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Article
Journal of Macromarketing
2014, Vol. 34(1) 8-27
The Author(s) 2013
Reprints and permission:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0276146713499351
jmk.sagepub.com
Abstract
The objective of this article is to develop micro-level behavioral insights at the intersection of poverty and the environment and
derive macro-marketing implications. This micro-level behavioral perspective encompasses psychological and socio-cultural
phenomena and emphasizes consumption and conservation. Construing the environment in a broad sense to encompass living
circumstances, we conducted interviews to uncover the distinctive nature of environmental issues in subsistence marketplaces. Our
findings emphasize the importance of different levels of spatial and psychological distance as well as a number of coping strategies that
reflect individuals and communities sustaining themselves through survival, relatedness, and growth. We link distances and coping to
efficacy and motivation to act, and derive implications for macro-level issues in marketing management, and public policy.
Keywords
subsistence, sustainability, poverty, environment, macromarketing
Introduction
Whereas there are many challenges in the 21st century, if the
environmental challenge is not solved, nothing else may
matter. This is the sobering conclusion from many sources about
the negative impact of the industrial era on the larger ecology
(DSouza and Peretiatko 2002; World Bank 1992). From a consumption perspective, continued increases in population, peaking production levels of non-renewable energy, and rising
shortages in food and water are just some of the portents of
things to come. From an environmental perspective, the negative
impact of carbon emissions through global warming and rising
sea levels, pollution, and deforestation points to disastrous global
consequences. Environmental problems are inextricably linked
to the issue of global poverty, with the poor being disproportionately vulnerable to environmental problems and disasters.
Rapid industrial development in affluent contexts has also had
a disproportionate impact on environmental problems in contexts of poverty (Shrivastava and Hart 1995). Thus, those with
the smallest footprint bear a disproportionate burden of environmental problems at a global level (Thomas and Twyman 2005).
The 1992 World Development Report on Development and the
Environment asserts that the environment problem is in essence
a poverty problem (Peet and Watts 1993; World Bank 1992).
Perspectives on this topic range from poverty causing environmental degradation owing to survival pressures (Duraiappah
1998) to nurturing of environmental resources through adaptive
strategies evolved by the poor (Scherr 2000).
The objective of this study is to develop micro-level behavioral understanding of poverty and the environment with an
emphasis on consumption and conservation and a view to
deriving macromarketing implications. The arena of poverty
and the environment has been studied from macro levels as
well as micro household levels, covering topics such as the use
of natural resources in rural settings (Agarwal 1989; Dasgupta
et al. 2005). However, these studies do not focus on developing
a deep understanding of the psychological and socio-cultural
underpinnings of observed consumption behaviors. The marketing literature has focused separately on both environmental
sustainability (e.g., sustainable consumption; Kilbourne 2010)
and poverty (e.g., subsistence marketplaces; Viswanathan
et al. 2009). However, the intersection of poverty and the environment has not been focused on from a marketing perspective,
such as in examining consumption and conservation (i.e. the
focus of this article), or marketplace interactions as they relate
to environmental issues. Specifically, we examine the microlevel behavioral aspects of surviving and subsisting in local
environments, covering such topics as challenges and coping.
Corresponding Author:
Madhu Viswanathan, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 183 Wohlers
Hall, 1206 South Sixth St., Champaign, IL 61820, USA.
Email: mviswana@illinois.edu
Viswanathan et al.
Psychological and socio-cultural understanding at the microlevel provides a starting point to derive macro-level implications. Such an approach is in keeping with the subsistence
marketplaces approach and literature (Viswanathan and Rosa
2007), which adopts a bottom-up orientation, starting with generating rich understanding of individuals, communities and the
socio-cultural contexts of marketplaces in poverty. We also use
the term, environment, in a broad sense rather than addressing
specific environmental issues, to encompass living circumstances ranging from the immediate day-to-day living as well
as more societal and global level issues from the perspective
of the subsistence individual. Our focus is particularly relevant
in the macromarketing area, where sustainability and poverty
represent broad topics (see Kilbourne 2010; Kotler, Roberto, and
Leisner 2006) that have been examined at a macro level. By
using micro-level insights into sustainability and deriving implications for macromarketing, we provide a different perspective.
