Caimari, L., Whose criminals are these?

Thr Amt'ri cu
.)4!2 Otto~r 1W7. llS.>-lOt!
topynp!t by Lbc A cadcroy oC Amc~n
Fr.ancuan Hto~

WH OSE CRI MINALS AR E T'HESE? CHURCH

STATE, A D PATRONATOS AND TIIE
REHABJ LITATlO OF FEMALE CO YlCT'S
(BUE OS A IRES. 1890-1940)*
lN'l ROOU<:fiOl'

urn-of-tht: century Argt:ntinc political h:ade;:n; wcn: dccply in

Oucncc<J by ncw idea about thc origin and trcatmcnt of criminatity dcvclopcd by thc ltaliao positivist school of criminology.
According to thill l~Chool, crimc was not thc ruit of tbc crimioal's
wickcdncsll. as classic pcnology bad claimcd. but wall ralhcr thc rcsult
of a complcx wcb o( ocial and p ycho-biological dctcrminations of
which the criminal had been a victim. Thi pathology callcd "crimc"
could be corrected if it origin wa cicntifically determincd and if thc
n~:w mcthod of rchf'bilitation prcscribcd for criminals and potcntial
criminal wcrc coforccd. 1 Although not all o th~: prcmj 'Cll of thc criminological choollcd by Lombroso. Fcrri, and Garofalo wcrc acccptcd
uncritically in Argentina. the ba ic principlS of the ncw scicncc wcrc
widely adopted by juri ts, doctors, h)'gieni t and p ych.iatri t .2 The e
ideas were received in the con[ext of ma. sive F.uropenn immigratio n.
accele rated urbani7ation, and the cmcrgcncc of n largc working clas.s.

1 II;IJlt 10 tba.nk Kan: o ~l ead. M. Uabtlcla :-.IOwt1ll~ a.nd ~bnano l'lotkin fOT tlw:ir helpful
of 11\n antclc. r v.1<J\ al<o 10 acknowlcd~ the u~t'ul su~~uoru. or
tbc al14n~mou_~ Thc A muialv rcVlc'Cr.
A summlt)' 01 lhe a,l>utnpb()ns of ~tlvut crimioology, aJo mlerpreterl by onc ol rhe mAjor
AJ~cn~nc repr~ol8ll ''c~. lo lbe proiQ&ut b) Jo~ lngcnie:08 ro Lhe popobr book by f'w;c:hio
Gmc7, 1 a mota ' Ida tll fltUtiM Ait< (Buenos Att~ Ed. 11180 Ro!d.Sn. I..US)
J A di-.c:uMKin M tho: reoeptia n n( pn<lrivi<m in ,\r~cnt M in R kaunc Soler. tJ p<ntftviwnCJ
tlf'R~nrUt<J (Buenos Aun: Paidl.. IY6!1). Thc indivtdnli7..uion of che ~.alry (lhc ad~pumon 01
thc ~ncl t<m to thc particul.\r clrC'IJm<(at~ of tadl c:tllle. R!QII.lnn,s :s o.Jct;si l"'d-"udy if the >h)"'S!Cil!,
P~'Chclozjc"l :md soc:i;al ~r.at1er~,,~ of uch itldi,tdual). lhe " 11110 uf dw~~~ .. (.s cva~pt
appiJcd to lhru.e ""o " ere wcn 11 hkcl)' lo oommit aimc<, ju:<rif)ioJ, ftmhcr (Of'l"'l1 ot treAtmcnt).
ebe np!c of cociebc~ 10 deftod lhC:tosth 'eS.. :~.nd lhe 1mport:uu:c of wk in thc ~h.!i~hrattoo of thc
cnmin"l "''Cre .lit \tal princ.rft~ a.n t.hc peoaJ olUd JI'.IUl<OIJJU) rduun..
C(lmmert~ 10 carhcr '-emom

185

186

WtiO E CRJMI, AL ARE THESE?

Under the intluence of the new ~cienti~r of crimc. che leading cla e
perceived these changes as the cnu e of the ri ing crimc rAtc in Rucno
Aares. n,e fear generated by thi~ diagno i (ormcd the basis o( thc
rcforms undertaken by the Argenlinc tate 10 fight urban crimc.' Thc
new approach to crime hada concrete impact upon Argcntinc socicty:
the police. the judiciary and, to a le, er extent, the penal code, were
updated accordang to the new ~cientific thinking. One of the areas
where this impact was clear wa~ the prison system. The Penitentiary of
Huenos Aires. created in IK77 and fedcrali1,cd in 1880, becar11e a
"mode l institution." where inmates benefited from the new therapie .
Prestigious foreign visitors were given tours to look at the efforts made
to enfo rce penalties according Lo individual medica! and ps)'chological
profiles. the modern facilities, the numerous and we ll-equipped workshops whe re inmates worked as if employed in an efficient industry.
thc primary chool. and the courses in music. industnal drawing. typing. and accounting. According to Eusebio Gmcz. director of thc
institution and well-known criminologist. the enforcement of the new
(positivist) regulations of tbe Penitentiary bad "fulfilled tbe expcctaons of functionarics and rescarchers alike." 1 The res ulb of pcnitcntiary reform were. however. more limitcd than such statcmcnts may
indicate. On the one hand. thc change in provincial pri ons was much
le~ impressivc than in thc Pcnitcntiary.5 On thc othcr hand. thc ncw
thinking m criminolog)' sccms to havc applicd only to thc mate offcndcr. sincc tbc vast majority of ncw works in tbis arcH barcly rncntioncd (cmalc case . Thi rcmarkable theorctical gap wa ' match~ by
an institutional one. lndccd. thc fatc of those womcn who wcrc condemned to pnson wa quite diffcrtnt than that of men: not only were
On lh~ m:Jpt~pllun uf lnliJU r.Uib ~ ~~pcxwbk fur lit.: sruwrns ~'t llJlHtabty ID BUetlOS
Au.:~dunc

thb ~r.od. s,~ : Ju.ha Klrlc U!ncJ.wcldcc and L)ID o L Johosoo "O~ioe Crimint~l
Alfes 1~90 to 1?1: . Jouuw / of ''" l\mrr4 DJt Sludtcr. 14:2. '59 On lhe
ur p8<1 ot po!ill~l.~t crimmoloy on 1um-of thc:-cenlury poh\iQI k llden.. scc: El.lu:~rdu :Umm~r
rlMin . / .().f l!MttJILs ttfnrmua~ lA acrti4n Joona! m la A'!(C'IItma. / 890-/ ':1/ ( Uu.:ous AIICS
SuW.rncncanaJU. de Sllo Attd!~ 19'))). cbaplcr (). On l.bc lnt or lh.c id~ of pc.lOolli viw CTITIJ
DOlO!!\ to conuol tbc v.or nt: .:las... ~e Rteardo ntvntorc:. nmi nol<~. Prh on Rd unn. 3111.1
1 ~ Buc:no.< A m:~ WOTking Cl.t.~ Jnu111cl of lmrrJisc.ip lutiJ') Hutoty. X..XJIL 2 (Auturun 1092).
] 79 -299. l'or :a " foucauldlan " '"~ rprc111uoo o l thb rdorm scc-. Uca tm Ruib11J. ldf'l.~()j(fa dC'I
romml J utt(;/_ IJutr()J A it~S fl&'tJ.J911JJ (Buenos Are..: Ce ntro EdltOt" eSe J\ mt ncll btLn.:a, 1993).
~ .. i t mona de ll' Pc:OIIcnQll rla Nacional " flnln!r. dt ID Dbfima Nariun al dt Cri171lnu lo rf11 ~
C1#'11Fiilf A jVtPf, 19'111.
Althou h lcdt:'lically 1 ~ pcn&l C'Ode C>labllshcd tbt \~cm of pcl\lllles cor che: ~holc councry.
t.n f.iCI tn e JI pro' lncc: tbc: ~ltu 1100 n !he pn~~ wa5 dtf(c rcnt. ilnd c:bCh ptovutcuol su.,uruocot
ll"pno;c:d diffc:n:nt regublrOC'I l>. I ~W<mO GmcL <.rimut<J!o /u an:(~nt!na. l<t~(r7Q lt~bl()1(r6fH'a
(Ul)(no. Au cs; Llbrcrfa e lmprcc11 Europea. 1912). Llll.

t'attc-rns 10

St.teo~

LILA

M.

CAIMAlU

187

they not ent to ill Litutions organized a long scientific lines. but in 1890

pri on for women were placed under control of a rclig1ous arder. thc
Good Shepherd, naturally di sociated from and q uite opposcd lo the
postuJates o( the new criminological sciencc. In thc 1930s, a privatc
institution, the Patronato de Recluidas y Liberadas, was crcated with
the explicit purpose of adapting the treatment of female prisoners to
modern standards and bringing their institutions closer to the leve! of
thosc of male inmatcs. The compcting effon of the mcmbcrs of an
ancicnt rcligjous ordcr and thosc of a ccular-mindcd Patrono/o to
monitor dcviant womcn would rcsult in intcrcsting clashcs. Ncvcrthc.:lc~s. tht: nuns o( thc Good Shcphcrc.J would keep control o( thc corrcctionaJ sy~tem. both in the city and provincc o( Buenos Aires. untiJ
a reccntly as thc 1970s.
Thc purposc of this article is to explain the apparent contrac.Jiction
involved in the deci ion of state leader known for thcir conccrn for
crimc a wcll a their ccular and scicntific pcr uasion . to givc control
of fcmalc pri on toa rcligious ordcr he distancc bctwccn thc e two
approachc -that of thc; nuns and tbat o positivist criminologists- will
be; bown througb an analy~ll> of thc.: ordcr's adrninil>tration of the
Corrc;:.ctional JlouSc of Buenos Aires and the therapy givcn to thcir
inmate . f inaUy, a di cus ion of thc conflict bctwccn the Good hepherd and the Pturonfllo in the 1930s will lead to po iblc cxplanation
of hoth thc fAilurc of t he tAller to pcr uftdc tate lcadcrs to adopt its
agenda, And the tunning continuity o( thc rcligious approach in the
public I)Olici~ towar<.l fcrmtlc oUcndcrs.
l.

