Network+

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)
Table of Contents
Domain 1.0 - Media and Topologies 20% ................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Recognize the following logical or physical network topologies given a diagram, schematic or description:......... 6
Star Topology............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Bus Topology ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Mesh Topology ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
Ring Topology........................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Specify the main features of 802.2, 802.3, 802.5, 802.11, and FDDI networking technologies: ........................ 6
IEEE 802.2 LLC (Logical Link Control) ..................................................................................................................... 6
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet ................................................................................................................................................. 7
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring ............................................................................................................................................ 7
IEEE 802.11 Wireless ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) .................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Specify the characteristic (for example: speed, length, topology, and cable type) of the following cable
standards:...................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Recognize the following media connectors and describe their uses: ................................................................... 10
RJ-11 ...................................................................................................................................................................... 10
IEEE 1394 (FireWire).............................................................................................................................................. 11
1.5 Recognize the following media types and describe their uses: ............................................................................ 11
Twisted Pair STP and UTP ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Coaxial Cable.......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Fiber-Optic Cable.................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.6 Identify the purpose, features, and functions of the following network components: ........................................... 12
Gateways ................................................................................................................................................................ 13
CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit) ............................................................................................. 14
NICs (Network Interface Cards).............................................................................................................................. 14
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Adapters ............................................................................................ 14
WAPs (Wireless Access Points) ............................................................................................................................. 14
Modems .................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Transceivers (Media Converters) ........................................................................................................................... 15
Firewalls.................................................................................................................................................................. 15
1.7 Specify the general characteristics (carrier speed, frequency, transmission type and topology) of the following
wireless technologies: ................................................................................................................................................. 16
1.8 Identify factors which affect the range and speed of wireless service (for example: interference, antenna type
and environmental factors).......................................................................................................................................... 16
Domain 2.0 - Protocols and Standards 20%........................................................................................................... 17
2.1 Identify a MAC (Media Access Control) address and its parts. ............................................................................ 17

2.2 Identify the seven layers of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) model and their functions. ........................... 17
2.3 Identify the OSI layers at which the following network components operate:....................................................... 18
2.4 Differentiate between the following network protocols in terms of routing, addressing schemes, interoperability,
and naming conventions: ............................................................................................................................................ 18
NetBEUI/NetBIOS................................................................................................................................................... 19
AppleTalk ................................................................................................................................................................ 19
TCP/IP .................................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.5 Identify the components and structure of IP addresses (IPv4, IPv6) and the required setting for connections
across the Internet....................................................................................................................................................... 20
IPv6 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Identify classful IP ranges and their default subnet masks For example: Class A, B and C)............................... 21
2.7 Identify the purpose of subnetting......................................................................................................................... 22
2.8 Identify the differences between public and private networks .............................................................................. 22
2.9 Identify and differentiate between the following IP addressing methods: ............................................................ 22
2.10 Define the purpose, function, and use of the following protocols used in the TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol) suite:............................................................................................................................... 23
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ..................................................................................................................... 23
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) .............................................................................................................................. 23
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) ................................................................................................................................... 23
SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol) .................................................................................................................... 23
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) ...................................................................................................................... 23
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) ................................................................................................................... 24
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) ....................................................................................................................... 24
HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol) ........................................................................................................ 24
POP3 / IMAP4 (Post Office Protocol, version 3 / Internet Message Access Protocol, version 4).......................... 24
Telnet ...................................................................................................................................................................... 25
SSH (Secure Shell)................................................................................................................................................. 25
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)............................................................................................................. 25
ARP / RARP (Address Resolution Protocol / Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) ........................................... 25
NTP (Network Time Protocol)................................................................................................................................. 25
NNTP (Network News Transport Protocol)............................................................................................................. 26
SCP (Secure Copy Protocol) .................................................................................................................................. 26
LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol) ...................................................................................................... 26
IGMP (Internet Group Multicast Protocol)............................................................................................................... 26
LPR (Line Printer Remote) ..................................................................................................................................... 26
2.12 Identify the well-known ports associated with the following commonly used services and protocols: ............... 26
2.13 Identify the purpose of network services and protocols:..................................................................................... 27

2.14 Identify the basic characteristics (For example: speed, capacity and media) of the following WAN (Wide Area
Network) technologies:................................................................................................................................................ 28
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)............................................................................................................ 28
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) .................................................................................................................. 29
OCx (Optical Carrier) .............................................................................................................................................. 30
X.25......................................................................................................................................................................... 30
2.15 Identify the basic characteristics of the following Internet access technologies: ................................................ 30
xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line)................................................................................................................................ 30
Broadband Cable (Cable Modem) .......................................................................................................................... 31
POTS/PSTN............................................................................................................................................................ 31
Satellite ................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Wireless .................................................................................................................................................................. 31
2.16 Define the function of the following remote access protocols and services: ...................................................... 31
2.17 Identify the following security protocols and describe their purpose and function:............................................. 32
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) .................................................................................................................................. 33
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) ............................................................................................................................ 33
WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)............................................................................................................................... 33
802.1x ..................................................................................................................................................................... 33
2.18 Identify the following authentication protocols: ................................................................................................... 33
CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol)......................................................................................... 33
PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) ............................................................................................................... 34
RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service) ......................................................................................... 34
Kerberos ................................................................................................................................................................. 34
EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol)............................................................................................................... 34
Domain 3.0 - Network Implementation 25% ............................................................................................................. 34
3.1 Identify the basic capabilities (For example: client support, interoperability, authentication, file and print services,
application support and security) of the following server operating systems to access network resources:.............. 34
UNIX / Linux............................................................................................................................................................ 35
NetWare.................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Windows ................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Mac ......................................................................................................................................................................... 36
AppleShare IP......................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.2 Identify the basic capabilities needed for client workstations to connect to and use network resources (For
example: media, network protocols and peer and server services)............................................................................ 36
3.3 Identify the appropriate tool for a given wiring task (For example: wire crimper, media tester/certifier, punch
down tool and tone generator). .................................................................................................................................. 37
3.4 Given a remote connectivity scenario comprised of a protocol, an authentication scheme, and physical
connectivity, configure the connection. Includes connection to the following servers: ............................................... 38
3.5 Identify the purpose, benefits, and characteristics of using a firewall.................................................................. 38