Given the bottom-up orientation of the study, a number of
questions at the intersection of subsistence and sustainability
are germane. What is the nature of environmental issues in
subsistence when compared to resource-rich settings? How
do subsistence consumers cope with environmental issues and
what do they strive to sustain in doing so? Using these broad
questions as a starting point, in this research, we examine the
interconnections between subsistence marketplaces and the
environment. A series of interviews reflect the bottom-up
approach adopted. The findings cover the distinctive nature
of environmental issues in subsistence contexts in terms of
being immediate (household), near (local), moderate (society)
or farthest (global) in distance both physically and psychologically. A number of coping strategies emerge beyond reducing
and reusing such as making and foregoing. These strategies
reflect individuals sustaining themselves through survival,
relatedness, and growth. We develop propositions that link distances and coping to efficacy and motivation to act, and derive
implications for macromarketing.
Following a review of the literature, we discuss the method
and findings of our study. Finally, we interpret the findings using
theoretical lenses and derive implications for macromarketing.
lead to green consumer behavior, different approaches to segmentation, and groups of individuals based on their approach
to sustainable consumption (McDonald et al. 2012), as well
as deep understanding of relevant groups such as the voluntary
simplicity movement. The literature covers topics from supply
chain management (Closs, Speier, and Meacham 2011) to
modeling cross-country comparisons of the implications of
sustainability (Huang and Rust 2011). The macromarketing
literature has covered such issues as moving from consumerism/consumption to sustainability (Assadourian 2010; Schaefer
and Crane 2005), and the need for organizations to adopt a
sustainable market orientation (Mitchell, Wooliscroft, and
Higham 2010; Viswanathan et al. 2009).
The need for sustainable consumption is a central part of the
conversation in the marketing literature. For example, Thogersen
(2010) discusses the causes of unsustainable consumption
patterns in organic food production, particularly in a European
context. Likewise, scholars critique the dark side of consumption and call for systemic policy changes to curb overconsumption (e.g. Schaefer and Crane 2005; Varey 2010). Moreover, in
order to understand sustainable consumption Dolan (2002)
argues that scholars must focus on consumption practices
between individuals. Strizhakova and Coulter (2013) show how
a global cultural identity moderates the relationship between
materialism and environmentally friendly tendencies. From an
organizational perspective, topics such as product development
(e.g. Luchs et al. 2010) and competitive advantage through
sustainability have been studied (Kumar et al. 2011; Mitchell,
Wooliscroft, and Higham 2010). Sheth, Sethia, and Srinivas
(2011) present a framework for a customer-centric approach to
sustainability and introduce the concept of mindful consumption.
This brief overview of articles highlights that, although the
marketing discipline specializes in spanning micro to macro
level perspectives, a clear gap in the sustainability literature
in marketing is the need to understand the intersection of
poverty and the environment as it relates to such topics as consumption and conservation, and marketplace interactions. Our
focus here is on the former topic.
10
Viswanathan et al.
11
Method
This study aimed to generate rich descriptions of the context
and lived experiences of low-income individuals with respect
to the environment, which were then used as a basis to distill
several insights. Management scholars (Dyer and Wilkins
1991) have highlighted the importance of such deep descriptions in developing theory that is well rooted in peoples realities. Such grounded theory has been recommended for research
in novel settings as a methodological approach to analyze and
derive theoretical insights from the data (Corbin and Strauss
2007; Goulding 1998). Our approach emphasized unstructured
interviews using broad topics and questions without specific
guidance from substantive aspects of relevant literature. Where
relevant, the insights that emerged are placed in the context of
the extant literature. Discussion in terms of specific theory was
the final step through the discovery process of writing the paper.
The data were collected in an urban low-income community
in Chennai, South India and a rural farming community in Kanchipuram district, South India. Chennai is the sixth most populous city in India with a population of around 4.7 million.
Chennai also has the fourth highest population of slum dwellers
in India, estimated at 820,000. Kanchipuram district is largely
agrarian with close to half its population engaged in agriculture. Paddy rice and groundnuts are the major crops cultivated
in this region. Tamil is the native language in both Chennai and
Kanchipuram district. The urban data and rural data were collected in two phases of research, each lasting from a few weeks
to a few months.
