attached to one another by a thin membrane.
The membrane connects the polyps digestive systems, so there is
nutritional sharing among them.
Cnidarians
181
Tentacles
Coral polyps
Zooxanthellae
Limestone
Mouth
Digestive
cavity
How does a coral polyp build a reef of stone? The polyp needs a
great deal of energy to build a stony reef. It gets its energy from the
food that it eats (tiny plankton trapped by its tentacles at night) and
from the food that is made during photosynthesis. The photosynthesis is actually carried out by tiny symbiotic algae called zooxanthellae, which live inside the tissue of each polyp. The zooxanthellae
are types of dinoflagellates that are captured by the coral polyp from
the marine environment. As in all algae, the zooxanthellae contain
chloroplasts, which use the energy of sunlight to make energy-rich
sugar (glucose) from other simple compounds. The coral animals use
the glucose to supplement the energy they get from captured food
and to build their limestone homes.
The zooxanthellae benefit by living safely within the coral
polyps cells and receiving nutrients from the polyps. The polyps
also benefit by receiving oxygen as a by-product of the algaes photosynthesis. This is another example of symbiosis in marine organisms. The life activities of the coral polyps and the zooxanthellae
benefit one another.
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Marine Invertebrates
Coral Reefs
As mentioned in Chapter 3, a reef forms when coral larvae settle
on a substrate in the sand and develop into polyps. What kind
of building materials do the coral polyps need to construct the
reef? A coral reef is a massive limestone structure composed of
the compound calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the same material that
makes up mollusk shells. To build the reef, the coral polyp needs
a source of calcium and carbon. Cells within the polyp absorb calcium (Ca) from the seawater; and the zooxanthellae take up carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced by the polyp during
respiration. When these two substances combine inside the tissue
of the polyp, the CaCO3 needed to build the limestone reef is
produced.
Interestingly, the process of reef building is similar in principle
to the production of bones and teeth in your own body. Teeth and
bones are composed of the mineral calcium. Special cells in your
skeletal system remove calcium from the blood to build your teeth
and bones.
Coral reefs are found in tropical areas, where the waters are
warm and clear. Since the zooxanthellae require energy from sunlight, the waters that corals live in must be clear and free from sediments. And coral polyps need warm temperatures in order to
secrete their calcium carbonate skeletons. Each new generation of
polyps lays down another layer of stone as the reef grows upward at
a rate of about 2.5 cm per year. The reefs provide homes and habitats for many other animal species. Large reefs also protect nearby
coastlines from the harsh effects of ocean waves.
At low tide, the top of the reef may lie just beneath the waters
surface. Ships that come too close may hit a reef and damage their
hulls. As a result, coasts with coral reefs are graveyards for many
ships. Likewise, many reefs are damaged when ships run aground
on them. A large ship, or its anchor, can break off chunks of living
coral and damage the protective mucus coating on the coral polyps.
Coral reefs are also damaged by water pollutants, severe storms,
freshwater runoff, sediments, and unusually low or high water temperatures (which can disturb the algae living within the polyps).
When this happens, a condition known as coral bleaching
occurs, in which the living polyps die off, and only the white coral
Cnidarians
183
7.4 HYDROIDS
Another type of cnidarian that may resemble a plant is the hydroid.
Hydroids, which are members of the class Hydrozoa, live in the
intertidal and subtidal zones. Hydroids are actually colonial animals,
made up of many individual polyps that function together as a single organism. The snail fur (Hydractinia) is a hydroid colony whose
pink and reddish growth coats the shells of many kinds of ocean
animals, including hermit crabs, There are some exceptions to the
rule; for example, the hydroid Tubularia is not colonial.
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Marine Invertebrates
Portuguese Man-of-War
An interesting and much-feared hydroid colony is the Portuguese
man-of-war (Physalia), so named by British sailors in the eighteenth
century as an insult to the ships of the Portuguese navy. Physalia is
classified with the hydrozoans, not with the true jellyfish which it
resembles, because it is a colony made up of different types of
Feeding polyp
Medusa bud
Tentacles
Reproductive
polyp
Cnidarians
185
186
Marine Invertebrates
Laboratory Investigation 7
Observing Stinging Tentacles
PROBLEM: How can you observe the discharging nematocysts of a stinging
tentacle?
SKILL: Using the compound microscope to observe tiny cell structures in
action.
MATERIALS: Tiny sea anemone or jellyfish tentacles, forceps, slides, coverslip,
compound microscope, absorbent paper, medicine dropper, dilute acetic acid
(or clear vinegar).
PROCEDURE
1. Cut a small piece of a fresh jellyfish tentacle or, using your forceps, remove a
tentacle from a sea anemone. (CAUTION: Do not touch the tentacles with
your hands!)
2. Place the tentacle on a glass slide. Put 1 or 2 drops of seawater on the tentacle. Carefully apply the coverslip.
3. Place the wet mount slide on the microscope stage under the low-power
objective.
4. Look for the tentacle under low power. Focus along the edge of the tentacle.
In your notebook, draw a section of the tentacle.
5. Now place a piece of absorbent paper on the glass slide to the left of the
coverslip. Fill the medicine dropper with clear vinegar or dilute acetic acid.
6. While looking through the microscope at the edge of the tentacle, squeeze 2
or 3 drops of acid on the slide so that the acid makes contact with the right
side of the coverslip. Then place the absorbent paper in contact with the left
Cnidarians
187
Tentacle
specimen
Dropper
Dilute acetic acid
(or vinegar)
Absorbent
paper
Coverslip
Slide
side of the coverslip. (See Figure 7-12.) The paper will absorb the seawater
and draw the acid into contact with the tentacle.
7. Look for many fine threads shooting out from the tentacle. These threads
are the discharging nematocysts. Sketch your observation. (Refer to Figure
7-3 on page 174.)
8. Examine the nematocyst under high power. Draw and label the structure.
188
Marine Invertebrates
Chapter 7 Review
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper.
Vocabulary
The following list contains all the boldface terms in this chapter.
cnidarians, cnidoblasts, colonial animals, coral polyp, hydroid,
medusa, mesoglea, nematocyst, nerve net, planula, polyp, radial
symmetry, sea anemones, symbionts, symbiosis, zooxanthellae
Fill In
Use one of the vocabulary terms listed above to complete each sentence.
1. A jellyfishs umbrella-shaped structure is the ____________________.
2. The stinging cells inside tentacles are called ____________________.
3. An adult sea anemone lives as an attached ____________________.
4. The name for the algae that live inside coral polyps is
____________________.
5. The Portuguese man-of-war is a dangerous colonial ____________________.
Think and Write
Use the information in this chapter to respond to these items.
6. Diagram the life cycle and reproduction of a jellyfish.
7. Describe the main difference between a coral colony and a
hydroid colony.
8. Name two similarities and two differences between corals and
sea anemones.
Cnidarians
189
Inquiry
Base your answers to questions 9 through 11 on the following diagram,
which illustrates the life cycle of the moon jelly Aurelia, and on your
knowledge of marine biology.
Mature medusa
Ciliated larva
(planula)
Young polyps
Mature polyp
(asexual stage)
Young
medusa
190
Marine Invertebrates
a. polyp
Cnidarians
191
192
Marine Invertebrates