3.7 Given a connectivity scenario, determine the impact on network functionality of a particular security
implementation (For example: port blocking/filtering, authentication and encryption)................................................ 39
3.8 Identify the main characteristics of VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks). ......................................................... 39
VLAN Benefits......................................................................................................................................................... 39
VLAN Memberships ................................................................................................................................................ 40
Creating a VLAN ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
3.9 Identify the main characteristics and purpose of extranets and intranets............................................................. 40
3.10 Identify the purpose, benefits and characteristics of using antivirus software.................................................... 41
3.11 Identify the purpose and characteristics of fault tolerance:................................................................................. 41
Power - UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)......................................................................................................... 41
Link Redundancy .................................................................................................................................................... 42
Storage - RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)...................................................................................... 42
Services .................................................................................................................................................................. 43
3.12 Identify the purpose and characteristics of disaster recovery:............................................................................ 44
Backup/Restore ...................................................................................................................................................... 44
Offsite Storage ........................................................................................................................................................ 45
Hot, Warm, and Cold Sites ..................................................................................................................................... 45
Clustering, Scalability, and High Availability ........................................................................................................... 46
Domain 4.0 - Network Support 35%.......................................................................................................................... 46
4.1 Given a troubleshooting scenario, select the appropriate network utility from the following: ............................... 46
4.2 Given output from a diagnostic utility (for example: utilities listed in 4.1), identify the utility and interpret the
output. ......................................................................................................................................................................... 47
4.3 Given a network scenario, interpret visual indicators (for example: link LEDs (light emitting diodes) and collision
LEDs) to determine the nature of a stated problem. ................................................................................................... 47
4.4 Given a troubleshooting scenario involving a client accessing remote network services, identify the cause of the
problem (for example: file services, print services, authentication failure, protocol configuration, physical
connectivity, and SOHO (small office/home office) routers). ...................................................................................... 48
4.5 Given a troubleshooting scenario between a client and the following server environments, identify the cause of a
stated problem:............................................................................................................................................................ 49
NetWare.................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Windows ................................................................................................................................................................. 51
AppleShare IP......................................................................................................................................................... 52
4.6 Given a scenario, determine the impact of modifying, adding or removing network services (for example: DHCP,
DNS, WINS) for network resources and users. .......................................................................................................... 52
DHCP...................................................................................................................................................................... 53
DNS......................................................................................................................................................................... 53
4.7 Given a troubleshooting scenario involving a network with a particular physical topology (for example: bus, star,
mesh, ring) and including a network diagram, identify the network area affected and the cause of the stated failure.
..................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Star.......................................................................................................................................................................... 54

4.8 Given a network troubleshooting scenario involving an wired or wireless infrastructure problem, identify the
cause of a stated problem (for example: bad media, interference, network hardware or environment). ................... 55
Wired Networks....................................................................................................................................................... 55
Wireless Networks .................................................................................................................................................. 56
4.9 Given a network problem scenario, select an appropriate course of action based on a logical troubleshooting
strategy. This strategy includes the following steps:................................................................................................... 56
Troubleshooting Strategies..................................................................................................................................... 57
Domain 1.0 - Media and Topologies 20%

1.1 Recognize the following logical or physical network topologies given a
diagram, schematic or description:
Star Topology
A star physical topology is used on a LAN (Local Area Network) and usually doesnt look like a star, except on paper.
The focal point of this topology is what youll find at the center, namely a centralized hub or switch to which all the
networks nodes/devices are connected. Network devices are easily connected or disconnected to the central hub or
switch using network media, such as UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable. This topology is commonly used for
10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, or 1000BASE-T networks.
Bus Topology
A bus physical topology connects all network devices to a common backbone or bus. PCs connect to the bus by using
network cable that attaches or taps into the backbone directly. Network signals are sent along the bus in both
directions on most buses. This topology was commonly used for 10BASE5 and 10BASE2 networks and is seldom
used today.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh physical topology, every device on the network is connected to every other device on the network. Partial
mesh networks don't incur quite the same expense in terms of cabling but, of course, lose some of the redundancy.
This topology is most commonly used in WAN (Wide Area Network) configurations for redundancy and maximum fault
tolerance.
Ring Topology
In a ring physical topology, network devices are wired and connected in a conceptual circle. A ring topology is almost
always implemented in a logical ring topology on a physical star topology. Each device is attached to two other devices
and uses the same network transmission signal, forming a path in the shape of a ring. Network data flow is
unidirectional, and a controlling device, such as a hub or switch, intercepts and manages the data flow to and from the
ring. Each device has a NIC (Network Interface Card) that contains a network transceiver, which both sends and
receives signals. This topology uses network token-passing access methods referred to as Token Ring. Token Ring is
the most common type of ring network.
1.2 Specify the main features of 802.2, 802.3, 802.5,

802.11, and FDDI networking technologies:
IEEE 802.2 LLC (Logical Link Control)
The IEEE 802.2 standard specifies the Logical Link Control sublayer of the Data Link layer in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) network communications model. LLC is one of two layers in the Data Link layer. The second is the
MAC (Media Access Control). The MAC layer, which varies in different network types, is defined by IEEE standards
802.3 through 802.5. The LLC sublayer provides the interface between the MAC sublayer and the Network layer above
the Data Link layer of the OSI model. The LLC layer's function is to manage network traffic (flow and error control) over
the physical medium. The LLC sublayer also identifies the network protocol used for network communications, such as

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System), or IPX/SPX
(Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange)a proprietary protocol in earlier versions of Novell
NetWare. The LLC sublayer can also assign sequence numbers to network frames and track network
acknowledgements.
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet

The IEEE 802.3 standard specifies any LAN that uses the physical and lower software layers along with baseband
signaling and a CSMA/CD access method. 802.3 Ethernet networks are the most popular type of network in use today.
Fast Ethernet LANs, which operate at 100 Mbps (megabits per second), are prevalent; many medium-size and large
companies use Gigabit and 10 Gigabyte LANs and WANs for backbones interconnecting their networks. Although
Ethernet packet network collisions commonly occur, the data speeds of Fast Ethernet and Gigabyte Ethernet more
than compensate for the re-transmission of the collision packets.
Understand the CSMA/CD Access Signaling Method
CSMA/CD is a contention protocol that defines a set of rules for how network devices compete for sending data along
network media. Using CSMA/CD, a computer containing a NIC listens to the network for network communications
before sending data. If it doesnt hear another computer sending data, it begins the process of sending its own data.
This part is the "Carrier Sense" part. Computers on the same network compete with one another for communication
access using similar network media. This is the "Media Access" part. Using CSMA/CD, computers are aware that
network collisions can occur, so they are careful to listen for network communication packet collisions. This is the
"Collision Detection" part. If a collision occurs, both computers back off the cable media and wait a random period of
time before retransmitting their network packets.
IEEE 802.5 Token Ring