In-depth interviews were employed for gathering data, as
they are suitable for obtaining detailed accounts of the informants perspectives, experiences, or situation, in their own
voices (Taylor and Bogdan 1998). In-depth interviews are also
suitable because of the low-literacy levels of our informants
and the prevailing oral traditions in the local context (Viswanathan et al. 2012). Interviews began at a concrete level in
terms of problems people face with their immediate environment, how their local environment affects them, and how they
affect their own local environment, and then moved to broader
issues of how individuals affect nature and in turn are affected
by nature. Terms such as global warming and climate change
were reserved for the end of the interview, given their abstract
nature and the need to discern participants perceptions in an
open-ended way. Interviews were conducted with 14 informants (ten urban, four rural). We employed purposive sampling in choosing rural and urban respondents in order to
capture the differences in experiences between the urban and
rural poor. The informants were in the age group of 35-48 years
and their literacy levels ranged from 5th grade to bachelors
degree. Sample informants included eight males and six
females. Detailed informant information is presented in
Urban/
Age
Rural Gender (yrs.) Education
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Urban
Rural
Urban
Urban
Rural
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Anbazhagan
Anand
Bhuvaneswari
Chiranjeevi
Damodaran
Narasimhan
Nandini
Pankajam
Selvi
Suseela
Sharada
Sanjeevan
Venkatesan
Selvarasan
Male
Male
Female
Male
Male
Male
Female
Female
Female
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
NA
40
NA
35
38
37
41
NA
39
48
NA
NA
37
NA
10th grade
5th grade
NA
12th grade
10th grade
10th grade
10th grade
9th grade
9th grade
9th grade
NA
9th grade
Bachelor of Arts
Bachelor of Arts
12
Spatial Distance
Illustrative Quotes
10
11
12
Currently, the water is a problem (due to rain), the supply is mixed (contaminated), and the water is
the main source to spread the diseases. The water from drainages is mixed with drinking water
supply, so it is contaminated. Chiranjeevi, 35, Male, Urban
Our neighborhood is located nearby the sewerage water treatment plant established by the
government. They let out the treated water on the canal running behind our street. The canal also
carries the wastewater let out from the families living in upper areas. The canal water
contaminates the ground water in our areas. I doubt the quality of available water too. One day I
notice foul smell from the water and the other day it seems to be good. I cannot assure that we get
clean or good water always. Selvi, 39, Female, Urban
. . . Nobody is disposing the garbage properly. It is spread everywhere. The air passes through the
garbage, bringing the bad effects and foul smell. It is inhaled by everyone, from children to adults.
Then . . . the smoking of cigarettes . . . the smokers smoke the cigarettes in public places, which affect
everyone. Nandini, 41, Female, Urban
Even today I saw a plastic bag containing garbage thrown on the street by someone. My own
principle is not to use plastic. I used to go with a cloth bag while shopping. I used to advise others
not to use plastic. But nobody listens . . . They pack their domestic waste and garbage in a plastic
bag and simply throw it on the corner of the street while they go to work or shopping. People are
too lazy to use a broom and a box to keep separate the biodegradable and plastic materials. Even
the people going to work (educated) come out of their house, keeping their handbag in one hand
and a plastic bag filled with garbage in the other hand. They never bothered about the dustbins;
they simply throw the garbage on the corner of the street . . . due to plastic covers, the heat is
increased; it blocks the water flow also. Sharada, Female, Urban
There is no proper storage there also, suppose there is a rain and the paddy gets wet, there will be no
hope of selling it. They will say the paddy is wet and ask us to take it back. Damodaran, 38, Male, Rural
We cannot compare farming with business, because, we put our faith in the land bhoomi (earth)
asking it to take care of us and we take care of it equally like our child. Anand, 40, Male, Rural
We should not destroy the forests that are beneficial to humans. It will lead to lack of air, failure of rain,
and destruction of nature. When the forest goes, even the plants and small trees will disappear
automatically. Awareness should be created to join hands in protecting the forest. We should protect
nature. Anbazhagan, Male, Urban
We grow ground nuts also, but at present it is not growing well so, we feel frustrated when we think
of groundnuts. That is the easiest to grow, but because of the unseasonal rains and the change in
climatic patterns, we are not able to make profits with that, even those who sowed now faced
heavy loss. Anand, 40, Male, Rural
Unnecessary buildings, they are mushrooming everywhere. In the past, the houses were made with
thatches and used palm leaves or coconut leaves. We didnt find that much pollution when we
were living in such houses, because those leaves or thatches controlled and filtered whatever dust
passed through air. Now, we arent safe because of the present types of buildings. Suppose we
reside in a flat where someone came and murdered us, no one would notice us or come forward
to rescue us. The structure is not conducive to alert the neighbors. They cant hear what is
happening in the nearby house. Nandini, 41, Female, Urban
Nowadays more flat systems [apartments] are flourishing and available than individual houses . . .