THE. GOOD

HEPHERD ANO THE R EII,\ BILITI\llON OF W O'AFN

Among the women who have spent time here. you will find intclligcnt
domesric who c.1n ser"e )'OU witb fidelit}'. tidin~ and can!. becausc
thcy are Lntincd in Hll :ucao; '>Uit:tblc for thcir sex.
- Lctter from Mothcr Snn Agu.'>lin 10 M:tnucla "'a arro Pacheco. 1890

lt seems contradictory thnt a Govcmmcot known in Argcntinc history

for its positivist credo. itl> 1~1 for sccuhtri~ t ion. and its anticlerical
attitude would give control or f~male pri on to a rcligious ordcr. Far
from bcing an exception. the get~erocin del ochema wa just one of
severa) Latn American po itivi t-innuenccd p<>litical elite which dclcgatcd the job of rehahilitating fe mate offcndcr to thc Good Shcphcrc.J. Taking control of these prisons was part of thc.: broadcr cxpanioo of this order m outh America, which it clf was part of an cxpanion of scvcral religiou cong cgations in thc last quartcr of the

L88

WHOSE CRI~ll'l\l.S ARE Tit E

t:'?

nineteenth century. For years to come. these orders would provide the
bulk o{ the staff for charitahle instirutions. a~ylums and schools. donu natmg m areas wherc the state was till a marginal prcsence.
AJthough uot all o urc~ agrcc on thc dctaiJs of thc complicatw
hi tory of correctional in titution for womco. wc know that thi hi tory begjn wi th lhc: colony. The Law or Indie called for incarcerated
women to be kept in separatc facilitie. from th e of men, 'keeping all
honc ty nnd dcccncy." In 1692, nn old ho. pitnl wn use<.! to erente a
h OtL')C whcrc poor orph t~n~ anu virtuou maiden~" could find shelter.
and tber e i ~trong e idencc that thi in titution, which survived j ust
nine years. was used to helter criminal a well a other marginal
women. Until 1774. all condemned women were , ent to a special sec
tion of the m ale pri. on. in the Cal>ildf>, where they were employed
primaril y in the ki tchcn. In thi, year. Virrey Vrti7. order-ed the creation of a Ca , de Recogida meant to "control and correct women of
dis~ol ute li fc," the fin>t known reft:rence to a correctional f acility for
womcn. l l owever, the re ult or thi initiative is unclear. By t hc end of
the eighteenth centllry. there were two possible desuni cs for fcmalc
criminnl : those who were arre ted on common of(ense charges werc
houscd in a . pccial ~t ion of thc puh1ic pri~on: or t hey could be sent
to t he Re.,idmciu, an old building that had belonged to thc Jcsw ts, and
whcrc friars of the 13ethlemite order had taken carc of thc sick and
given hou ing to prost il ute ~. In 1860 this i nstitution bccamc thc ncw
4

"touoll..--d m An
fr.-ncc:. in 1 lS, thc first l.Atin American br:snch or l11 Good bepherd
.,..as esubbi!lc:d 10 1855. and "''OIIkt ruptdly cxp.and to the rn t o( tbe motintnt EolatM~nt \athoht
fllmahc~> K"~ scocruu.: d) to t~ oulc: ul t.hc tono of buildJDl!S ~nd fundinJ- Within ; fc:w )'UI".
the Good Sbt.!pbcrd tud.l'xpan<h:d lo t.:rug.uo). Argentina. Rr111il ;u~tt Polr.lZWI) Thi~ monM!otum
,..,toa ~re!l C\tcot thc rc:sult of be cfrons of rl)e mothe1 \o\lpenor ol Sanll:~~u d~ Cbi~. Mochet
n Alt'lSlin. JI mcmhcr o( a prc:~>ha)ou.~ Catholtc l.auul). wtw was u tr met~ brt.'4d and a"~
loive 1n h:r ne ot i.allunl' ~ath tbc SO' ra.u~ D b o( th.: rountnc " be re nc:~ b~nc.h~ -..CJc:- founded.
Thc mrurmllliOO aboutthH ordcrromcs trom liS onoah" V$ing thu \OUJ'CI<',t,..u rntmbel'l\ ot the
dc:rgy b.t\'C wn llen deta.Jicd dtrorucl~<- rqc <urprinngl)'. hll8i0ir.sptc:, ol tbc Otdef nd it~
tour*n. sn 1.01111 Amcnc;~: P. J ua.n h crn. 1:.1 IJ11m l~tJJ.1<Jr ~~~ /tu NtJc(Ofl'$ J,l fOud
Amnuo
(Artentin:t Ar:wl CluJe. J"&r UlY y Uruguay) (BucOO" Aire,. S. de Amorrortu, 1931). Una
Rdigio10a del U~o Pa).(Ot'. Vuln d~ /Q MCidrt M tuf. a11 AJ(U.In d~ J~w Frmrnd~: C:u,rd'J
( Monte~tdeo "C
A Barn: rro R:un~" .A.. 1~6). J ~ .ll duc.'~l:on o1 lbe r r of tbe ("O()()(!
h.rpo'lerd in Olilc:.'ln fc:m:~le pn~on.,, ~: ~lJ I.s S. L.:l.tatc C&DlpO). VKiou._, Womc:n. Virtuou
Womc:n le renu.Je O"hnquent a.nd thc nuago de: Ctulc CorrcctiOn~I JioWC", JS60 1900" tn
R S~h.atorc: :sol.! C. A~"\l!lre. eds T~ IJ/uh fl ( tllf Pfmtm turry 111 IJin Amaitu. E..H41)) C1ll
Ctumnuf"'lY Pn>~.Ht R(fi ,m. 11111 Sflrlnl C..n1tttnJ. 1 ;o 19-J'J ( Aw.tlo. '1X: \..'ru' rsu~ of T C:\l
t>c ~. 19961 On thc import.1nt role oC rlatn fcmaJe rc:l.tglous orden m
ni Jrt.titutioo~ of
t u.m or lhcCCl11Ut> Bueou A ir~s.. ~e . K:uen \fead. OII}:QI (hlc Dn(tl'lrr and ,\ uru: Pub/re f koflt,
und B~M/ktrru ;,s Rt ''<U AuN, IMO 1014 ( Ph .D . Dr~rt t.tloo U oc Olltlorruo nntn R:ar-Nr.a.

,,.

1~) ch;~pt e r ~.

LILA

M. CAIMAKI

189

'orrectional Ho use of the Capital for mate and female criminals. who
we re housed in separate wings of the building. according to thc regulations of 1855.7 In 1877. convicted mate prisoners \ve re moved from
thc Rt-sidencia to thc nc w Pcnitcntiary of Buenos A ires. which bccamc
thc ational Pcn.itentiary aftcr the city bccame the official capital of
thc country in 1880. Thc Residencta was renamed the Womens Corrcctional Housc.
11le i n~titut ion ncw charactcr Corccd thc admini tration of Ju rcz
Celma n to providc an in(ra tructurc pc;cifically d igncd for a Ccmalc
populat ion. Therc i evidente that thc govcrnmcot wa~ rcluctant to
follow the recommendatioo of a ~iaJ commission that it hand ovcr
the adminL tration of the pri o n lO the Good hepherd: thc projcct ' a
repeatedly postponed until Mini ter of Jwtice Posl'C finally gavc in to
the combined pre. su re of the order ~nd vMiou inOucntial atholic
women. Funhe rmore. these two group. had to litcrally force thcmselves into the building. ejecting the p ublic a uthoritic who hac.J until
the n run the institution. As the annat of the ordcr wouJd latcr ta te.
"thc fortrcss was takcn:~
'Wh ~

d ic.J a national govcmment so interested in controlling cri me

and limiling the power of thc Catholic hwch give up the task of
rehabilitating the e crimina l to a rcligious ordcr'? Practical con iderations were impor t~nt in thi d cci ion. Evcryone agreed on th~ moral
danger involved in lcaviog it to malc administration. This pri on
needed a fe male tafC that was traint:d and willing to live with the
inmates. Such a staff did not exist in thc tate bureaucracy or in other
rcligaous orders. and it wo utd take a long time to train one. Becau e
thc li ed in convents- where they wcrc oftcn cluded in cell a nc.J
' J~ P~nnn .aoo HOfncto Mt\Ckro. Lo Ammlfucln Samron.? :r AriSt<'tiCifl P(,hl/(41 d~ lu
(mdotl d~ Buenos AitV (Oucnos N re Kraft. 1910). Pbro. Mllnu 1J. S:sngumell i. " Anlccedcntc.s
de 1~ CJUI ck MUJtfC: 1.h: 8-u.n~ Aire " R('VIftD Pmnl y Pnlu , l a11a (V. 19JD): Rodnlfo
(~7:Uc7 Lebrero, " F I ,\~ilo ~ C~tc
1611 \k MuJ~o;r\!lo ck Otnnos Alfe Un proyecto do e.ir\!.el
rdorm;atOrio paro~ 1:1 Am ria UlhM, ' R~t"l~flJ l'~trl y l'~n ittJrcwrut ( 11, 194?): L3d s<~o Tbot.
"BOSoQ\I:JO lub1uc:o de lalo irulltucrone:s pcnatenaanas de La Reptlbhc:::l Ar&enrinn.'' R Q/,.tln 1M
PatmtfD'fJ dr Rt<lllldos ubrraw (Apnl October llffl) 10-ll. . CariO> Cileo. 1 a.' riJt l~s
( Ouenos Ai re~: CCJ~tro E<Jjtor de ADWc~~t Latru. 1'171).
,. Wbco cbc roup ROC to the bwldlll.g oC tbc Conecclon:ll l lous.e. rhe dutttor of tJw faaltty
reflhcd to kt Lb~ uum 10. In .a c:onte' t ol ~t confu~loo. M04het so Asustn m;~n:~Jed to sn k
in her nun nnd ~)' (ot tb~: Ol$hL Hdo:t che f.r.ct, Pt'\foe (l-ose to 6'\JPf)Ott tbc o:dcr. bcrn, 1:.1
Buen Pll.ltoT , '01. l . p. SOO Acoordio 10 Good !)bephe:d'" ~ura:\ che tdc:J~ 01 boochog tJw pn:;un
to ti m eaur\! tu tbo: ~u,-cm menc ,.,drrecdy, throu&h a ptous fem.tk or~nit:~lloo co OAbOOI at tt.ld
bccn nrf$i.n ll} b.lll<h:ll. tlr.: SciftJfJ..\ dr las Wu ~flt dt ~,, FrancLSco SolDnrJ

190

Wuosr- CRt~TNALS ARE THE s.?

used to severc regulation. anc.J all kin() - of privalio~-oun~ wcre percei ed as naturally adapte<.l to a pt:nitentiary regime. Furthermore.
their i nvestiture gave them an aura of authority, vi -~-'~ both in mate
and secular members of the staff. Finally. one should not overlook the
fact that the state would only have to provide a IOken um of moncyj ust enough to cover the esc;emial expen. es. Since lhe nun.. ought to
avoid all outside tnterference, they ran the institution wi th the per onncl the ordcr it clf could provide-usua11y twenty to thirty people.
Thu . the Correctional H ouse required of lhe national tate a fraction
of tbe funds . pent on prisons or other correctional institutions for
me n ."~