The IEEE 802.5 standard defines the MAC layer for Token Ring networks. This standard is an instance of a topology
becoming so well known and used that it became a standard. Like Ethernet, Token Ring can use several different
types of cables, though youll most often see twisted-pair cabling, either shielded or unshielded. Standard transmission
rates formerly were 4 Mbps (Megabits per second) and 16 Mbps. Token Ring networks generally use a physical
star/logical ring topology with token passing media access method. Token Ring LANs are gradually disappearing due
to their higher costs and proprietary hardware.
The slowest NIC present on the network media determines the overall network transmission speed on a Token Ring
network. Unlike Ethernet, a computer cannot talk on a Token Ring network unless it has the token. To send a
message, a computer waits for and receives the token, attaches a message to it, and sends it to the receiver on the
network.
IEEE 802.11 Wireless

The IEEE 802.11 standard outlines a family of specifications for wireless networking. The original 802.11 specification
states that either Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) or Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) can be
used. Also, the 802.11a extension uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for encoding rather than
either FHSS or DSSS. 802.11 is a wireless Ethernet technology that uses the CSMA/CA access method with wireless
devices using DSSS radio technology. DSSS operates in a 2.4 GHz frequency band. When you hear the term "radio
frequency," think of this standard. The 802.11b standard includes higher wireless speeds11 MBpsa marked
improvement over the 1 MBps outlined in the 802.11 standard. The 802.11g standard offers additional improvements
in speed operating at 54 Mbps.
Understand the CSMA/CA Access Signaling Method
A network protocol used in 802.11 wireless networks and on AppleTalk networks that listens to a network to avoid data
collisions. This method differs from CSMA/CD that deals with network transmissions once collisions have been
detected. The CSMA/CA access method increases network traffic because, before any packets of data are

transmitted, the wireless computer in question has to broadcast a signal on the network media in order to listen for
collisions and to tell other network devices not to broadcast.
Table 2 - Current Wireless LAN Standards Including Speed, Frequency, and Advantages/Disadvantages
Standard
Data Speed
Frequency
Advantages/Disadvantages
IEEE 802.11
Up to 2 Mbps
2.4 GHz
This specification extends into 802.11b.
5 GHz
"Wi-Fi" certified products. Up to 12

overlapping channels. Lower RF
interference than 802.11b and 802.11g. Can
access data at up to 54 Mbps. Shorter
range than 802.11b. Not compatible with
802.11b.
2.4 GHz
"Wi-Fi" certified products. Requires fewer

access points than 802.11a. Can access
data at 11 Mbps up to 300 feet from
wireless access point (WAP). Up to 11
channels available. Not compatible with
802.11a.
2.4 GHz
"Wi-Fi" certified products. May replace

802.11b. Can access data at up to 54 Mbps.
Better security than 802.11. Compatible with
802.11b. Up to 11 channels available.
Up to 2 Mbps
2.45 GHz
Bluetooth does not support TCP/IP and

wireless LAN applications. Best suited for
short-range applications, such as Internet
devices. Bluetooth is also used in
connecting personal digital assistants
(PDAs) and cell phones.
Up to 75 Mbps
Employed in metropolitan area networks

(MANs) using point-to-multipoint
architecture. Uses the 2 GHZ through11
2 GHZ to
GHz and 66 GHz bandwidth at very high
11 GHz,
speeds and up to 30 miles in range.
and 66 GHz
Applications include as Voice over Internet
Protocol (VoIP), IP connectivity, and Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM) voice and data.
IEEE 802.11a
Wi-Fi
IEEE 802.11b
Wi-Fi
IEEE 802.11g
Wi-Fi
Bluetooth
802.16
WiMAX
Up to 54 Mbps
Up to 11 Mbps
Up to 54 Mbps
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

FDDI is a set of American National Standards Institute (ANSI) protocols for sending network data over fiber-optic
cable. FDDI networks are token passing, dual-ring networks supporting data rates of up to 100 Mbps. FDDI networks
are primarily used as backbones in WANs. FDDI uses dual-ring architecture. Network data flows in opposite directions
on each ring. The dual rings consist of a primary and a secondary ring. During normal operations, the primary ring is
used for data communications and the secondary ring remains idle.

Obviously, LLC, 802.2 standard does not break down into speed, access methods, topology, and cable type.
Table 3 - Other Standards Referenced in CompTIAs Network+ Test Objectives
Standard
Speed
Access Method
Topology Types
Cable Types
802.3
10, 100, or 1000

Mbps
CSMA / CD
Logical bus
UTP, STP, or Fiber
802.5
4 or 16 Mbps
Token passing
Physical star,
logical ring
STP
802.11
1, 11 or 54 Mbps
CSMA / CA
Cellular
Cellular (because its wireless)
FDDI
100 Mbps
Token passing
Dual logical ring
Fiber-optic cable
1.3 Specify the characteristic (for example: speed, length, topology, and
cable type) of the following cable standards:
Table 4 - Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
Designation
Media
Type
Maximum Cable Length
Maximum Transfer Speed Connector Topology
10BASE-T
Cat 3 or
100 meters
better UTP
10BASE-FL
Multimode 2 kilometers (6,561 feet) without 10 Mbps

optical fiber a repeater
100BASE-TX Cat 5 UTP
10 Mbps
100 meters
RJ-45
ST fiberStar
optic cable
plug
100 Mbps
100BASE-FX Micro
412 meters (half duplex)
multimode 2km without a repeater (full
optical fiber duplex)
Star
RJ-45
100 Mbps (half duplex) or SC fiber200 Mbps (full duplex)

optic
connector
Star
Star
usually set up
only as point-topoint
Table 5 - Gigabit Ethernet
Designation
Media Type
Max Cable Length
Max Transfer
Speed
Connector
Topology
1000BASE-T
Cat 5, 4pr
100 meters
1 Gbps
RJ-45
Star
1000BASE-CX
Twinax STP
25 meters
1 Gbps
RJ-45
Star or point-topoint
1000BASE-SX
Micro multimode 550 meters (50u)