there was attachment in the joint family system. We cannot expect such socialization and attachment
among the families living in a flat system, whereas we can expect a kind of homogeneity among the
families living in individual houses on a street. Families living in a flat [apartment] system will not bother
about their neighbors. Bhuvaneswari, Female, Urban
Irrespective of the people or organization, whether it is a company or government or service
organization or politicians, they take care of the hygiene in their own rooms and drinking water for
their needs. They should give preference in providing clean water to the public. They use the official
machinery to keep their compound and nearby areas free from sanitation problems. They wouldnt
bother about the end of their own street or next street where the public reside . . . nobody
understands that pollution would affect everyone. The air coming out from A/C machines, air
coolers, electric cookers, microwave ovens, etc. are poisonous . . . Nandini, 41, Female, Urban
Earlier there were forests, but now all that has been encroached and it has been brought under
cultivation, and the way people work has also changed. Those days, they used to take the effort to mix
the vegetation by stamping with the feet with the dung and prepare the manure and only then, they
used to start the farming. But now people dont even want to remove their shirts. Nowadays, the
whole context has changed, nobody wants to work, everybody wants more money very quickly, and
people want to become rich fast. Anand, 40, Male, Rural
(continued)
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Viswanathan et al.
13
Table 2. (continued)
Quote
Number
Spatial Distance
Illustrative Quotes
13
14
15
16
There is no truth. Truth is not prevailing in the society. Mother has no sincere affection for her child,
children has no affection for their parents. It becomes like mechanical life, all become like machines
. . . the reason is over-expectations. People try to cheat when they have too high expectations. For
example, those who are riding bicycles wish to acquire motorbikes, those who have bikes wish to get
their own car, those who have their own car wish to buy their own bungalow. Real affection is diluted
while the level of expectations increases. Nandini, 41, Female, Urban
The nature has changed. There is change in the season. Ancestors classified the seasons in a year
into four winter, summer, etc. There is a proverb that says Even the grinding stone will be
moved by the winds/storm coming in the month of [16 July-15 August] . . . But, we cant notice
the wind at all in this month. Nandini, 41, Female, Urban
I have heard that the hole in the ozone layer caused global warming. I believe that the pollution and
high smoke is the reason for the hole in the ozone layer. Erecting deep bore wells in too much
depth and sucking enormous water is also one of the reasons for the earth warming. Now the
number of trees and plants become less. More forests and more trees will give rain. There is a
possibility for the earth to get cool if it receives more rain due to forestation. Bhuvaneswari,
Female, Urban
All the smoke and pollution is the reason for climate changes. Also the overuse of electricity is one
of the reasons for climate changes. It is good for each person to reduce their consumption of
electricity by their level best. We should avoid burning more lights for more hours. Everyone
should try to plant and grow trees as much as possible. Government and society should help us to
achieve this through awareness. Bhuvaneswari, Female, Urban
Environmental issues are not distant, but a day-to-day reality. Quote 3 (Table 2) illustrates neighborhood practices at the
near/local distance and how they affect survival, and quality of
life at an immediate distance (i.e., in ones own household),
workplace or nearby. A participant relates how plastic usage
affects the immediate environment (see Figure 1). The impact
is immediate in time and space (Quote 4, Table 2). Even distant
environmental factors such as weather conditions and rainfall
have a proximal impact to lives and livelihoods as illustrated
by Quote 5 (Table 2). Similarly, heavy rains have a disproportionately negative impact on poor urban neighborhoods due to
bad roads, and poor drainage and sanitation that have immediate economic implications.