Of course. these practica! considerations were ~upported hy sorne

fundamental a umpt ions on thc part of PQiitical lcadcn,. thc rno t
obviou~ bcing that the admini tration of pri on for women did not
justify an important i nve tment of money and staff. a in the case of the
ational Penitentiary. Neither was it an area where it wa worth com
peting with the .hurch for the control of certain segments of society.
as had been the case in the areas of education and civil law. After aH.
women only accounted for 3 to 18 percent of total arrests. 10 Rather
than being feared, like maJe offendcr , most of thcsc womcn wcrc
perceived as occa~ional criminal victims of their own moral wcak
ne.c;ses. whicb were most likel tbe result of irrationalit and lack of
intelligence. 11 Unlike male criminality. whicb requircd a wbolc ballcry
of specialists and technical studics to undcrstand. fcmaJc criminality
wns een prirnarily as a moral problem. one that could be addrcsscc.J
adequatel}' by the resources that religion could offcr.l2 ucb idea may
" 11- c:onclwon bo..>ctla.e"oo"ous "'bencompan:~g tbe budgct fOf tbc pruoo 10 ~IOn '-'Mh MY
~nkot e~ornplc: ~o~:c:: Arc:hvo Genc:r.LI ck la :-lact61
<heoac:t AGN), Mmi~eno de: J1mi<tJ e loS(ruccin Pl.itoiiC'.l. l !S')S. u ;aJU 43. IZ~JX.'dlcntc JU
10 DoM~ Guy, " P~Jir u r ion .11nd fcm :alc: C"rimm:~hty in Duc:nOl> Airt>. l~7S.l9J7.'' 10 Lyman
John<nn, c:d.. Tlt~ l'roh!ttr: of Ordtr in Chf>gi~ txltrlts
11 1e ""~ ohhe 1de! of Lhc lotnn51C lllteUe-."t\\al and morl weo n c:M of wum~ tu ull't~m th.:u
<rlmmal be~~iOf ~d bctn Pd'a~d ~y 1 omhro~ :and ad<lp(c:d mofe: or le:~ explctll)' b)
"otfialll 1\r~ntmc: crimino~Qsy :~lthough none of thc: lta4to~ C11manolo~tsts dc\'CIQ9Cd rhc:sc
thc:orid :my furthc!r Set, C. Lomb1'060 snd G Fern:ro, J.a Ftmt r rmur.tllr rr l a ptn.ltlrufr P:m),
11>96) lottreshn~). one ot rhc \'(f} fe'-' .1uth~ -.ho w(luld l.tc:r di~ lhc: <Ut')laoo ftool a
!~OIIJ'Int potnl ot VICW, ~Ared ~me of lh~e prc:mi!do: rehatn Khmpel, LA muja, tl dttao ~ '"
W1.'1rJ~d (Bue~ Aire~ r:J .1\lc:nro 19JS). For .a dDtU)Won of tite hiS(Oncll cxplanallOI\~ of
(c:m:alc: cnm< lo. o. Kkll'l. "The tlolot ()( Femak Cnmc: A RC:\1CIIo' or thc: u lcnalU1:." /J,YIA~
in Cnmmulu y .l (hU lC>7J). 29-. Cor.1mnc Richr)' \ bnn rrm~Jit' Crune ami Dtlmqllt'II<J'
(UruHntly. ;\ l.;l\;m; The Univerwty of A l
ma Prt IYtl l).
l : 11 :.cems tnleroling 1 l tht tdta Of lbe U<;c Of reh~on :l\ iJ w:ay lO rdurm v.oru.:n l":'UJlliLal!.

Other conecttonaJ latrllty ror maJes. For

LILA

M.

, AIMARI

191

also explain how the leaders of . ecular ization in thc: 1880s could tolera te the religious practices of wonu.:n in tht;ir own ramilie : in thcir
iew. atho1ic1 m and the Church ~hould retreat from the public
sphcrc, and be relegated lo the more innocuous areas of society.
Choo ing the Good Shcphcrd to rehabilitate marginal and crimmal
womcn al o rc.:vcal thc wcight of gcndcr con idcrations in political
dcci ion that could ha\'c an impact on the Argentine labor market.
Although most of thc inmatcs wcrc cxtremely poor. it was e.xpecled
that thc pri on wovkJ confine itsclf to corrccting the moral deviations
that had allegcdly driven them to commit crimes. rather than train
women to takt an active role in the modero arcas of the economy. as
wa the ca. e at tht: a tional Penitcntiary. The Good 'hepherd did
attach importance lo work. bvt thc naturc of tbc tasks thc inmate
were givcn w~ limitcd: cwing. cmbroidcring. washing and ironing. In
other worcb, tht:y werc providcd only with the skills nceded to find
work a home workc or domcMic scrvants- an area in high demand
in turn-of-the cemury 13ueno Aire , and repcatcdly mcntioned by the
ordcr's authoritie a. the most likcly a nd uitablc labor ma rkct for
their inmates. The ongoing con truction of thc facility itself limited
these activitie~ even further, incc thcrc wa littlc spacc for workshop ,
and overcrowding wa. ofLen an ob tHdc to any typc o( work .
Dcl>pitc thc cnonnou. ideological gap bctween thc nuns of the Good
Shcphcrd and most state Jeader , it . eems clear that both harcd this
fundamental perception of the vocationAI po ibilitics of poor. mar
ginal women. ot only did su~c ivc govcrnmcnts insure the continuity of thi tate of affatrs by not changing thc administration of the
pri ~on for cighty ycars. but the authoriti~ of th~ national Penitentiary
S)'Stem (ormulatcd thc question along the ame linc a Mother an
Agu tn. In 1911. thc commission charged with advi ing th govcrnmcnt about eventual prison reforms mnde two rccommcndations concerning femalc facilities: a) tO keep WOU1 CI1 ano girJs in separaLe wings
of the (future) building for indicted women. whc;rc thcy would have
enough land to acquirc gardening kili. and pace. to lcarn domestic
~ ) aoo prl.':knl In c:ounlnc~ likc Frnn.....llere critltioolu~. ~~'Chiwry nd roedtane liad 81)
cnormous tnlluence .n the pcrceplinn of cnme And wbuc ~~:..'UltmM~tron h;,IJ rcachod fcmale
prounm 1~; Ruth Harn \furrll'rr QJfJ Mutlno'\' M4'tf~ernr Law ncJ S.Xuo br llu fin thf f~dr
( ~" w Yurt: Odord
ni,e.il)' Prcs 1YSQ). p. 01. A )lud~ on thc role o! reh$JOUS. onJers ro
Ftcocb fCJl)St.e pn!tOn~ ln a.~ude t an~lol . "L'ItllrO\htc\Juo dc-i ('()ll!r !Ilion~ fmintne-1 <bn le
~~'$(~me pnicenuaite r~.;n 1819 1
" in hcque Pt crt. C'd" La priwm. le bGf"' rr 1 hlt,()ftt
(P..n>: Lt :.ame de$ Mtndteo< t 1). pp 129 o

192
ta k ; b) to move women to the t.emporarily vacant National Pri on.
where indu rrial work hops--considered unncce ary for thi poputation-would be demolic;hed ancl replaced with garclen, and ewing
workshops rhat would ' 'provide approprisue occupSltion " for thl; e inmate.. 11 In any ca. c. no onc cxpcctt;d thc Goc.xJ Sbcphcrd to force thc
n~wly fa hionabl~ ~nitentiary techniqut:S on th~ inmates. Fr m the
order per pective. the ucces or failure o( thi enterpri e was measured in the number of former convict. or abandoned minors who had
gone on to hegin Christian families, ro take their first oommunion. or
to be bapti7.ed and confirmed in their faith. More importantly: once
CC.)JWcrted. thc~ woulcJ con titule a ourcc of rlcw rccruitmCJlt fo thc
order it elf. Such was the cas~ for al out 70 women between 1890 and
1923. 14 The detailed . torie of exemplary case of conversion in prison.
preserved in the annal of the congregation. al so give usa pro file o{ thc
ideal ex-inrnate: a model of humility. subservience and kindness.
Thc in mates wcrc ubjcctcd toa routinc that consi tcd of a mixture
of rel.igious observanccs. school instruction and manual work. Thc da y
began with prayers. cleaning and tbc mass. Collowcd by first- anc.J l><;Condgradc instruction for tho e who nccdcd it- lct u k~~p in mind
that many inmatc wcrc forcigncr . cvcral moral readings for the
wholc community took place during thc day. intcn>persed betwe~n
period of recreation. Thc day culminatcd wilh final praycn;. Rcligiow
alues wcrc introduccd lo thc inmatc through othcr ~el i ities: confcssion. weekly catechism. prcacbiog. anoual piritual extrci e etc. 1$
Although thc federal govemmcnt upported the in titution throughout
its existcncc, and though the repor of the Mother Superior to the
Ministry of Ju ticc wcrc full of complaints ahout the hudget and the
lack of staff. it soon bccamc clcar thHl nny ouL~ide help that might
rcpresent an int~rfcrt:D(;(; in the nun total control over the inmatcs
was pcrceivcd al> a thrcat. 16 Thc order wa~ contpletely interposed be
twccn thc inmatc and the bureaucracy of the national penitentiary
"hnU.teno lk Ju::hwa lmuu~"':to 1'\lbh<:.ll. /'t (IJ r:tlu ~~~ Reformo C'.4llt'~!/J rw. lnfnrm~ di" la
( omi,idn f:Yp.iol ( Hucoos Aucs: Talkre< G r~Cico$ de: la Pe nitc:nci:uia Nxsu D&. 1913). I' P 6 1.
1'

163.
' ' l<crn. F.l flum Portor. v. 111. p. 739.
" l.sc:rn. 1:.'1 Hum PtJStor. v 111. p . .SI!
*' Ibis was o bvtou. for JOS(a.ncc . whc:n th: n~:-.':fp:spc:r LtJ Prtn'IU <.'Umplau~d ob<lutthe nl""gcr
lUnd.s 110d taf cbe S1.ltc: w;&.' 'olollbn lo nu v"Jc: tu tbc: Hoo~. Ob~ tOU l)' f".:~rin~ :m out<idc:
totcrvencion the Mother Supenor lmm.cdJat~ly wrote to tbc Mi.niSter CJiticlriny. tllc: inuccu~ of
che :u1icle 3nd th nklo~ oatiOt'lal autbon ue tor thc:ir (l()Cll'!tkrAlioo to-.~mJ ti~ o rdct . AG !':.
\llolbteno de Ju.eici11 Culto. e lrutruoenc1 PtJLcu. L~8~JO 4~. E1pcd 1'1"'-

Lll

M.

193

Ci\NI\RI

. y~tem. The school of the prbon, which had functioned a. the chapel
when the building was run by the Jesuit . was di. manlled and returned
to its old purpose. The teacher, hired and paid by the state. was immedtately fired by the Mother Superior. who argued that "seriou.c:
problems could aris.e by the intervemion of a tranger who cann t be
as intcrc tcd in thc order and moralit. . of our inmates a ar~ tho e in
chargc of the Hou e." The tate gave up the in. truction of prison~~.
dclegating tbe direction and uppon of the chool to the order. ' 7 Moreovcr. until 1908 thc Correctional House did not have official regulation . and thc nuns followed interna! rules that were unknown to the
tate burcaucracy. The state's ability to monitor wa thu reduccd to
routinc in pections by thc Depanme nt of Hygiene. the General lnpcction o{ Justicc. as well as thc daily visits or the phy ician who
trcatcd thc inmatc~ Thc role of the Good Shephe rd in the femate
pri on l>~ tcm expande<.) furthcr when the government granted to the
or<.Jcr the administrauon of another prison. the Asylum Sa11 Miguel. for
thosc accu c.:d of lcss serious crimes (contraventoras). By the turn o f
thc ccntury, thc order controllcd thc en tire fcmale pri on ., te m of the
city of Rucno Aire Y'
11. lllr: ST,\lT- "

!f)

Fr\tAlF CRTMI ALTTY

A brief look at the profile of the inmat of thc Hou e will help u
to clanfy the impact of the ordcr' trcatmcnt of thc e womcn . as well
as the dectston of sune leadcr to withdraw from thc task of rehabilitallon of this population. A. Micbacl lgnaticU poinll> out. thc population of pri ons i not a good indicator or thc punitivc function of the
tate or tbc real eriminality in a given ocicty-only a very small portion of all erimes committed are actually pun hcd- but is rathe r a sign
of whicb crimes and criminal are sdectcd to be punisbed. t<i A s we
17

1 ~m. U a,ur: PoMt.>l \ 111. p S~.