optical fiber
275 meters (62.5u)
1 Gbps
SC fiber-optic
connector
Point-to-point
1000BASE-LX
Multimode or
single mode
550 meters
1 Gbps
(multimode) or 5000
SC fiber-Optic
t
Point-to-point
Fiber optic
meters (single
mode)
connector
Table 6 - 10 Gigabit Ethernet
Designation
Media Type
Max Cable Length
Max Transfer
Speed
Connector
Topology
10 GBASE-SR
Multimode
optical fiber
300 meters
10 GBps
850-nm serial
LAN
Point-to-point
10 GBASE-LR
Multimode
optical fiber
10 kilometers
10 GBps
1310-nm serial
LAN
Point-to-point
10 GBASE-ER
Multimode
optical fiber
40 kilometers
10 GBps
1550-nm serial
LAN
Point-to-point
1.4 Recognize the following media connectors and describe their uses:
RJ-11
RJ-11 stands for Registered Jack-11. This is a four-wire connector used mainly to connect telephone equipment in
North America. A phone circuit uses two wires; the RJ-11 jack uses four wires. The RJ-11 connector looks very similar
to the RJ-45 connector. Be careful not to confuse the RJ-11 with the RJ-45 connector, which holds eight wires and is
slightly larger. The RJ-11 connector is used in computers to connect a phone line to a computer modem.
RJ-45
RJ-45 connectors are used on 10BASE-T and 100BASE-T networks and are defined in IEEE 802.3 standard. The RJ45 connector is used with CAT 5, CAT5e, and CAT 6 cables. RJ-45 connectors connect computers in LANs to hubs
and switches. If your computer is attached to a standard Ethernet network, disconnect the RJ-45 cable in the back of
your computer and have a look. The RJ-45 is a connector for digital transmission over 4-pair copper wire, either
untwisted or twisted. The interface has eight wires or pins.
F-Type
An F-Type media connector is a threaded, coaxial signal connector typically used in consumer applications, such as a
coaxial cable connection to a TV or VCR. An F-Type media connector is inexpensive because the pin of the connector
is actually the center conductor in the coaxial cable.
ST
ST stands for Straight Tip. This is a fiber-optic cable connector youll see in 100BASE-FX networking environments.
This is one of two commonly used fiber optic connectors. It uses a BNC attachment mechanism much like what you
see in F-Type connectors.
SC
SC stands for standard connector or subscriber connector. This fiber-optic cable connector is sometimes called a
square connector because of its shape. SC connectors are latched and require a button or release to disconnect it. SC
connectors work with both single-mode or multimode optical fibers and last for around 1,000
connections/disconnections. Although not as common as ST connectors, they are seeing increased use in 1000BASECX and 1000BASE-LX LAN connections.
IEEE 1394 (FireWire)

IEEE 1394 is an interface standard initiated by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for very fast, 200
Mbps, 400 Mbps (1394a), and 800 Mbps (1394b) digital data transfer, especially of streaming video. IEEE 1394
connectors are used to transmit and receive data between FireWire devices. Digital Camcorders commonly use a
FireWire connection to transfer digital images through a FireWire port on a PC or Macintosh. FireWire is a registered
trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. FireWire connectors come into two varieties, 4-pin and 6-pin and are used to
connect to 4-pin square FireWire receptacles or 6-pin rectangular FireWire receptacles.
Fiber LC (Local Connector)

Fiber-optic LC connectors are made of Zirconia ceramic ferrule. They have an RJ-45 push-pull style housing and
latching mechanism. LC connectors are half the size of standard connectors and are used on private and public
Ethernet networks. Fiber patch cords using LC connectors are used to connect fiber optic Ethernet network devices.
MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack)

MT-RJ is a multimode or single mode fiber optic connector used to connect MT-RJ, ST, SC, and LC types of fiber optic
cable in Ethernet networking environments.
USB (Universal Serial Bus)

USB is a PC standard interface that connects at speeds of 12 Mbps (USB 1.1) or 480 Mbps (USB 2.0). USB "A"
connectors media cables are used to connect to your USB port on the back or front on your PC. Various male and
female USB "mini" connectors are used to connect digital devices, such as digital cameras to USB A ports.
1.5 Recognize the following media types and describe their uses:
Twisted Pair STP and UTP
Bundled pairs of twisted, insulated copper wire are used for telephone lines and Ethernet computer networks
throughout the United States and elsewhere. Twisted-pair media cable carries a signal a maximum distance of 100
meters. Twisted pair cable comes in two types: STP and UTP. STP contains a metal foil sheath to reduce signal
degradation, crosstalk, EMI (electro magnetic interference) and RFI (radio frequency interference) and is a better
choice than UTP in industrial settings where high-voltage machinery operates. UTP is used to wire Ethernet, Fast
Ethernet, and 1000Base-T LANs and is somewhat susceptible to electromagnetic interference and crosstalk. Twistedpair cabling is the most common type of cabling in use today. Both STP and UTP cable are inexpensive.
Major categories of UTP and STP cable that you need to know for the exam include: Category 3, Category 5, Category
5e, and Category 6
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable today is used mostly in telephone and cable television systems. In the past, coaxial cable was used in
10Base5 (Thicknet) and 10BASE2 (Thinnet) Ethernet networks. Coaxial cable uses BNC connectors. The heavy
shielding offered by coaxial cable helps protect data offering longer maximum cable lengths than the more prevalent
Cat 5 cable. However, coaxial cable is expensive and the connectors are harder to make. For longer communication
distances and higher data transfer rates, fiber-optic cable is used today
Fiber-Optic Cable
Fiber-optic cable uses pulses of light instead of electrical signals to transmit data. Fiber-optic cable includes a center
core containing the glass fibers surrounded by a glass cladding composed of varying layers of reflective glass that
refract light back into the core. An outer layer of PVC and inner layers of protective buffer material protect the inner
glass core. Using fiber-optic cable, maximum cable lengths of 25 kilometers and data transmission rates are up to
2Gbps are possible. Fiber-optic cable carries laser light encoded with digital signals, and is capable of reliably
transmitting billions of bits of data per second. It also offers greater security (much more difficult to tap), emitting no
EMI or RFI. Several connectors are used to connect fiber to networking devices. The most common connector used is
the SC connector. Fibers main disadvantage is its expense. The cable itself is more expensive to buy, more expensive
to install, and more expensive to maintain. There are two types of fiber-optic cable: SMF (single mode fiber) and MMF
(multimode fiber).
1.6 Identify the purpose, features, and functions of the following network
components:
Hubs
Hubs operate in Layer 1, the Physical layer, of the OSI Reference Model. A hub is a device that connects all the nodes
of a single network. Each device is connected to a single cable that connects directly into the hub. All transmissions
that come into a physical port are rebroadcast to all other connections. That means if one device sends network
packets, all the other devices will receive them. All devices connected by a hub are in the same collision domain. A
hub generally uses Category 5 media cabling. Types of hubs include standard (10 Mbps), Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps),
and 10/100 combo versions. Small peer-to-peer networks (less than 10 devices) are a good candidate for a hub.
Larger networks call for switches. Several types of hubs are available: Passive hubs, active hubs, switching hubs
and intelligent hubs.
Switches
Switches have a thing or two in common with hubs. Both devices can connect multiple segments of a single network
and both allow those network devices to communicate. Like hubs, switches are used in Ethernet environments and
support speeds of 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, and 1000 Mbps. Like hubs devices connected by a switch reside in the same
collision domain. Switches even look a lot like hubs. There is, however, one key difference: A switch filters and
forwards packets between LAN segments, making a direct connection between the transmitting device and the
destination device. Compare that to a hub, which rebroadcasts signals out from all ports. On a switched network, only
the sending device and the receiving device transmit and receive the signal. The main benefit of a switch over a hub is
that no bandwidth is wasted by sending signals to devices that dont need the signal. Switches are also used to
connect VPNs (virtual private networks). Switches operate in Layer 2, the Data Link layer, and sometimes in Layer 3,
the Network layer of the OSI Model. Layer 2 switches read the MAC address to determine where a packet is going.
Operating at Layer 2 or Layer 3, switches support the use of packet protocols.
Layer 3 switches can perform some routing functions like Layer 3 forwarding from the hardware but they do not take
the place of routers in a network, Layer 3 switches function like Layer 2 switches but use IP or network addresses to
communicate. A Layer 3 switch allows you to use switching hardware for routing, which is faster because it eliminates
a lot of the latency you'll normally see in regular routers. Switches are a little more expensive than hubs, but because
of their speed advantages, are more commonly used today in all types of Ethernet networks.
Bridges
Bridges provide an inexpensive and easy way to connect network segments, much as hubs and switches do. Like
switches, they connect two segments of the same LAN or they connect two LANs using Ethernet or Token Ring.
Similar to a switch, a bridge operates at Layer 2 on the OSI Reference Model. Bridges and switches both isolate and
contain collision domains within a segment. They both transmit broadcasts from one segment to another (which can
lead to broadcast storms). Similar to switches, bridges also learn and maintain a table where nodes are located based
on MAC addresses.
What sets a bridge apart from a switch is that switches allow simultaneous communications between any two nodes.
Bridges are used primarily to segment networks. A switch is designed to communicate with individual nodes whereas a
bridge communicates with and between network segments.
When designing a network with more than one segment, the debate often comes down to whether to use a bridge, a
switch, or a router. A bridge's best use is to join LANs containing different media types, such as UTP and coaxial.
Bridges are also helpful in creating larger networks, and in keeping network segments free from data that doesn't
belong on a particular segment. Bridges, however, are seldom used to bridge two LANs because they broadcast all
messages to everyone.
Routers
A router, which operates at Layer 3 of the OSI Model, creates and connects several LANs. Howeverand heres the
key difference between a router and a bridge or switcha router also permits two different network topologies, such as
Ethernet and Token Ring on the same LAN, A router provides multiple communication paths (compared to only one on
a bridge) between segments, and map nodes on a segment and the connecting paths using a routing protocol and
internal routing tables. Network broadcasts cannot transverse a router, but they can transverse switches and bridges.
Routing over a segmented network is no different than routing over an Internet network. The router uses the packets
destination IP address (this is what makes it a Layer 3 device). Remember, bridges and switches use the Layer 2 MAC
address to determine where a frame should go. If the destination IP address is on a segment directly connected to the
router, then the router forwards the frame out the appropriate port to that segment. If not, the router will search its
routing table and then send it packets to a matching IP address in the routing table.
When youre thinking about hubs, bridges, switches, and routers, remember that routers are the only devices of the
four that allow you to share a single IP address among multiple network clients.
This is a good place to discuss the brouter. A brouter is a router that can also functions as a bridge. A brouter can
process some information at Layer 2 (MAC addresses) and other information at Layer 3 (IP or IPX addresses). How it
does this is determined by how it is configured. The most useful feature of a LAN router is to isolate certain types of
traffic (such as broadcasts and multicasts) from other networks. The brouter defeats this purpose because, functioning
as a bridge, its passes broadcasts through. Because of this, brouters are now used often today.
Gateways
A gateway is a term for any hardware or software that joins together two dissimilar networks using different network
protocols. In other words, a gateway is a device that stands at the edge of a network and routes traffic from a single
network source to multiple destinations outside the single network. Using this definition, many routers also function as
gateways. Gateways are the most complex of all the network devices CompTIA expects you to know about gateways
because they translate protocols at multiple layers of the OSI reference model.
For instance, lets say you have a gateway that connects an LAN with a mainframe. In a LAN, youve have distributed
processing, baseband communications, and the ASCII character set. Mainframe networks use centralized processing,
broadband communications and he EBCDIC character set. A gateway, when properly configured, translates each LAN
protocol into its mainframe counterpart and vice versa.