14
Strategies
Illustrative Quotes
17
Control at Immediate
Distance
18
Control at Immediate
Distance
19
Making
20
Foregoing
21
Cross-Using/Making
22
Cross-Using
23
Reducing
24
Reusing
25
Reusing
26
Reusing/Cross-using
27
Harvesting
28
Relating to the
Environment
29
Relating to the
Environment
30
Relating to the
Environment
31
Collective Action
I stopped the use of plastic items. I collect the garbage from my house and dispose of it at the dustbin
erected by the corporation. I use the brinjal, tomato, and chili seeds, which otherwise would become
waste while preparing the vegetables for the preparation of food, to spread at the corner and side
floor of the wall at my house. Sometimes the seeds yield more . . . I try my level best to walk to the
places where I want to go and avoid using vehicles. Bhuvaneswari, Female, Urban
My own practice to prevent the pollution in the house is . . . I would choose the light color or white
color cloth to stitch window curtains. I always use a variety of cloth containing micro holes to filter the
dust from the air. The minute holes in the curtain cloth will enable free flow of air as well as filter the
dust. You look at the cloth after three or four days and find layers of dust. Nandini, 41, Female,
Urban
We would collect the waste cloths from the tailor shop and make pillow covers and mats. We use
to make cloth bags from the old pants. Selvi, 39, Female, Urban
We cannot buy dresses all the time or whenever we wish to do so. We can buy new dress only for
festivals and during any important family functions. . . . depending on the income we budget for
dresses. We will buy dresses only for children, if our income is not sufficient. Because, their happiness
is central for us, as adult can understand the situation and compromise. Pankajam, Female, Urban
We have coconut trees in our compound. We make broomsticks from the coconut leaves grown
from our trees. Selvi, 39, Female, Urban
Cow we use for milk, for getting manure for the farm. The cow dung we take to the farm and make
it as manure. The milk we use and apart from that we also sell at the society. Apart from what we
need for use if we sell at the society once in ten days, they make the payment which is also useful
. . . the main reason is that we get manure from the dung for the farm and apart from the milk used
at the house we sell it at the society and make a little extra money for house hold expenses.
Sanjeevan, Male, Rural
If you take the food for example, we can have non-vegetarian food even for four days a week. But,
we restrict it to have only one day a week to save money. I try to reduce my own expenses such as
fuel and travel cost. Earlier, I used a two-wheeler or hired an auto to attend all my tasks.
Venkatesan, 37, Male, Urban
I wouldnt hesitate to use the old saree that was used by my sister . . . I would use the clothes or
dresses very gently so they would last for years. Selvi, 39, Female, Urban
We wouldnt waste even the water used to wash and clean the rice before cooking. We will keep
this rice-washed water for some time for dilution. We will remove the sluggish and precipitated
contents and use the diluted water for the preparation of gravy and side dishes. We will use the
remaining waste water for other purposes such as watering the plants, etc. Selvi, 39, Female,
Urban
We wouldnt waste any materials. For example, we had a damaged and rusted iron cot. When we
tried to dispose of it, we were offered only Rs.50/- as the cost of old iron. So, we converted it as a
lid for the water tank and saved money. It protects the tank water from contamination through
dust forming or birds excreta. Selvi, 39, Female, Urban
I have made arrangements to ensure that the rainwater that fell on the roof enters the well through
erected pipes. I wouldnt allow the rainwater to be wasted. When we have continuous rain we collect
the rainwater and use it for domestic purposes. Selvi, 39, Female, Urban
We would do these ourselves without hiring any external labor, whether it is cleaning of our
sewage system or renovating the well. We get fresh air around our house as we grow all these
plants and trees. We can make simple dishes from these vegetables and herbal plants. Selvi, 39,
Female, Urban
Burning soap covers along with neem leaves will chase the mosquitoes. We use the waste covers from
the soap we used and collect a few dry leaves, including neem leaves, from the tree near the house to
burn and chase out the mosquitoes in the late evening. Bhuvaneswari, Female, Urban
We should try to keep our environment clean and protect our family members from diseases. It
would help us to reduce the medical expenses . . . as an individual, we cant do anything to control
or contain the air pollution. The number of vehicles is increasing day by day; controlling this is not
in my hands. We can grow plants and creepers, if we have a little space. We can prevent the
breeding of mosquitoes which is a major hazardous in the city if we avoid the stagnation of water
around our living places. Venkatesan, 37, Male, Urban
We can collect water from the well for domestic use. If we face any water scarcity, we will report it
to the ruling party man. They will approach the authorities and arrange the potable water through
water tankers. It will be stored in a common potable tank and shared by our neighbors. Selvi,
39, Female, Urban
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Viswanathan et al.