~ In 1903. hnwewr. de.,UilCJ uon uf .tb\Jks ~g_uiUl pru.onen ol che: Corre"Jonal Hou.sc
IOteed the g<wcmment 10 uncicn.lke ~n ~:xbau~av~ uup.:cllvu ol th~ tn.1hlutioo. The ~quons
~me crom a nciden 1sroups.. ~ha had nc'~f bccn satutt..d '"nh th~ :~moont ar pa'll'cr
en
lhe GONt hepherd. Thc n~ p:~pcr l.' / S1glu publi~cd 01n unJclc addJc sed to t!lc Min~tcr nf
J u hc:c xcu "J rhc nun~ of m tu.~ pH)oncr ~ work "'athout par. <ubJCC'IlnJ: them co crutJ pun
ubm~nb :t:Jd corrupcing minnr5 und.cr lbc .r 'UJl~hotOCI Nut urpr1~1ny)y. che ntdc: ~ked CM
~vctnmetll 10 fu 1~ ouru :~nd re a~umc elle ildmmmrtuoo 01 th~ IIISht ulil)n. fln.,.e\cr, thcm.~pec:tioo-which illC'Jtadcd ull rv ' "'o; 1lb tbc mmul et-dld not rc,caliH'I m ,or 1rttg.ubntiu
.lnd 1he 1nodent ~oold rem.'lin
AOOllkr q.1uod\: m tbc w s: bct,.ecn C';atholt<:S and a nll -cl~uc.'ll
~fOUJlS. /bid. 111, :! .
MJCh'l<'l l~ t rr. " H ~unogr.lph.ic: CTitaque du sy~Cmc ~oltcntJ~Ite"
l'eht , / .o pmrm
fiP 9 17.

V"'"

'" J.

19-t

W110.

CRIMINAl -~ ARf. T11r.~~?

:,hall scc. in this <.:a e thc profilc of thc population of pri

intcrcsting indicator o( which criminal and crirnes were elcctcd to be
puni hect in thi way, i.e., by ending , entenced and indicted womcn to
prison. a opposed to other forms of pun. hment. Also, thc study of
public policies toward this population will reveal to what extent thc
pcrccplion nnd trcatmenr of fernale crimina liry by thc statc burcaucracy rclicd on ;t ~umption~ deeply intluenced by traditional concep
tion of gender, crime, and work. Thc objcct of this thcrapy of rchabilitation wa ao ext rcmely complex population. Surprisingly. con"ictcd offender accounted for a minority of thc womcn ving in thc
llou c. The majority of inmates consisted of women who had lx:cn
indictcd and who. e trinls were pending. After Octobcr 1890 wbcn
thc la:,t mate pri oner.> were cnt to othcr instirutions-growing numbrs of mioor. were sent to thc Corrcctional Hou c. and thcy . oon
becamc the majorily of the populauoo.2<l Vcry soon. thc numbcr of
girl sent hy Jueces de Menores, the Courts. thc Policc and thc Wclfnre
c1cty cxceeded the capaci[)' of the institution. Thcrc wa an average
of 225 mi non\ u. ing an infrastructurc intcndcd for 80. and man cnded
up :,lccping on the noor. The Housc bccamc a hybrid between a corr<:.Ctional facality for crimjnals and a homc for abandoned girls. Be ides
con uming m~ t of the budgct. thc prcscncc of thc lr~uer challenged
thc correctional mi . ion of thc institution. sincc thc ra)id pace of
arrivnl. and exits - sorne would sta for le than a week bcfore bemg
scnt to <t family-often prevented bcginning tb~ plaoned moral rchabilitation.2t
Tha divcrse population wa housed in a 200 ycar-old building which
wa quite inappropriate for this purpose. both bt:~u e it was small and
bccausc it forccd dangerous and non-dangcrou:, condcmned criminals
lo li'te witb innocent womcn and dclinqucnt or abandoned minors.
Criminologh~ and penallawycrs dcmandcd thatthe state intervenc in
) unCIIl!)Z(), '~~>'hcn 11 new CIVlJ Cod.s.,., enacted. t~o<>me:O un6er '2l )'<:in uhJ """''"' WO idrr~d
allhoogh thc: Peo:sl Code ~u bfq.cd mlj<,-iry al th.: ;as.: oc 1
:t Thc Goud Sbcpbl.'td bod rcct>l\\"d 1he minnr.t ~~ lh~u requc t. a.nd o~tltn~ rbc: ad11: uf ti~
n.!ftn.mr~ 41~ M~I11Ht>S ro the Merul.ler. H(ncvcr. tht COntt n movement af y.trb '1'.1.) a OltlfOJ
concem In JWI. l l'le Molhtr Supcrue u( Lhc Hou.se d(Qiicd lo ~dt a JOOSC oot tu r ~mv ~ ;;n)
~id\ withoul tl'le C'iUC:IIl e>l IJ1~ 3dll\IOi lr:IIOf'l oilhe f'ri.Wn. 1be ~\Crnrnco l ' r<:1J)OIUC: ,.;ys
Mmlt:lhing ~buut tbe rwt.'OfS ~\I HOVIlchn thc Good Sht>phetd: tnnute~ ... ho "'C~ alrets.d) " wt
rcctc:d" oooJd noc be k~ m the iru1ttuhuntu matee hcm otlc in m:snwslt~ tll:u wc1e 8'"'"~
prof1llO tl)c 1louM:: Lcuc:r ur l b< .Mltu~h.: r o( Jusucc to rht \llothtr Supowot tcproducc4 tn l10em,
T./ flur.n /'u11Ur, \01, 11. p 2g7 Thc r~quc ~l of lht otdtr 10 bome .(!llls, and lht CJfiPO).IlJUC u( lh-.:
Od~nsotc so f\G , Mamstcrio t.lc hntr~a. O..tto e lmtl'\lccio PbllQ, lb~5. Lo: 6 1JO \:

m1nor1

Lu
rim~

195

M . CAtMARI

ror ~hic.'h F('mllll' lnmall~ \\\re

~nito

Priscm (In l'erccniOJ,!C)

.tO
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 ~~--r-----~--------~--

1900

t915

1932

Theft or su&picion of theft

Injuries

lnfantlelde

Abortion

The chan.<. and table ancluded an thl.li "tion ;re b sed oo tbc officittl rcport.<~ of th~
<'orrcc:lional House of Buenos Aires pubh hcd an: Arl!nltue Rqnablic. Minisuy of Ju ~t i e
3nd Public ln:oll'\l<:tion, Mcmorw. 1900,1915. 3Jld 1932

thi " brccding place for prostitutes,'' anc.J ~w in thls mixmg of women
the mttin cxplanation of the high rate of n:cic.Jivism of female crinu~1o -t of those who were serving sentcncc had comn11tted le e r
nnl
crimc~ "gainst pcrsons or property (theft. su~picion o{ thcft. a nd complicity in thdt accountcc.J for nearly 50 percent of thc ca cs. followed by
injurie.l llesione.s)).2.l \Vomen accused of typic.:ally fcmalc crimes. such
ru abortion or infanticide. repre ented only l lo 3 pcrcent of the cac;e..
As the following chart how . thc na ture of the crimes wome n were
sent to priS()n for did not vary signific.a ntly ovcr time. M o t of t hese

:n

In ttl mmm <r:ction th<- d.ln~r o( tLc bu1h.IU1! cnwtbhnK furcc:d 1hc ltO\'<:mment to l>J nd
monev oo oorl!l lr~Kiion. Thr: infonn11rioo u.sed 10 lll.> 'kC1aOn ~ \.l~wn frcm thc ;~nnu:.l rcpons of
the <'<'~11 \nrTCIOrlllllk M UJ~~~ in M inL~tc:rio de Jumc.a e lnstruocln PalNic:a, MO'flltmo, 1$190
~nd ' \ ocilo rnnt'('cinnol de M lj~t~. Llbru dt: \' uwu ( IM/1d0ff(t (10/1-1966}. 1'M rom
plaant o( oul$idr: nbsc~-c:rc in Klimpcl. "('jrcdc~": von..cJiet. l..cbrcm 'F.I ASlk>"
:.' In >
Cs-: . thc: dll~if~C~Iioo of the auD( t.hat tlle anm te ._..ere :~c~ed o: ha'I.D!.
cnmmatteli 'll'ol\ ch;;n~cd O\C4 tb~ )'-:Sr:c. a.c:. inJtn~" roukl be da\idtd tnto tv.o dntrnct c.atc:o-

of l h<KC det&tncd. le tlk C~tc:gory

rcpl e~ by "o1uc:snu" ( m:~id). Thc c.lttgOC)' ....... thoo1
('II'O(C<..1l00 'Wb SOli~I II~S n.:pfaet'CJ t'ly, Or Oddcd 10. "dornt~hc ,.'Ork ," " 'hich $()(1)Cllfl).'S 0\ll""
it difficult to ltnow atx- t\SICl paopurllon ul c::sch Co'II C:j!Ory
rtb Thr: ~me: prnhlcm h;appencd lO th~ d~ Ja:.:l..l prufcJ.'10il
"~ r,lt!nta" t~r'r.l.nt) -..~ $0mccr~

196

W HOSE CKL'-111'\AL) AKt TH.tst ?