Gateways can be all software, all hardware, or a combination of the two.
Depending on their implementation, gateways can operate at any level of the
OSI model, though they generally operate from the Transport layer (Layer 4)
to the Application layer (Layer 7). Gateways exist on the borders of a
network, which means they are functionally related to firewalls. A connection
to your companys ISP also uses a gateway.
CSU/DSU
(Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit)
The CSU/DSU is two devices often bundled as one unit found in equipment
rooms where the network connects via T-series data connectors, like a
leased T1 or T3 line. The CSU/DSU connects a digital carrier, such as the
T1 to the network equipment, usually a router. The CSU terminates the line
at the customer site, whereas the DSU performs the actual transmission
through the CSU. The CSU also provides diagnostics and remote testing
while the DSU provides buffering and data flow control. Typically, the two
devices are packaged together as a single unit. Think of it as a very highpowered, very expensive modem. Such a device is required for both ends of
a leased T1 or T3 connection and both ends must be use the same
communications standard.
NICs (Network Interface Cards)

A NIC is everything its name suggests. It is a card installed in a networked
device, such as a computer, that creates an interface or connection to your
network. Most NICs are either built into the motherboard or installed as a
separate expansion card. PCs, such as laptops, that lack expansion slots
often use special PC card NIC adapters or have built-in wireless connectivity
instead. A NIC can be wired (Ethernet) or wireless (WLAN).
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Adapters

ISDN service is an older technology that has been around for years.
Although not as popular as DSL or cable is for connecting to the Internet,
ISDN is often used as a backup connection for a companys T1 or T3 line
when it goes down. People in remote areas that dont have access to cable
or DSL also use ISDN for their home Internet connection. Instead of using a
modem, you use an ISDN adapter and a phone line with a special
connection that allows the transmission and receipt of digital signals. ISDN
supports data transfer rates of 64 Kbps. The Basic Rate Interface (BRI) type
of ISDN consists of two 64 Kbps B-channels and one 16 Mbps data or Dchannel for transmitting control information. You can often combine the two
B channels achieving data transfer rates of up to 128 Kbps. Due to its high
initial cost and complexity in setting up, ISDN never really caught on.
WAPs (Wireless Access Points)