15
Element of
Sustenance
32
Survival
33
Survival
34
Relatedness
35
Relatedness
36
Relatedness
37
Relatedness
38
Growth
39
Growth
40
Growth
41
Growth
42
Survival and
Growth
43
Survival and
Growth
44
Survival and
Growth
45
Survival and
Growth
46
Survival and
Relatedness
47
Relatedness and
Growth
Illustrative Quote
Currently, the water is a problem (due to rain), the supply is mixed (contaminated), and the water is the main
source to spread the diseases. The water from drainages is mixed with drinking water supply, so it is
contaminated. Chiranjeevi, 35, Male, Urban
There is no proper storage there also; suppose there is a rain and the paddy gets wet there will be no hope of
selling it, they will say the paddy is wet and ask us to take it back. Damodaran, 38, Male, Rural l
For example when we start farming we need to take care of the cows, they need straw. If we grow ground
nuts then the plants can be used as fodder for the cattle and the goats, so we consider that at least for the
sake of the cattle we have grown this crop. Selvarasan, Male, Rural
Suppose we are spending the capital from our money alone then we can wait till we get a good rate for the
produce and then sell it. But suppose we have borrowed from others and used it then we cannot afford to
wait. So rather than wait for the three or four months and get that five rupees extra we just sell it as soon
as we get the harvest and settle the loans. Selvarasan, Male, Rural
Yes, some people do like that also, they note how the neighbor grows a crop and if it was good they follow that
method themselves. In this season the conditions for growth will be common, and the neighbor can be
helpful, mainly the pest control will be uniform and better, so they discuss and do it. Sanjeevan, Male, Rural
I will get the money from my friend and return it when I get my money, sometimes take money from
someone who can give and the rest we manage our own funds. Even now we spent 15000 for the crop, I
have borrowed ten thousand from my friend and I will return it to him in about 2 or three months, that is
how we manage. Sanjeevan, Male, Rural
Yes, the main reason is that we get manure from the dung for the farm and apart from the milk used at the
house we sell it at the society and make a little extra money for house hold expenses. Selvarasan, Male,
Rural
As far as education is concerned, the government is doing well and encourages female children to continue
their education through providing education materials including free bicycle to travel to school. We should
prepare our next generation with awareness on the importance of education, clean air, etc. to manage
their future. Bhuvaneswari, Female, Urban
In the village . . . there are computers and they want to do that, there are cell phones and many things like
that. Even though there is a shortage of labor in farming and increase in the cost of labor, most of the
children prefer studies Sanjeevan, Male, Rural
My children are studying in 4th std. Computers is one of their subject. They used to operate the computer as
part of their subject. If they feel that they need computer, I would consider the purchase of computer for
them. Neither have I learnt about computers nor had opportunities to operate. But, I shouldnt allow my
children to face lack of computer knowledge or opportunity. I would always consider my childrens needs,
they are my priority. Narasimhan, 37, Male, Urban
If every parent provides education to their children and has a little savings for the next generation, they can
manage the future. Education is the basic need for the survival of all. If they get good education, they can get
jobs and earn enough to meet their needs. Suseela, 48, Female, Urban
. . . It is better to go as a wage laborer. But if everyone decides to go as a wage laborer there will be no one
left to pay for the sowing. For example when we start farming we need to take care of the cows, they need
straw, if we grow ground nuts then the plants can be used as fodder for the cattle and the goats, so we
consider that at least for the sake of the cattle we have grown this crop. Sanjeevan, Male, Rural
I try to provide a good education and healthy food for our children. I dispose of the garbage carefully and
maintain cleanliness. I try to practice with my children to walk instead of depending on vehicles. I encourage
them to exercise to maintain their physical health. I stopped the use of plastic items. I collect the garbage from
my house and dispose of it at the dustbin erected by the corporation. Bhuvaneswari, Female, Urban
Society should enable its children to learn good habits and practices. Society should ensure that its children
grow healthy and are protected from diseases and are provided with good education. They should be
taught the importance of protecting their environment. Society should encourage the younger generation
to grow with a social consciousness and plant trees, etc. Bhuvaneswari, Female, Urban
Society is helpful to provide employment, if we approach the society and seek employment opportunity after
sharing our family problems, they will give priority to us among the ten or fifteen already searching job. We
survive because of the cooperation from the society. Pankajam, Female, Urban
There is no truth; truth is not prevailing in the society. Mother has no sincere affection for her child, children
has no affection for their parents. It becomes like mechanical life, all become like machines . . . the reason is
over-expectations. People try to cheat when they have too high of expectations. For example, those who
are riding bicycles wish to acquire motorbikes, those who have bikes wish to get their own car, those who
have their own car wish to buy their own bungalow. Real affection is diluted while the level of expectations
increases. Nandini, 41, Female, Urban
16
us and we take care of it equally like our child. (Anand, 40, Male,
Rural)
Viswanathan et al.
17
Challenges Summary. The proximity of environmental challenges in subsistence living contrasts to relatively resource-
18
collect the rainwater and use it for domestic purposes. (Selvi, 39,
Female, Urban, example of harvesting).
Viswanathan et al.
19
I will get the money from my friend and return it when I get my
money, sometimes take money from someone who can give and
the rest we manage our own funds. Even now we spent Rs.