Professional Protile of Female lnmates (In Percontage)

50
40
30

20
10

0""'"""----------------- __,. 1900

1915

:J

Oomest:lc Servanf$

1932

Seamstressesllaundry Workera

Prostltutes

No Profeuion/Unapecfied Home Workera

01 er

womeo workcd in traditional {cmalc jobs- i.c.. cam trc e laundry

workers. and othcr unspecificd catcgoric" of homc workc~/4 Dome tic . rvant.; (maid~. -.crvAnt cook ) s.h o acc un tcd for M importAn!
pcrccntagc of thc pri on population. T he 0\'Cr-rcpr~nlation o{ thi
profe ~ion in thc prisons i~ not ~u rpr~i ng whcn one rccfllb that policc
n:cord' how that mo t women arr~ted for theft were dome::,tic ervantS, a profc ional ca tegory pcrccived by criminologi tS a onc of the
mo. t "dangerou.o;. " 7~ Almo. t none of the inmate. wa~ cta. ified <U
indw trial worker. ll might scem s urpri. ing that relati vely few pro~ti
tutes were . cnt to prison. Givcn thc l>tigma attached to th is profe. ion,

which was legal until 1934, it i likely that

th is figure unde r tate the

numbcr of inmate, who actually practiced pro titution, as they may

.~ Th~ porul1111on o f dorm~h4l f}' "''Ofke n 1~ e\t n:mel~ h rll to tdcniJ() actUr.ald). bec.:lusc of
lht: Wlclt-ar ckrmall<xl u! l~ar prufc~.:Jaunw ~:tC\' uoo llm\:. ano.cll :u al .....u "-llb t h.:u p.-r~
hom.: "'i>sk. ~~~~ lla, catc;wy " v.tthuut psul\.',).l~" umJou.bt~~J)' m.a>kc:d man' ol ~~ wuc
poned homc 'Orkcn . ..., bll''<= grou~ Iba c.~IC(tO(Y v.11h thnt o( WU.))CCficd dome:stic v.ork
en On thc mc: t hodolttj~JQI probkm1to 1tkntif) anfon11.1l r~aw~ ,.,.~al ~urk~rs. )t:-': ~ban:.l.l, 1
c~rme FCIJOO. " l...u lub.J~o:lllo portdi.b a Ct.llrucn:.I.O!> do.. ~~lu", an J.)l..:b'U A:IUit). cd_ Mundu
mlxtet y ctt((tlfQ p uptl:Jr t.JtatdJOj dt Jlb!Otld so~{a/ A~nla"" ( ~UtOOJ Alrcs: Sudamcn :AIUI,
lWO), p ~ 1 Scc aleo: A<uncao ~vnn . Wnmm, ftntiJUfTtl cnd S flll Chtr~~(c m At!(tnfma.
CJut,, cr.d Um~tw:y (l.ancor., and London: llni\'CN1ty or ".:br.t.1k:s l":.:).." 199.5), p. 72.
:J Buenn} Auc:~ tC\1~). Hulclin de oUJditk o.': dtfit~ m ~ncral: udctdio. ccdd~nre~ " ('()rttr4
1<11Cff)ltt1 dfi~T as (19/4-19-U) CoiT1l'-1 0() J<X! R~. 'Profc:J.lOn~ rci~J!'Wl~S El )(:MCJO do
m~uc.-u." Arc.hiu~ de P'llqlllttlrl~t. C:nmvtlllu fa y CrmciJ.l A,fu:t~ {VI. 19U7). '71

stor.org/ action/ showPu blication ?journaiCode= americas

LtLA

M.

Ci\tMARt

1~7

ha e declared another profe ion. till, the figure are very low when
we con ider the hundreru of pro. ti tute who were arre ted annually by
the pohce on lesser charge . such as "public candar. and the fact that
state lea.ders perceived the.~e women a.(\ a threat to the moral standards
of the cuy of Buenos Aires. Oesplte all the rhetoric about the danger
that th e "bad womcn.. rcprc cntcd. pro titute d1d not cem to fit
thc profile of the average inmatc of the Corrcctional House for
Women. Thc paradox. ho' cver. is a superficial onc: if prostitutes seldom cmlcd up in pri~on it was not becauM! they were not percei\ed as
a thrc.at to ociety. On thc contrary. because they were seen a.~ posmg
uch 3 thrcat. they werc bcmg clo ely monitored by thc state by means
of a battery of medical and policc control . lndecd. the ability to
monitor had bccn preci cly onc of the main purpo es of the legalization of thc prof -.ion.
The profile of the in mates of the Correctional 1f o u~c may hclp u to
situate the ~tate's lack of mtere.~t in their tran.;fonnntion in a broadcr
contcxt: this population of domestic servant. , home work.cfb antl thc
poor unemploycd wa alo sgnored by Congr~ in tcrm of lcgi lation
to hmit the length of their work day orto givc tht:m Sunday off. \\'hile
thcir countcrparts m the industrial . ector- who were numerically
much less important -were ' rongly percei ed A thc m t vulnerable
cctor of fcmale workers and were granted these rights incc 1907. thc
more trJdJtional female professions would remain untlcrn;JX>rl(A.) and
unprotccted for many year to come.zo
Another ob iOU.\ r~on for thc opcn indifference of the state ' a~
the relatively . mall numbcr of fcmalc convicts. a fact which seemcd to
confirm well-accepted ide; nb<lut women' le ser pro livit to commit
crimes. The census of pr i~on. undcrtakcn by BaUv in 1906 showed a
population of 8.011 peoplc. of whom only 270 were women, most of
them hou ed at the Corre<.:tional Housc of Buenos Aires.2 ' Howe\'er.
a ccnsus i a particularly inaccuratc indicator of thc female pri on
population beca~ e it ho' only thc numbcr of inmat at a givt!n
momenl. Because of the nature of Lhe crimc thcy wcre accu ed of.
most of the e criminals were concternned to hort tcrms. usually le s

= On tiTe: mc.pcrccptlon o( ft m

lt ~~t oe l. '~'J'llcd n offici;al oen'u' scc:. Morfa del e rm~n

S:e nt,o 116rtN Rtcn~. /tfuj't' wr.J~eiun~~ d~ uda, de trabaJO \
$alud (Buenos A 1rt: Centro &hto: de A mellCol L,tinn. lQ93). p 14. Doona Ouy. Lowcr ('IJ..~'
rmhc:" Women 8nd tbe L v. n ' u\e htcnth Cc:nt ur~ J\l'f.CntinJ ' Jw mal of f M itly HIJtoty 10:3
t-~o .JOO. - Ls~ lrJ~:lJ:td(lr.L<."

(fall 1%..5). pp. JIH-' 31.

r l: v~t, Ct:mU.ol.,p,ia, p. X

19

Wuo E CRIMI. ALS AR E THES '/

PRI~ONP.RS AND MI~ORS AT T HF

ORRECTIO. AL HOU E OF

RtrF.NO.~ AIRE
Mtn!Jr~'

Prt:.!Jru.r)

1900
1915

1932

A tlmru l<wu.

Fll5

Tr>lt!

Fttt:.

402
432
501

334

330
412

68
102

1 S7

965

1244

1267

- ---- -- 1 he: n!parl" <!o nu t mclu.k tuU!I:< fm rmno n hnw.ed

the in\tltUlJoo :11 gJ\>en llmc:.
1n

'" Totil ol pn:;onerS :,t the mom.:nt 01 lhe

.1

r~rort

than a year. The majority of them left the prison just a fcw months
after arriving. Thus. the floating populaon of thc prison was much
larger than the numbe r of residents at any one time: if in an average
year thl.! offictal annual repon talked about 100 prisoners bcing
housed. the reality' a that bct\vcen 400 and 500 womcn had pa cd
throug,h the inst itution during that ycar.u In addition. thcsc numbcr
did not include juvenile delinquents. who wcrc countcd with thc minors. The figures of the floating population of the lattcr. who apx;arco
m the reports without having bccn assigned to categoric (orphan
abandoned . delinquents. mentally di turbed, etc.). wcrc much higher:
an average of 1.000 pcr ycar by 1900. with latcr pcaks closc to 2,000.2<>
By 1915, twenty-five years a(ter the Good Shcphcrd took. ovcr thc;
in. titution. over 30.<XX> people (prisoners a nd minorl>) hao bt;cn houscd
in the instimtion. Furthennore. other catcgorics of criminal wc:rt: being ~ent to maller but equally overwhelmed institution : by 1923. over
38,000 contravemoras had bccn scnt to thc Asylum an Miguel, a l$0
administered by the Good Shcphcrd.

Thc prcmi e tiHH the J)Opulatlon of a prison is a lcss aocumte indic~ttor of real criminality than tt i a revealing sign of offtcial attitude
toward criminality eem5> to be borne out by anothcr a pcct of th ftl te
of female of(ende : records both of the penal a nd pcnitcntiary national . y. tems of this period how an obvioul> rcluctancc of the Late to
imprison women. The awful conditions o f tbc Corrcctional liou e, as
well n. the non-existence o f fe maJe pri on in m st provinces, led many
~ A tcordint coche: :mrul ~ o r thc: onJc:r. bct"-ecn lb90 a nd JY2) lhc Hoo<e rcoc:" 'Cd Ut6'29
prisone r'i ;md .>s,62.3 nunon. boem. fl Butn PtUfOI, vol 111. p 139
~ rb<~ OgurtS arr IC(If'CCCnl<lT\VC: IIOII 19.'1\. whcn .;rh yOun .:r lltSD lb) ' lth Old " 'CfC plo cd
10 tDr Pnfr ruuttn di J lr~fanria.

LI L A ~t. CAIMA!tl

199

judges LO choo e either not to end thcsc condcmncd womcn to pri on.
or to send rhem to serve their tcrms in othcr rcspcctablc institution .
frequently asylum run by religious orders.JO II thc House of Buenos
Aires was full. which was often the case. women in thc provinces who
were condemned to pri on had no place to ervc thcir lcrms. ancJ werc
ntcnccd ot hcrwi c. Record ccm to how that thcrc wcrc a many
womcn condcmncd to prison as thcrc wcrc bcd availablc at thc orrcctional Housc for Womcn in Buenos Aire . Be idcs. tbc cohabitation of prboncrs of all catcgorics incrcasccJ thc dangcr of corrupting primary dclinquent . Thc efficacy of kecping fe maJe crirninals
away from pri on could be argued by a prc tigiou a criminologi t a
Jo ln gen iero~ who. refcrring to widc prcad but hardly dangerou
remate criminnlity, ad vi~ed emptying pri~on~ of womcn crving hort
rerms, ince the .. woulct only he tnrget of corruption.1 ' Tiu; Penal
ode nctioued in 1921 partially formalizw tbi practicc. rticlc 10
tated that when a prison ~nt~ncc did not e cee<J i months, ''honest
women and people older than 60 or ick" could crvc thcir cntcnce
in their own how e. .32 Thi law wa. par1 of a br ader tcndcncy to
reduce prison penatries hy npplying the enlence of hou. e arre t whcnever possihle. Although the enforcement of thi ~ Article i till to tx:
tudied, it i clear that it reinforood thc tcndcncy to kccp nondangcrou criminals away from pri on . A n~w law ue~ ling with probation gavc furthcr legittmacy to thi. practice. Probation (condena
condicional) consisted of the conditional . uspension of the ~nalty, a
long a the criminal in question was a firs1 time offender an(l had becn
entcnccd toa tcrm horter than two yea rs." The use of probHlic>n in
the entencing of women was widespread: hi torically. nearly 80 pcr1