As the name suggests, wireless access points transmit wireless network
signals to wireless client devices. The range of these signals varies,
depending on variables as floors, metal and concrete walls. In general, the
range is about 300 feet in a building, up to 1000 feet in open air. In many
ways, WAPs are like cellular phone towers. Wireless client PCs can "roam"

through and between access points, which extends the coverage area.
Most WAPs, however, cannot communicate with each other wirelessly. In general, WAPs communicate only with
wireless clients. This is especially true for inexpensive, consumer-grade WAP products. This means that you can't use
two WAPS to wirelessly connect two non-wireless LANs together. To do this, you need to purchase and use a wireless
bridge.
WAPs are usually configured using the provided software. It's important for clients to not only change the default
workgroup name, but also to enable and configure wireless security discussed later in this study guide. Wireless
clients need to also configure the SSID and channel number assigned to a WAP to create a connection.
Modems
A modem is a device that changes digital data into analog signals transmitted over analog medium, such as telephone
lines. Modem stands for modulator/demodulator.
There are three types of modems you need to know about for the exam:
Traditional (POTS/PSTN) - POTS/PSTN (plain old telephone service/public switch transmission network) is used
by telephones and computer modems. Modems are inexpensive and often built into the motherboard. They
convert the phone lines analog signal into digital signals that the computer understands. The theoretical highest
speed achievable by a modem is 56 Kbps.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) - DSL is a popular high-speed technology popular with both consumers and
businesses and is primarily used for connecting to the Internet. Unlike the traditional modem, a DSL line remains
connected to the Internet continuously. This means connections are constantly available or always on. Typical
data download rates with ADSL are up to 1.544 Mbps with upload rates as high as 1,024 MBps. There are two
types of DSLAsymmetric DSL (ASDL) and Symmetric DSL (SDSL).
Cable modems - Provide high-speed Internet access via coaxial cable television lines. At speeds of up to
36Mbps, cable modems using coaxial cable provide much greater bandwidth than telephone lines with speeds
up to 3MBps for accessing the World Wide Web. Cable modems require a special DSL modem and optional
router. Prices for equipment, installation and monthly service vary, though prices have dropped recently and are
competitive with DSL monthly fees.
A disadvantage to using a cable modem for Internet access is that many customers in a local area share access
and thus bandwidththis results in lower transmission rates if everyone in the local area is surfing the Web.
Transceivers (Media Converters)

A transceiver is a network device that transmits and/or receives analog or digital signals. Most computers on LANs use
a NIC that contains a built-in transceiver to transmit and receive network signals. In Ethernet networks, a transceiver is
sometimes referred to as a medium access unit (MAU). Other network devices, such as cable and ADSL modems,
routers, and switches, also contain a transmitter. In an ADSL modem, for example, the connection on the back of the
modem, often labeled WAN, is the transmitter converting analog DSL signals into digital signals and connects to a
firewall router on a LAN or directly to your home PC NIC.
Firewalls
A firewall is a hardware device or software that is most often used to protect networks and home PCs from malicious
attacks from the Internet. Firewalls protect against spyware, hijackers, hackers, viruses, Trojan horses, worms,
phishing, and spam are most often used with other protective software, such as anti-virus, anti-spam, and software.
Although more expensive than software firewalls, hardware firewalls offer better protection than software alone.
LANs and ISPs commonly use hardware routers that contain built-in firewall protection. Router firewalls using packet
filtering and port blocking examine network packets entering or leaving the company's Intranet and block packets that
do not meet specified security criteria. Firewalls can also be configured to use sets of pre-defined "rules" and ACLs
(access control lists). On the software side, proxy servers can be deployed to intercept all packets entering and leaving

the network. The proxy server effectively masks or hides the true network addresses on the companys private
Intranet. Also, Windows XP Professional, Service Pack 2, when installed, enables a software firewall built into the NOS
to primarily protect PCs against worms. Zone Alarm for Windows and SmoothWall for Linux are other good software
firewall products that can be downloaded from the Internet.
1.7 Specify the general characteristics (carrier speed, frequency,

transmission type and topology) of the following wireless technologies:
Table 7 - Speed, Frequency, Transmission Type, and Topology of IEEE 802 Standards
Standard
Data Speed
Frequency
Transmission Type
Topology
IEEE 802.11
Up to 2 Mbps
2.4 GHz
FHSS or DSSS
Point-to-point
IEEE 802.11a
Wi-Fi
Up to 54 Mbps
5 GHz
Up to 11 Mbps
2.4 GHz
IEEE 802.11b
Wi-Fi
OFDM
DSSS with CCK
Point-to-point
Point-to-point
OFDM above 20Mbps
IEEE 802.11g
Wi-Fi
Up to 54 Mbps
2.4 GHz
DSSS with CCK below

20Mbps
Point-to-point
Bluetooth
Up to 2 Mbps
2.45 GHz
FHSS
Scatternet
1.8 Identify factors which affect the range and speed of wireless service
(for example: interference, antenna type and environmental factors).
Several factors can influence the range and speed of wireless devices, including interference, type of wireless
antenna, environment, and type of security used. The most important factor that directly affects both the wireless
device range and speed is the location of the WAP. The wireless device's data rate, or speed, is directly proportional to
the distance from the WAP. This is especially true with 802.11b wireless products. Studies have shown full theoretical
speeds (11 Mbps) at up to 100 feet, half speed (5.5 Mbps) at 150 feet, and slow speeds of 2 Mbps from 200 plus feet
from the AP. Real-world speeds are about one-half of the theoretical rates. The best location for your AP is in the
center of the area in which you want to roam.
Interference and environmental factors also directly affect wireless RF performance. Objects and environmental factors
that interfere with wireless devices include any large metal object, microwave ovens, 2.4GHz cordless phones, water
heaters, refrigerators, desktop computers, Bluetooth devices, XM radio, many medical devices, garage door openers,
other wireless networks, A/V sending devices, and all forms and types of concrete objects. At work walls, desks,
cubicles, concrete, brick, and other structural objects can interfere with wireless transmission. Many types of electronic
devices can affect your wireless network and your wireless network can also affect electronic devices. A common
source of interference, especially in a home environment is a cordless phone. Other types of interference include
attenuation, a decrease in intensity of a signal, multipath, RF signals arriving at a location using different transmission
paths. reflection, sound waves bouncing back from a surface and refraction, a change of direction of propagation of
signals, Finally, wireless RF interference can be caused from other wireless networks. Optimal wireless performance is
also dependent on selecting and using the right wireless antenna.
Domain 2.0 - Protocols and Standards 20%