15000 for the crop, I have borrowed ten thousand from my friend
and I will return it to him in about two or three months, that is how
we manage. (Sanjeevan, Male, Rural)
My children are studying in 4th std. Computers is one of their subject. They used to operate the computer as part of their subject. If
they feel that they need computer, I would consider the purchase of
computer for them. Neither have I learnt about computers nor had
opportunities to operate. But, I shouldnt allow my children to face
lack of computer knowledge or opportunity. I would always consider my childrens needs, they are my priority. (Narasimhan, 37,
Male, Urban)
Each of these elements interacts with the others. The immediacy of survival may have a negative impact on relatedness if
cultural norms and traditions are more difficult to follow, but a
potentially positive impact if social support enables survival
(Quote 46, Table 4). Relatedness and growth may have a complex relationship. Identity and belonging provide a foundation
for growth, but norms and expectations may inhibit growth and
the pursuit of opportunities (Quote 47, Table 4). Survival is, of
course, necessary for growth, but the pursuit of survival often
means focusing on the immediate while sacrificing medium
20
Viswanathan et al.
21
risks in advanced contexts are more likely to be mentally represented in remote and abstract terms, and their negative consequences seem abstract and metaphoric as a result, not leading
to appropriate action. In other words, when environmental risks
and their negative consequences are psychologically distal,
ones relevance and vulnerability to them would become weaker
and less immediate, lowering risk aversion and motivation to act
(Gifford et al. 2009; Loewenstein et al. 2001; Nicolaij and Hendrickx 2003; Pahl et al. 2005). In subsistence contexts, on the
other hand, environmental risks and their perceptions are psychologically near, meaning that they are very certain, happen
here and now, and very likely to affect selves and similar others. As psychological distances are likely to be very small as
well, people would make concrete representations of environmental events, which are deeply embedded in their daily lives.
Construal level theory (CLT hereafter) focuses on psychological distance and its effect on mental representations of events,
attitudes, and behaviors (Trope, Liberman, and Wakslak 2007;
Trope and Liberman 2003). Such construals can be at relatively
high (abstract) or low (concrete) levels, the former being
decontextualized and representing the gist of events and the latter being contextualized and capturing specific details. Adapting from examples in the literature to an environmental
example, plastic disposal blocking sewage in a neighborhood
could be construed in terms of immediate aspects of the environment such as filth and odor, or at a higher level in terms
of environmental degradation or in terms of health hazards.
Such abstraction involves omitting details and focusing on certain underlying features. The literature has described how such
abstraction can occur based on object categorization, traits, and
goal-directed actions (Trope, Liberman, and Wakslak 2007;
Trope and Liberman 2003, 2010).
CLTs basic proposition is that the more psychologically
distant an event is the more abstract its representation (Trope
and Liberman 2010). Conversely, the closer an event is to
direct experience, the more concrete and detailed the representation stemming from direct knowledge of the here and now. A
spatial analogy would be viewing the planet earth from distant
space versus from close at hand where details of terrain and
geographic boundaries are discernible. What is discernible, in
turn, influences attitudes and behaviors. A close psychological
distance to an event or challenge leads to easier perception of
details and more concrete understanding of challenges. This
means specific problems and their consequences, as well as the
anticipated and actual results of actions, are more quickly and
tangibly felt, allowing one to evaluate the feedback (i.e., as
effective versus not effective, or working versus not working)
and respond in continuation, alteration, or termination of the
action to mitigate the problem.
Two competing explanations may be drawn from this situation in which environmental risks and their impact are near in
all dimensions of psychological distance, in contrast to
resource-rich settings in which they are often perceived to be
alienated from here and now, to happen to others, and to be
uncertain. More vivid and concrete mental representations of
environmental risks and their direct negative consequences in
22
Discussion
Our micro-level research provides the foundation for a number
of macro-level implications that are firmly rooted in the material and psychological realities of subsistence marketplaces. Our
delineation of different spatial distances and dimensions of
Viswanathan et al.
23
24
Research Limitations
The fieldwork for this research was conducted in rural and
urban Tamil Nadu, India, in order to capture both commonalities and differences across rural and urban contexts. The number of informants was small, with relatively fewer interviews in
rural settings. We adopted an emic perspective on issues of sustainability in subsistence contexts, examining a phenomenon as
an interconnected whole, as opposed to an etic perspective,
which attempts to understand a phenomenon as relationships
between constructs isolated by the researcher (Morris et al.