1s u~o yc:t oo body o( cmpl1lC8.. wo:k on JUdia&l so.Jrct <Mt which ro rcly,
dc.uly cun fH11\~ lhlli lcndcncy
lO che 1 e of fiiCihliCS lll PIOVIIIC.SI pmo ns.
many JUd ~~COl ()Of\\'IClCd WOntCII l O lht Corr~ horul lfOUJC: m nue~ Aires '\f 1 !\
7,
Un.~ inllltccn dclicti '41 co como del amor > la se uahdW ( 1tmtorio N:~cion:t d e l.:t P:tmp.l.
~~~1905): in Kncdu:r ;a.nd Phnnia cd ". J..n mJtttd, pp. l2~J2b. On the " def>O)thn .. of'llo'Omc::n
U\
I~IUIII\'e n~lJ l UIIOIT> l-eC KniJm Rup,C'je ro. Wi\~ on Dcp<at' lJltCitn~nt .l.nd tbc Prc:s
crvauon o( Husband>' HoctOf in l..31e Ninclccnth C.entury RuenCK Aire<- .. Jwunul uf F(lmll)'
ll tory 17-:'1 ( 1992), pp. 2."3270
l fbl'o .Ugun\CI'Il .l1fl1!3rcd :(, f~ QOOCIUc..iOn Of hL~ fC\ iew Of .1 bool On (ctn.llc dehnqucncy 10
nplcs: ArdliWIS t l 'slqmatrfD.. l .'Tinur.nlngUJ ~ Cmti'NJ( A{htl>\ (J. 1002) 100
,z Thc PCflal Cock of 1bb6 airead)' 1t1duded :s ~mil:tr pro\ inn ..-c.:lk or Slcl. ~o. 011001~.
p.:opl.: ol~r lh.ln f!l) .l'nd ~omcn who v.~r! condema.:d IQ ~d "''Urk cQuld l-ef'~ uulder S~Cn
l
~ (art. 62). CI'Sdi~ 1'~11n/ d. In Rrpuhlvn A~t'lltlfltt, t'IT '-rJ;tm 1a d<-stl~ d 1 de mJJr,o dt 1887
(Bueno AJe es: t-el1.\ llsJOU.!.ne. 19'72). Jl 11 6. Jnr~ 6c IR R\U, Cixlt~u Puwl Af'1'C'ntinu (Bu .:n o>
r\ire": l.crncr Edicione 1912). p 116: l..c!y no . 11 17'9, Cdio Pcnn) de lt1 K iOo ~OCIOO&do en
1921. m <.'Mr:n.< dr lo Rr{l:bltro Ar>tt'tlfWl ( Buer)()) Aun: Rudtigue.c (i tlo. l~) p. 3(16
' ' U) 11 I'N. C6die,o r cn:tl cie l; K:~cio \Anci .laJ I) en 1Y21. 111 Cdcgt.u. A d~~oo on

'" AlthousJ'l lhcu:

.:XJ~ll o~ u:~:uch

nuc:

200

WHOSt::: CIUMI. AL~ AlU: THt:::~t:?

ccnt of womcn condemned to pri on erved their entences in this way.

whilc only about 40 pcrccnt of mcn wcrc grantcd this privilcgc. "
Hou e arre t sccmcd to be cspcciall_ wcll- uttcd to womcn. beca use
it did not cntail cclu ion. con idcrcd particu1arly damaging for fcmalc
sensibililies..~s ~fore imponantl . in this wa ' ' omen could continue to
fulfiU their roles in their families. relieving the state or private charitablc in titution (rom thc rcspon ibility of taking carc of abandoncd
childrcn. Homc and family. and not prison . wcrc perccivcd a thc kcy
in trumcnt by mean of wbich lo t and marginal criminal.. could be
tnm formcd into r pcct~bl womcn. lt wfls hy r turning womc;n to
thcir hom~. <ind nol by Jocking thcm up in pri on ... thal tat leadcr~
intendcd to control thc rcproduccion and lran (ormation of "dangerou cla cs ...
lll. THF P

TRO A rn

nF. Rr.oumA fi

l. mr:RA !>AS A:--~ o n

11

O m:~ 110

OF \ VORK

lt i nol with lcwc. wilh kindnc -~ or w1th chari ty. that thmg; gct done . \Ve
nccd intclligcncc. will. and a scientific orientation. There is always an
cnd to cvcry road. omc ha"e chosen the ideal of the ex_piation of sin fui
sout . or other . thc goal i thc adaptat ion of criminals Lo . ocial lifc.
Pra}cr for m ~ mandstory work for othc:r.;. uch are the clc:ments of

acti n."
BoletEn del Potronnto de J<erlmdas y Lrbt'rudtr~. Editorial. March 1935.

o"cmtx:r 1932, rhc prestigiou. penallawyer and criminologist Eusebio Gmcz took a group of fe mate . tudent to visit the Correctional
Housc for \Vomcn.36 J Javing found the inmates in a sh cking tate of
ncglcct, thcy decided lo create a Patronato of ccl udcd and Rclca~cd
Womcn (Parro11aJo de Recluida y Liberadas. or PRL). officialty
found d m \lfay 1933.
In

tD Robcno PII"Y UberUJd CCNldiC'ilNial ); Cund~m C.()lldK'' O""' Ptn,(!'r()'f dr 1;-y

o.posic:()lr dt mumVJ1 (81t::ot>~ Auc> Talktc> Gtli ~ rgrnlin<'lc; ctr r- J Rms.a y Ci3 .. 192<1).
p. 1
" Argtnune R~bhc. ca-cu\11 d: EJ ,teJo y J'*1tci.1. R~ulr<J Nr.oclMt. ele- Rtin rdt'tcfo ,.
l-'$1adN~J Cmtt MI r (orafnl"fa ( 192 ~nd .;;s.)
Thi~ '~ITntnl ~~l aJ\.allC\..cl b) <..rulUJl 1 JOO e Anemio t<'lrcnO nnfnjn drl PalroTWtO clr
RtV"Iuu!Ju y 1 rbrra.J(J.S (1. 00 l. 1~3J). p 1<>.
'" 11 ~ c)()t unrommoo (or LJ\ll>' prof<:~n~ co u~t xrulcnt.:uy tu~ luhOJlS ~Ltb e cu ,;tucfcnloc:.
A ILSl oi oll \ ' l"'torf; to the CCinecltun:sl 1lu~c tU A>ak> Com.: tOO..:tl <k Mujer e~. Viriuu r
111 (/)('(! mnr . Along wilh Jur ~ 1:.. CoU. Qs~.-aJdo Ptn.cro nd JuRn P. Rameb. Eu).tbto Gc:n z w
ooe o r lhc matO populattl'trs o f po-.itivi:-1 xnall.sw :ti ti~ UtUY\..1)11. o. 8 001)06 ir~~ Ahel.udo
Levo~i lltwma (/('/ dr:tfthn l'~m:l Al)(tntv;u ( Bucoo> Allc.s Perr04 197R) p. 2m.

probal oo

LILA

M.

C.-\1\ti\JU

201

he gene 1 of this in tltutlon eem linked to change m the scien

tific ficld. rather than to any particular deterioratton of the situation at
thc orrcctional Hou c. which. in any ca c. had never in the past bccn
a cau e nough lo atlntcl pubJic attcntion. By thc bcginning 1f thc
1930s. largc numbcrl> of women had access to professions such as law
or medicine. although the mate populat10n was still ovcrwhelmmgly
dominant. ror thc fir t time, therc cxi tcd a population which was both
specificAIIy interc, tcd in womcn' problcm and traincd to takc scaentific approache~ to the. e prohleml), u~ing intcllcctual kili acquircd
at the Cniversity. Such wa\ thc pro(ilc of thc mcmbcrs of thc PRL.
c!Xclu.sivcly run by J a wyc~ or htw l>tudcnls. sorne of whom would go on
to brilliant care::er . Certain m~mbc~ al o dcvclopcd clo e tie wilh
other organi7ation. dedicated to the legal protcction of women. such
as the " Female Law Office" at the ational ouncil for \Vomcn. u he
instatU(ion arose from within thc e ta bli'ihment of penal law and crimi
nology: Eusehio Cimez him. elf wa. appointcd honorary prcsidcnt.
and the member~ of thc PR bclongcd to all the most important
profc sional a ocialionl>. ~nding de::h:gation to many congrcs es on
tbe question.
Onc of the main purpose, of the PR wa to legitimare thc cicntific
l>htdy of female crimmality. and 10 re-introduce it into thc poltica!
debate. From the heginn ing. the "activ " mcmbcn> (about one hundrcd) couJd oount on the support of thc mo l rccogniL.Cd penallawyers
and cnmanologists, mo l of wh m bccamc " protector" membcrs and
pubJi hcd articles in the bull~tin of the imtitution.- These 1ntellectual
lcadcrs of the legal establi hment al participotcd in thc conference
organized b tbe PRL. where is~ue relating 10 fc malc criminality and
rchabilitation were dL~cu~sed . Ry visiting authoritics. scnding leuers to
' ' Al m~ Cinmr2 Pllz ~Who .,.Vtlkl ~lb~: fn. ,,<J., nl or lh<: PRL lor mil O\' rcars. V.'OU d 1 ter h.1 \<t
:; bnlhant di pl~ tic cnreer. Aloog wub Lu lcma lhttn~J JJ"Id Lucil:a d<: (irce.ono l....l\<it. ~e
faueht COUJc,e) OCl"W o iDI:O lk.rocc: k Qshauon . llllhc actooaJ CoullOI ro r W o m en . Tclm.l Rcc.1
who WM O(ll An Jtct\ 'C tnCOJ ~I of IIJ~ I)RL bcc:tU"i: ~e "'':! 001 a 141'01'\'Ct, but v.ho participatod
in the :~di vi tie~ o f che Jruhtuhoo.. publulft:d oltcn .n Pfl! q l~11 <o ~entiftt oorn 1 on tbc bJ~'d
o j u, .:mle dclinquc:ncy. R~' ltf tlil Co~o d Muj ur r dt' J Rrp uhilr4l 1\t~(llltrw (JuJ~
~('(lt('mbl't 1~. XXXVIII, uu 133). p 23.
'-4 ;\ moog ti)C lcttct~ o :~.UfJpull f11r thc: <.n ; nfln of che PRL .,.,~, e tbcs~: ot Oodonuro 7.a,.ahn,
IX.w or Thc Lnw School Ol tbe UOI\ CC'lill~ (.'1( Hu ~na-. Aire.'' Cion7ill(l Ro;( Ou \.'t10r uf lb~
H.pac<> ck l:n Mcroedc:,. M d Profc or o f P5}-cb auy a t th e Mc:diiCll Sd!ool or rhc l01vuw1 o!
Rue M~S 1\ue . LW> G.t11. . C.'btd or Pc>li~c ol thc C'uy of Bueno Aue:s.. .md ArtcmJO M01cnC1,
C riminal J ud~c Oll~ Catyof H~~ Am:~ . A mf)n 1~ v.t:n()n(llub uh..d watb \1./l&.: -.: wc:re thc
fulur~ M.ani,.ter o r Ju<lk'c a.od Publ.tc IMtruction. Eduardo C"oll, ;!l~J the Ouc"'O Ol fcnlil lll.lli
HH~.

P.u A udJuu. n.a.

202

WHO St:: CRJMI NA LS AlU: TI IESE?

Congre . and panicipating in thc elaborauon of projec[S fo r new pri. on ~. lhe PRL al o lricd to generate some con enstu in o fficial phe rel.
ahotll lhc nced for changc in thc penitentiary po licies for wo men.
Ho wcvcr. thc main purpo e of lbc organizalio n was to wo rk directl y
witb thc .. losl '' and criminal womcn. These young lawyers and sludents
want ~d lo apply lo this complcx populalion lhe principies o f crime
prevcntion and rchabilitatio n prcscribed by modern criminology. rhe
ame principie whosc apphcation they had studied and adnured in
E uropcan and orth American prisons. In this huge task. rhc fi rst
focu of a ttcotion for the PRL wo uld be tho e womcn who lcfl prison
und cr thc nc w '}'stcm o( p~rolc . Thc Penal Codc o( 1921 had intro
duccd thi ncw provision. anolhcr e!fon to individualize the e nforce
mnt of prison pcnaltics. Sincc the law giving parole to prisoners im
po cd a series o f condition . il wa nccc sa ry lO crea te an in titution
that wo uld makc surc t hat thcsc condilions wc rc rcspcctcd lQ Likc thc
Pmronoro de Recluidos y Liberados (Cor meo). thc PRL wa n priviHc