2.1 Identify a MAC (Media Access Control) address and its parts.
A unique hexadecimal MAC address is burned into all NICs. To identify a MAC address, open a command prompt on a
Windows 95/98/Me computer, click Start > Run, and then type winipcfg. On Windows, NT/2000/XP, click Start >
Run, type cmd, and then type ipconfig /all.
The MAC address for your NIC is listed to the right of the Physical Address heading. No two devices ever have the
same MAC address although the MAC address can be changed or spoofed by unscrupulous people. Manufacturers
are assigned the first half (first 3 bytes) of unique ranges of MAC addresses to burn into their NICs for resale.
The MAC address on a devices NIC is the computers physical address, as opposed to an Internet Protocol (IP)
address, which is logical address. The MAC address is what a Layer 2 network device, such as a bridge or a switch,
uses to determine where to send data packets. A MAC address is also referred to as the hardware address, because
its permanently embedded in the NIC.
The MAC address itself is a 12-digit hexadecimal number, which is represented by numbers 09 and the letters AF.
Hexadecimal uses a 16 base numbering system represented by the following number combinations: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 0A, 0B, 0C, 0D, 0E, 0F, 10. Using these number combinations, more than 12 billion unique NIC MAC
addresses can be created! On the exam, look for MAC addresses to be displayed with colons, like this:
00:50:DA:C3:8A:F9
2.2 Identify the seven layers of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnect)
model and their functions.
Table 9 - The Seven Layers of the OSI Model
Layer Layer Name Header
Protocol
Data Unit
Protocols and
Services
Functions
Application
Telnet, FTP, SMTP, Where users request network processes. Network

HTTP, File and Print, application services, such as File Transfer Protocol
E-mail, WWW, SMB, (FTP) and e-mail, use this layer for communication
NCP
Presentation Protocol
Data Unit
ASCII, TIFF, JPEG,

GIF, MIDI, MPEG,
QuickTime
Session
Protocol
Data Unit
RPC, ZIP, SCP,

Establishes, maintains, and manages
SQL, NetBIOS, NFS, communication sessions between computers.
ASP
Controls and manages network connection
sessions.
Transport
Segments TCP, NBP, UDP,

NCP, SPX
Data representation and application translation to

network and vice versa. Formats data for
presentation to the layers above and below. Where
encryption, formatting, compression, and
translation function.
Reliable transmission and transfer of data packets.

Data is divided into packets for assembly and
disassembly of packets before and after
transmission. Provides end-to-end error recovery,
connectivity, and flow control.
Network
Datagrams IP, IPX, RARP, ARP,

or packets BootP, DHCP,
ICMP, BGP, OSPF,
RIP
Where routing and forwarding take place.

Determines how data is routed across the network,
in addition to the structure and use of logical IP
addressing and datagram (frame) sequencing.
Where routers and Layer 3 switches operate.
Data Link
sublayers
MAC and
LLC
Frames
MAC, LLC, Frame

Relay,
PPP802.11b/g
Deals with links, encoding, and decoding packets

into bits. Where topology is defined and Layer 2
switches, intelligent hubs and bridges operate. The
MAC sublayer controls access to the NIC media.
The LLC sublayer performs flow control, frame
synchronization, and error checking
Physical
Bits
Ethernet, Token
Ring, 802.3APs
The electrical, RF, and physical specifications for

network media that provide network signals to carry
data bits across a network. Provides the hardware,
such a NIC, cable, and media. Where hubs and
repeaters operate.
Yellow =
Blue
=
Upper layers
Lower layers
2.3 Identify the OSI layers at which the following network components
operate:
Table 10 - Devices and the OSI Model
Device
OSI Model Layer
Hubs
Layer 1 (Physical)
Switches
Layer 2 (Data Link)
Bridges
Layer 2 (Data Link)
Routers and some switches
Layer 3 (Network)
NICs
Layer 1 (Physical)
WAPs
Layer 1 (Physical) and

Layer 2 (Data Link)
2.4 Differentiate between the following network protocols

in terms of routing, addressing schemes, interoperability,
and naming conventions:
IPX/SPX
Routing - Routers that route TCP/IP usually can route IPX/SPX. Routing protocols used to route the IPX/SPX
protocol are RIP, SAP, and NLSP.
Addressing - Each nodes 12-digit hexadecimal address is represented by its own unique 8-digit hexadecimal
IPX network address.
Interoperability - Early NetWare versions (up to NetWare 5.0) used IPX/SPX as the default protocol. Current
Novell operating systems can use the IPX/SPX protocol, which is not as flexible as TCP/IP. The IPX/SPX
protocol stack can communicate with a number of clients, including Windows and Linux. However, many
versions of UNIX and other high-end operating systems, such as OS/400, dont provide built-in support for the
IPX/SPX protocol stack.
Naming - The only devices that use names are servers. Any name can be used, so long as the name contains
no illegal characters. The server name has to contain less than 64 characters (or 47 characters in older versions
of NetWare). IPX/SPX names are not case-sensitive. Names are resolved using the older Novell Bindery
Services or the newer Novell Directory Services (NDS).
NetBEUI/NetBIOS
Routing - Does not use routing discovery protocols. NetBEUI/Network Basic Input/Output System (NetBIOS) are
not routable and are designed instead for LANs only.
Addressing - See Naming.
Interoperability - Almost all Windows-based LANs can use NetBIOS. All early Windows network operating
systems (Windows for Workgroups, Windows 9x, and Windows NT) used NetBEUI as their default protocol.
NetBEUI was first created by IBM for its LAN Manager server. Apple operating systems do not natively support
NetBEUI.
Naming - There is very little network addressing using NetBEUI/NetBIOS. In NetBEUI, naming and addressing
mean the same thing. Each workstation is given a unique name, called the NetBIOS or computer name. All
versions of Windows products can use WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service) that resolves host or computer
names into IP addresses. Even though Windows 2000/XP clients use DNS for name resolution, there are still
some applications and processes that are dependent on WINS for name resolution services. You can use WINS
proxy agents for non-WINS clients, such as UNIX, to resolve the NetBIOS names of Windows clients.
AppleTalk
Routing - Early versions of AppleTalk were not routable. With the release of AppleTalk version 2, however, the
Routing Table Maintenance Protocol (RTMP), a distance vector protocol similar to RIP, is used to route
AppleTalk over IP. Appletalk over IP allows a remote Macintosh client to connect to a remote network server
using IP over the Internet.
Addressing - AppleTalk Uses a 24-bit address, of which 16 bits are allotted to the network. Each network
segment receives either one 16-bit network number or a range of 16-bit numbers, called extended AppleTalk
because it supports more than 254 nodes. Each node automatically assigns itself a node address. AppleTalk
networks also use areas, called zones that allow a network to be segmented into logical areas.
Interoperability - Only Apple MAC computers and Apple laser printers are supported. Most Windows network
operating systems can support both versions of AppleTalk by installing additional network software. Apple
computers can communicate on Ethernet networks using the ELAP (EtherTalk Link Access Protocol). ELAP
encapsulates AppleTalk frames in Ethernet packets. This implementation is commonly called EtherTalk. There
is also an implementation called TokenTalk allowing Apple computer to communicate on Token Ring networks.
Naming - AppleTalk v1 uses NBP (Name Binding Protocol) that associates a computers node name with its
network address. This protocol is broadcast-based, and every device broadcasts its name when it logs onto the
network. Version 2 uses IP naming.
TCP/IP
Routing - TCP/IP uses the IP address of the sender, the recipient, and the next router to determine its path.
Routers build routing tables containing IP addresses using routing protocols, such as RIP and OSPF (Open
Shortest Path First). Networks use IP with TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), to make a connection between
a destination and a source node.
Addressing - IP sends the packets of data to the receiving node, but with no confirmation. TCP/IP is used to
establish and confirm a connection between two hosts. IP network addressing uses DNS (Domain Name
System) to resolve IP addresses into domain names and vice versa. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
resolves the IP address into the nodes unique MAC addresses. TCP functions at Layer 4 and IP functions at
Layer 3 in the OSI model.
Interoperability - No protocol is more interoperable than TCP/IP. As the de-facto protocol used on the World
Wide Web, it is used by all modern network operating systems. All modern Windows, Novell, Macintosh, UNIX,
and Linux network operating systems use TCP/IP as their default protocol.
Naming - Named using DNS conventions, which resolves host names into IP addresses.
2.5 Identify the components and structure of IP addresses (IPv4, IPv6)