1999). Our motivation, as evidenced by the bottom-up orientation, has been to explore the issue of sustainability from the
participants perspective, privileging the meaning participants
confer to their realities and the responses that are thereby
evoked (McCaslin and Scott 2003). Although an emic perspective enables us to study the phenomenon embedded within
socio-cultural and historical factors, we acknowledge that subsistence contexts across geographies could vary on factors such
as social stratification, inter-group relations, and political
stability, as noted in prior research (Viswanathan 2010). Our
objective with this study is not to draw broad generalizations, but
Future Research
Our research uncovers many areas that future research should
investigate. First, we offer a broad picture of how individuals
in subsistence marketplaces negotiate the tradeoffs associated
with environmental sustainability, survival, growth, and relatedness needs. Our analysis provides a broad psychological
framework to examine specific and substantive issues such as
pollution and health, irrigation and food security, climate
change, and livelihood. These issues are of prime concern to
the wellbeing of individuals in subsistence marketplaces and
research focused on these specific domains can inform both
theory and practice by shedding greater light on behavioral
determinants. Second, our research offers preliminary insights
into the processes adopted by individuals in subsistence to
navigate the real and immediate threats posed by environmental challenges. Process research investigating the sequence of
activities employed by individuals to address environmental
challenges will further deepen our understanding and offer rich
insights for studying more affluent contexts where environmental challenges are more distant and abstract. Third, our
research has focused on individuals in subsistence and individual psychological tendencies in relation to the environment.
Prior research on subsistence marketplaces offers many insights
on how individuals overcome constraints, both individual, constraints such as access to capital, and contextual, such as infrastructure (Viswanathan et al. 2010, 2012). Whereas our
research focused on consumption and conservation, a focus on
marketplace interactions relating to the environment would
uncover tensions and synergies between the one-to-one intensely
social marketplace interactions and environmental elements.
Consequently, research focused on the role of subsistence marketplace exchange in addressing the environmental challenges
promises to be a rich area of future inquiry. In this regard, a focus
on dependent variables such as purchase intention and relationship endurance would be very useful. Fourth, as pointed out in
the research limitations section, more comparative research
across subsistence marketplaces in emerging contexts such
as Asia and Africa, and in subsistence marketplaces within
developed contexts such as United States and Europe, will
go a long way in furthering our understanding of the role
played by socio-cultural and political factors in influencing
Viswanathan et al.
25
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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Author Biographies
Madhu Viswanathan is the Diane and Steven N. Miller Professor in
Business, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He earned a B.
Tech (Mech. Engg, IIT, Madras, 1985), and a PhD (Marketing, University of Minnesota, 1990). His research and teaching are on measurement/
research methods, and literacy, poverty, and subsistence marketplaces.
He founded the Subsistence Marketplaces Initiative (www.business.illinois.edu/subsistence), creating unique synergies between research,
teaching, and social initiatives, and the Marketplace Literacy Project
(www.marketplaceliteracy.org), a non-profit providing marketplace
literacy education to low-income consumers and subsistence marketplaces. He has received research, teaching, curriculum development,
social entrepreneurship, humanitarian, leadership, public engagement,
international achievement, and career achievement awards.
Kiju Jung is a doctoral candidate at the University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign. His interests are in sustainability, consumer well-being,
and consumer behavior. He focuses on understanding how to embed
sustainability into human consumption practices. Additionally, Kiju
aims to explore human functioning and remedy human ill-being in subsistence marketplaces using socio-psychological lenses. He also focuses
on the effects of power and gender in human interactions and in humannonhuman interactions in the context of consumption and survival.
Srinivas Venugopal is pursuing his doctoral degree in marketing at
the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign and has a background
in social entrepreneurship. Srinis research interests lie in the area of
poverty and sustainability. He explores poverty at the individual and
social level. At the individual level, Srini explores the impact of
resource constraints and uncertainty on consumer motivation, cognition, and behavior. At the societal level, he investigates the emergence
of business ecosystems in subsistence marketplaces.
Ishva Minefee is a doctoral student in International Business at the
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. His research emphasizes
the influence of role models in new venture creation in subsistence
contexts. Additionally, he focuses on how nongovernmental organizations interact with communities and enact social change in poverty
settings. Ishva does work in a comparative, cross-country setting to
create deeper insights into global phenomena.
In Woo Jung graduated from the University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign with a B.A. in Global Studies. He is currently pursuing a
Masters in Public Administration at the London School of Economics
and Political Science with a concentration in public policy and management. His research interests include marginalized persons, community
and economic development, and human motivations and behavior.