cnlcrpri c. aod claimcd nol lO cxpcct anythiog from lhc tate o thcr
thao c ncourag~mcnl and omc vcry limitcd material b~lp. Th~rc wa a
broad co nscosu lhat thc la k of mora lization and r<.: habiJita tion could
no t be accompli hed by the cate bureaucracy. and thal the term o
paro lc wcre le" tra umalic for released co nvict if they were admini, tcrcd witho ul lhc involvcmcot o f thc policc. Thus. p atro no/os had ~
p~rt ic.:uhu uHu : while lcc.:hnicJtlly the 'Hile gavc thcm liccn e to work
outsid c thc p<.:nitcnliarics. thcy could no t havt: accc~ lO the pri oner
or havc any info rmalion about tbcm unlc lbe, worked with Lhe~e
in ' ti tution . In the ca e o f the PRL, thj forced it member. 10 be in
con tanl contact wilh the order in charg.e of the administration of
fcmalc prison . Thc de irc for independence that had led these orgaN Thc tdc.l o( ntnxf~:ons: parol~ in pciUII lt:'11nlauun w~ ,._.,~. oh.J. but ru r VllttUu:. r co~c..
rormallttcmpu ha<liSJicd. h .nall . aruct 13 of tbc P~.:nal Co.k of 1922 introduced thL<
po lblltt) fOt thosc convtcts who bad Krvcd a poJIJon of th<:ir flCI'\IIhy. The ru llcle ~liJKif; ted tb:Jt
the OOllVICt fCspccl thc folJOWIO~ cor>dJ tion~ 1) lO IC~Ik in th~ place dl.'l~t muu:d b} lh t JU!lgt: 10
the documcnt of n:k~~e: 2) co ob:>::r": thl! :uJci> of an:.pccllon IIXcd 10 too Sa.tllC doc:umcot.
e~rtcially thMc ronccrn1n"' ti)C lntcrdJCtton ot dnruang olcohot: 3) to lldopt n prof~~n or :m
empiO)ment 1f oo o tller means of ubtsistcncc ruc n\'ntloblc; 4) n<>t ca commit .any crimc> .S) tu
subjt hiroelfJhcr<clr to th<: carc of a PmrmtCJt>; Ley 11 119. <:<~lit~> ~rul do.;.~ t.. N ucto.
~andon11dn en 1921 in ('Mip.n.~. fl .'lG Sc:e the dc:b:ne on p3r<>le tn J>.ltty. I.Abu;acl Conthdc~~al
rautH1a4/l.{ for Rcle&:.ed Men. "tlo~ porposc was 10 hclp fonncr pn)jOncr to r<:JOm w..'icty by
l10dios tlturo ,obs and resourocs fOt thc firq d3)~ of freedam. v.cre trutituhnn' th!st I!XC:Slcd an a.JI
cououlC~ t~r h~d :~dorreli r-unle nw: fi"c h11d b.:en ~:reated In Plllladclpbla (1776) rmd fmnc:.:
(1819). In A~ntinll.. thc tltscl'a:rollltro dt Ubf,r.dM bnd bccn crc:,~tccJ in 191 in ;mt.ictpuleun of
thc immroeot introducuon of che: <)'5tcm oC p~rok.
p~~

LILA

M . 'AIMAKI

203

nization to eek a private status, combincd witb thcir tinks to thc

ecde ia ticat and governmental authoritie . left them in an ill-defincd
position. As we shall see. this ambivalence would be the cause of much
friction.
Thc work of thc PRL with parolcd womcn would involvc not only
control ovcr tbc tcrm:> of thc law. but would al:>o cntail both material
and p ychologicaJ support. Once thc prisoncr was relea e d. thc PRL
appointcd a visuadora ' bo would attcmpt to downplay thc rclationhip of "COntrollcr-controlled'' by making an cffort to gain thc tru ' l
and affc.ction of thc cx-convict. Thi rclationship could manifcst itsclf
matcrially (i.~. lending moncy or providing housing for tbc woman in
qu~ tion during th~ fin>t day of frccxlom). In addition. thc ncwly
n;Jea c:d women werc also immcdiatdy givcn medica! and psychological exam that would provkle information for individualiled trcatmcnt.
Tile first task of the vi: itadf>ra was to makc sure that the woman had
heen re-integrated into a fulfilling home lifc. hclicving that for womcn.
n orm~l life tt lmo t ~lway mean homc lifc."40 Thc most difficuJt task
wa , howevcr, to find work ~ r thO:>c who n~dcd it. It wouJd tx.:
difficult to exaggerate the importanct: that the PRL attachcd to work
as a source of prevention and rehabilitation for criminal . an idea that
was a direct result of their . upport of the poot ulate of po itivi t criminology.-= 'llle ideal of thi. group wn~ to "lurn cAch pri on into a tradc
school. using work a an element of puni hmcnt , di~ciplinc and rcform.
insttlhng in prisoners the ha bit of hone. t acLivity which would givc hcr
uscful lool in the truggle of life." 42 Decause tbcy couJd see that
rclcascd women almosl never found dignified job , thc lawycr of thc
PRL bcgan putting pressure on the Good hephcrd to Jet thcm havc
acccss to the inmates in order to teach them a skill:' Hcrc. thc PRL
had lO dcal with the well-known reluclance of th ~ ordcr lo aJJow
.... Te lm:1 Rea, " Oircctiv.1~ pMa la Of(!..<\OJ7

:ftl de

UJL3 itc.-~ d e :nuJeres...'' Rcn\l.o tk Cnnu

r.oltJIJ(.o. l ':.!quilttrl ., ,\frdir:inn l .r.p,cl (19\'i) 7'19

.. , In h1s wcUknown book l:.lmdioo Prni:rn.n ar m.r (Bueno~ Aire T111lcr~ Grltli~~ d..> u
PcmtenCI(tr1'a aciooal. IQ06). p. 3-1. EW<wu Om~1. :suw "b) rctulnnns thoc ps)"Cboloscol and

org::,nic lile tlf inm.'ltc-t, v.'<lrk rerrro;ent\ rhc tl\051 unpon eo tu:uu~n~ u0<nt tb"t an be: u.: ed m

tbc Struule <>1 )()C1ety :.pini.l cnmc"; sec ;~l~ h ~ nrriclc " Tc.lNJO C.lri.XIIlll u." Buk:ln tld I'RI.

(1. 00 " ) p 11
-4.:

llnnenq.1 Yu~dm ..f l P:\trOMto de Reduul:t,) y l.Jbcr:uJu~: B olct!r: (11. no. .1, March 1935).

2J

.., Thc t>RL h d bed tbe mi ntion or prliQplltin~ in ~ ln~IJuctton of thc IOmates lrllm th~
vc.-ry ~:In, wf'lich ulCpl ~ tbl!' nunw P..slrunutu de Rulw 'ias )' LlNrlldO
opposcd to Patrorwto
dt' 1.Jht-nufM.

204

WHOSF CRIMTNAI.S \Rr Tm:sr'!

out, ide interference in their work: the Mother upenor Sor Maria del
Sacramento ncver a11owcd the PRL into the Correctional llouse to
work with the e oon to be relea cd inmatc . l or would he acccpt thc
manual work that the PRL wanted to suppl ' the inmatcs witb.4 4 OC
e ur~ e, the e long- tanding reservation. were in this case encouraged
by tbc fact thal thc PRL wa compol)Cd of won1en who were foreign to
the Catholic world. Altcrnativcly <tg_grcssivc or patcrmsli tic, thc [it-,t
refereuce. of the. e students and lawyers to the work of thc Good
Shcpbcn.l wcrc dccidedly negati\le: the sweet nuns." totall}' "dissociated from thc strcam of thc ccntury" could not ktt!p up with the needs
of the umes.'' i\aturaJiy. thc obJcchon wcnt bcyond the Good hephcrd: ~a rule. the PRL wa agamst giving thc admini tration of pri on to mm , and i memher were quite vocal in tbeir vicw tbat rcligion wa not relevant to the ta. k of reforming and rehabilitaling criminal . The empha,i. on the u. ele. sness of relig.on in the reform of
womcn is cvcn more intere. ting when one recallC\ that these aniclc.s
wcn; bcing publi ' hcd ata time ~ hen Argcntine society was cntcring a
pbase o( "Catholit.ation" in educational and political culture. with a
syrnbolic turning-point being the Euchari tic Congrcss of 1934. Not
onl)' did the PRJ. avoid memioning the event. but that simc ycar thcir
bullctin published nrticles dealing with the advantagcs of cugcnc ic
abortion. u ing the example of rhe Sovtel nion.to Naturally. thcir
politc skcptici~m about the regenerauve powers of religjon barely di gui cd (i trong anti -dcrical i m. undoubtedly pcrccivcd by thc nun of
thc Good Shepherd. According 10 Eus~bio Gmcz. advi or and protector of the PRL, religion was not onl uselc~s in thc moral rcgcncration of pri. oncr. , it was also dangerous. becausc it tended to basc
morality and r pcct for aurhoriry only on religiou grounds. not ci"il
grounds. F r Gmez, reltgion was al o at thc root of hypocrit ical or
fcarful pc~onalitie , and generatcd tbc ort of wcak nature. thar were
more inclincd to commit crimes.4 '
44
A nli\ Gmt:Y. P~t. " C\m~~r,;:1Jldo evo Sor Mor~ dd S :T41memo, ' flnlr1i11 d~l rRI. {l. no l .
Occemher 19l3\. Z.Uicma Br.t.n~. lnau~J,Icin de Ul\ll mlle'tr.a de lnb!IJO r u:~t..u d tll l 3
Corrccelooal de MuJeres: Qqlrrl11 (l. no. 3. 0~1obc r 1934). S
( Luci&a de G~orio L.;~. Reeduc-.t~-.ll pzctl""'l d.. l.,) hb\.nld $. Bolm1 {1 t>by 193~). 9
.., JlHtl . 1, no 2 M;,) 19:U p. :U. <>n th roocpuoo ot c~Dl tn u tm Amcnc:a. see ' 3ncy L..
tep311. The 1/our oJ l.'ufft"CJ Ra<:t, G(lldV or:d \ 'ut:on 11'1 l.DIIrl Amtrl<o lti131C41 C'ncll
Um\t:Nil' ' Pe"'. JOQI)
' ' (;()~1., 'l<"'-"" on the ele re.> <Aere no Mll~r: lh~ " p31 SliC~ of supcn.lltioo we rc tolcr..1tt d
onl)' hcc;u e C.mc1 txpC((cd lbcU comp{ctc c :anc.1"->IL l .sru.dit Pf'nilrr.ccat t()), r -45. I n " :Aitt
' 'ida p. 215.

e "

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For thc PRL. thc trcatmcnt of thc e womcn nccdcd to be in secular

h~nd . just as it was for mcn.4 .. lf thi was not pos iblc. (thc Jack of
trained femalt: ta(f continucd to be a problt:m) i~titutions of rebabilitatioo for womco bou1d il ka ., be oirtcled by secular-minded
pcoplc: nun could participatc. a long a thcy did o a individual .
and not a mcmbc of an ordcr capablc of re i ting thc in truction of
thc ndministrntion:"" Acc rding to the PRL. thc cxi ting
tcm violated e ..~ery principie of modero penal thoory. lndividmtl c.mforccment
of penalti ~ was ignorCll: thc nun wcrc complctcly ovcrwhclmcd by
their ta k , and the movement of inmate wa ' O rapid that ther~ w '
no hope of familiari7ing them el ve with each ca c. In tcad of cndcavoring to rehabilitare through indh~dua J trcatmcnt. inmatc wcrc collectively suhjected to endle~, u. ele~. religiou-; ~peech~ thtH forc d
them to see t he ir ca ime. in ter m. of ~in ;uld forgivcnc complctcly
dissociated from the rcality around them.
The instruction given to the pri oners wa also qu~tionable: thc:: fir t
and seoond grade el a e were tailored to teach ba ic notion of rcading and writing. aod did not include any of the practica! knowlcdge
thcsc womcn would need in the future, such as dome ric economy.
nutrition. hygiene. child care, etc."n ln order ro adct ~ome vnriety 10 thi
curriculum, thc P}{L donated nearly one hundred hooks covea ing cvcrything from world and national literature, Lo prae~ical books on
cooking and hygcnc. a wcll as primary and econdary textbooks. No
religious tcxt wcrc includcd in this library. lronically, thi initiative
givc u ~n cximplc of thc PRL's inability to exert any influcncc on
the e inmat~: when thcy tried to organize a reading come t to rnAkc
ure the material wa bcing u cd. thc ~lother Superior ucce ~rully
oppo. ed the idea. arguing that it would be a so urce of jealousy and
envy nmong inmAtc .
Of oll the PRI :. ohjcction to thc Corrcctional Hou e, the m t
important involved the Jack of any kind of work di. cipline. Fir. t, 1he
absence of such work '' iolc.~tw thc Penal Code. which called for mnnLct W l::C\!p in miod th:!l the rcf:UI:uioo-c rt)r che 'N(Umr\AI PN\tt ~llll Jy. I."Ult>Mkn:od lh(! mudc:l
tnstitutioo foc thc reCdUC"atJon ot m&l~ crimin11b. h.-Id nnt complc:tely cllmtn.lt~\1 r JJ.&too. l1M!re
wen: orftci.tl chnpi~IM wf'IO UlU~ht C holte rdlgiCKl .mcJ rnor~ educuhon. bul OOI> (or tbOlC WbO
ssked ror rL. and lht\ grour (eemo; ro h:wc hcet1 -<mlll nd Ulu:nlhU>Jtl.)lic. All ochcr reh,oou
propn~rtoda w banne<l HoJrtn dr la Dihlin:o N cdmral tlr C11ntuwl<1 /{A y Cit'nciw A{ v:r,\ (1.
OC). l. Jul) 1926). 1S
-'" T~lm.t Rea., nircctivAt pMo 1~ Olf,Afbt ct<Jcr...
1
'' /:J<Jirt/n ( 11. no. 4 . M:treh 191S)
01

206

WHO E CRIMI. A

ARE '1 HI.~Str/

datory work for a ll inmates flnct the ac.x:umulation of sorne moncy to

help the prisoner aftcr 1hcir rclcasc. More imponantly: the PRL ob
jected bt:.cause thc lack of work was rcturning to society women who
were ill-prepar~d t0 fcnd for th~m~lves, and thcrefore Jikcly to commit crime again. E erything con pi red again t work in this prison: the
lack of pace for work. hop. , rhe lack of intcre t of tate authoritic in
investing in an appropriate huilding. rhe non~coopcration of thc mm
rhe mixed narure of the f)()pulation of tbc io titution. cte.
Thc manual work lbc prisoncrs werc giveo was also the object of
e verc (."fi tici~m: at bcst. thc e women would become domestic ser
vanb. E ven iC thcy had bcen propcrly trained for this purpose. the PRL
had lrouble fi nding fa mili willing to acccpt them. de pite thc effons
of thc ational Ocpartmcnt of Labor. whcrc formcr convict undcr thc
control of thc PRL wc rc givcn priority in thc domcst ic serviec labor
mar k el.

The demands of the PRL to build a new prison in the suburhs. with
a scction for workshops, much like the Penitentiary. never received
mueh interest from the authorities.' 1 Oesplte partial suocesses, at was
clear that the work of the PRL had had limit d result . Thc impossi
bility of having any accc to thc inma tc . onc rcsult of thc ten ion with
the nuns. was a maJor obstacle in tbeir work as a Patronato Bcsidcs.
cven undcr more favorable condition~. thcir work with womcn on
parole would havc little impact beca use thc short pcnaltit: and thc
high level of recidivt m made fcmale comrict ineligiblc for parolc. To
maximize it influencc. the PRL extended it cn.icc to othcr former
com'icts and to tbcir farrulics . tiU. thc numbcr of pcoplc under thcir
aegis rcmaincd limitcd.

Ay the end of the 1930s, it was clear that narionaJ state lcadcrs bad
not altered rheir basic approach to the problem of the rehabilitation o!
r~male crime. Furthermore. thei r policies were now imitatcd by thc
go ernment of the Province of Bue nos Aires, which in 1936 handcd
the new female pri on of Olmos to the Good hcphcrd . Thc ob tacle
' 1 In 193 howl!,~ r. tht ~w Uutctor ot PCJ'IaJ lmtuuons. Jos M. Paz A ochorcnn hnltcd to
tht! PRL )Upp:tt d the oomtr\JCtlon 01 two -a'Ork~~ nt thc CorrecnoMI llou:cc. o nc ror
tu...'dlo< 1\ICtll -a lll~ ,,nd an04htt fM non hindmg. Thir. rcp~cnt\ t.he fin.l 311t n lpt lO UaJO ll~
inmlltet' in joiK ochcr th:1n thcxc that we~ "'tnctly OOmc)t)C l l'IBI ;ame )'C<lr l hc Mimstc:r o(
Ju ~ ttee. E . CoU. :mothcr :~uppoctt: r o r th PRL. u\.81 docJCkd en rc:mO\'C PJ ~ un\Jc:r 18 from the
Hou . 1 \1 1~ o nly rb()';C herii'CCn IR ~nd 22. In addihnn. l ht: >1:1 W..u re 'Ol.C\1 ltlc Good
Sh~ c rrt~ k-~1 ht~ cwcr rhc ~ o11ng womtn.

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that tbe PRL met scem linked to tbe mi verccption o( itS young rnember~ about thcir place in the )Cientific debate, as well a the dimen ion
of thc problcm thcy werc dcaling with.
First, in order (O promote A dchatc on femnle criminality among
pechtli ts. lhe PRL should have actively solicitcd thc regular parli<.,.;pation of profcs ion al wornen in field~ ucb a mc!Uicinc and p ychiatry. The exclusive definiti n of thc in:-,titution as a lawyer's organization limited it vi ibility and kept the focu and the upport too dependent on the legal world.
&cond. and more importantly. it sccms clcar that thc PRL failcd to
convt::>' il vicw o( ft::malc criminality to statc lcadcrs and thc bureaucracy of the penitentiary y tem. Despite all the thcorcticaJ and intciJectual upport found in official sphcrc . no national govcrnmcnt
cerned to con idcr controlling thc rchabilitation of thcsc eriminaJs a
pr'iority. For one thing: pri on werc simply oot sccn as thc rigb t place
for this rchabilitation. A womcn. t b~; place of thcsc criminaJs was in
the home. And i( they were ent to prison. it was not lo be traincd in
a trade that could prepare them lO join the rank of tbe new indu trial
working el a. s, hut to receive n.:ligious coun ding and lea m o me meni al work that would keep them Al homc. cithcr a domiciliary workcrs
or dom~ tic , e rvants. The approach of 1a tc authoritics to thc problcm
o( female criminali ty ec:m to httvc been deeply dctcrmincd by tradi
tional ideas about gender, crime and work , rather than by positivisl
criminologicaJ theory.' 2 Modem crirninotogical theory had providcd a
framework for many change in the perccption of malc erimc and
rehahilitation. Tilece idea . howc:vcr, had not bccn equally dcveloped
e1ther to interpret female crimc or lO pr~<:..-ribc in detall how women
criminals might be rehabilitatcd. Thi~ dilic.:rcncc; allhe thcoretieallevel
wa cvc n more striking \ hen the e principie were cnforccd, cvcn
aftcr thc PRL had generated a broad con eo u in the scientific community about the need for sueh change. Thi gap i yct another re
rnindcr of the complexiry of any a<;se. ment of thc influcncc of scicncc
on an official agenda. E ven where 1he. e govcrnmcnts are supposed to
havc bccn decply influenced by the !otCientic devclopmcnts of their
time. thc u e of ncw ideas" in official initiative i dctcrmincd by a
eomplcx wcb of factors. Limited material re. o urce combincd with
'12 E\cn a;oa 1 rdorotC I") 1tkc Bi.&Jcc Mas$ rcj...aed "10'(\-nen~ pnrticipat)()n rn mdustr\', Ot even
obj ccted lO the idcOl o f W()Jl)CD 'AOduag at u. Uonns ( j U)', .. Wa men. reon:~te nd fnd'u6tr&a1
J~ t ion: Argcnll ~ . 1 10.19 1.$.'' lAJrm Amtl ('(In I<N~Q rCh l<~''ltw (16. no. 3, 19Rl) M-&9.

20

Wuo r.

RIMTNA

AR

THEse?

domimmt oonccption about gcodcr. crimc. and work sccm to ha ve

con pircd again e applying che ncw <:riminological approach to thc
que tion of female crimc. Indec:d. tht.: i u e wa ~ placed at the bottom
of the H t of prioritie of ub eque nt go emment . The project of
rehabilitation adv~ nced by thc ood hcpherd was clo~er to . tate
lcadcr's cxpcctation than it cerned al tir t glanoc, ~md it mcager
(jnanciAI dcmand madc it cvcn more auractjvc.
lt can al o he argued that the official indifference toward the proble m was madc possiblc by the fact that tbese women wc re not con idcred a major threat to the project of the mode rn Argcntinc tate. The
late and abrupt change in the official a ttitudc sccms linkcd to thc
arrival of a new politically active population to thcsc prisons: in thc
early 1970s, hundreds of yOlmg womcn accused of bcing aclivi~ls in
suhversive polittcal movements flooded the prbons of thc Good Shcpherd. In ju t a fcw year , most femalc corrlional in titution were
placed undc r the oontrol of thc tate .

Ln

.Merey Col/ege

Dobbs Ferry.

ew York

M. CMMARI