and the required setting for connections across the Internet.
IPv4
TCP/IP networks use IP addressing to identify computers and other networking devices. Networks using the TCP/IP
protocol route messages based on the IP address of the destination device. IPv4 employs a 32-bit addressing scheme.
IPv4 uses four 8-bit binary coded numbers written in decimal dot notation. In an IPv4 address, each byte, or octet,
uses a number that ranges from 0 to 255. Each eight-bit decimal octet contains a decimal value based on its position.
Using a private LAN, you can assign random IP addresses as long as each one is unique and as long as each IP
address is on the same subnet. Connecting a private network to the Internet, however, requires using a unique,
registered IP address to avoid identical IP addresses that would result in unreliable communications. The number of
unique, unassigned IPv4 addresses is presently in short supply. A new classless scheme called Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR) is gradually replacing the out-dated, class-based IPv4 addressing system. It is called IPv6.
IPv6
The 32-bit IPv4 addressing scheme can only produce about 3.7 billion unique IP addresses. With the increasing
popularity and use of the Internet and World Wide Web, it soon became apparent that the number of available IPv4
addresses would not be enough. Based on CIDR, IPv6 was standardized in 1994 to overcome these limitations and is
beginning to be implemented.
An IPv6 address looks very different from an IPv4 address. IPv6 uses a 128-bit addressing scheme that can produce
79 octillion IP addresses! IPv6 uses eight octet sets of four hexadecimal digits. IPv6 is backward compatible with the
older IPv4, allowing for gradual upgrades. It is designed to run well on high speed Gigabit Ethernet networks while still
providing efficiencies for low bandwidth networks, such as wireless networks. The 128-bit IPv6 address is divided into
eight 16-bit hexadecimal numbers separated by colons (:). The format is represented by
xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx:xxxx, If part of the address is expressed as :0000: or several sets of zeros, the
shorthand version will look like this:
2342:0000:1F1F:0100:0010:0100:11B0:AFFF
The first 64 bits are used for the network prefix whereas the last 64 bits are used to identify the interface ID, which is
the host. The first 24-bits in the interface ID represent the company ID, and the last 40 bits represent the extension ID
that creates a larger address space for the NIC manufacturer to use. Another key difference between IPv4 and IPv6
addressing is in the way IPv6 configures hosts. Instead of an IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway that IPv4
uses, each node on an IPv6 network is required to have three different addresses. The host receives an address from
the upstream supplier, a local address, and a link local address.
2.6 Identify classful IP ranges and their default subnet masks For
example: Class A, B and C).
Internet addressesaddress ranges and supported hosts and networksare assigned from the following three
classes.
Class A - 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255 - supports 16,777,214 million hosts on each of 126 networks
Class B - 128.0.0.1 to 191.255.255.255 - supports 65,534 hosts on each of 16,000 networks
Class C -192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 - supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks
Routers use subnet masks to determine and separate (mask) the network and host portions of the IP address. There
also is a class D address range, which is used for Multicast and Class E address range that is experimental.
Class A networks have a binary value of zero and a decimal number from 1 to 126. The first eight bits represent the
network portion of the subnet mask ID whereas the remaining 24 bits represent the host portion of the subnet mask ID.
Class A networks use the following subnet mask: 255.0.0.0 where 255 represents the network ID and 0.0.0 the host.
Represented as binary, a Class A address is 11111111.00000000.0000000.00000000.
Class B networks have a binary value of 10 and a decimal number from 128 to 191. Class B networks use the first 16
bits to represent the network ID and the last 16 bits represent the host. Class B networks use the following subnet
mask: 255.255.0.0; where 255.255 represents the network ID and 0.0 the host. Represented as binary, a Class B
address is 11111111.11111111.0000000.00000000.
Class C networks have a binary value of 110, and therefore decimal numbers from 192 to 223. Class C networks use
the first 24 bits for the network ID and the remaining 8 bits for the host. Class C networks use the following subnet
mask: 255.255.255.0; where 255.255.255 represents the network ID and.0 the host. Represented as binary, a Class C
address is 11111111. 11111111.11111111.00000000.
Note that 127.0.0.0 represents a loop back address and is reserved. Also network address 0 is reserved for routers
and the network address 255.255.255.255 is used to broadcast network signals.
2.7 Identify the purpose of subnetting.

Subnetting is the process of subdividing an assigned IP address into smaller networks or subnets. For example, let's
assume that you need to isolate several individual networks within a companys IP address space by department or
branch offices. If you are assigned one IP address only, you could use subnetting to connect five networks to the
Internet. To continue this example, you are assigned 224.151.131.89 for your only IP Public address with a subnet
mask of 255.555.555.0. Because this is a Class C address and only the last octet represents the host portion, you can
only change the last octet by borrowing bits from the host ID. The following formula is used to calculate the number of
available subnets:
2 to the x power minus 2 = the number of available subnets, where x = the number of bits used from the node
portion of the IP address to make subnets.
In the example, because you want five networks, you take three bits from the last octet to use for subnets by using the
following formula:
2 to the third power minus two = six subnets (more than enough)
2.8 Identify the differences between public and private networks

The difference between a public and private network is a public network, such as the Internet, sits in front of a firewall
and does not offer protection. Private IP addresses are not routable. A private network sits behind the firewall, and
offers protection from malicious attacks from the Internet. The gateway router will discard any packets with a private
source address into the bit bucket. So, you need to be sure to install your firewall on the outer edge of your network to
protect your private Intranet. Private networks have a Class A, Class B, or Class C range of private addresses that are
non-routable and therefore excluded from the Internet. They are as follows:
Class A - Private address range: 10.0.0.1 to 10.255.255.254
Class B - Private address range: 172.16.0.1 to 172.31.255.254
Class C - Private address range: 192.168.0.1 to 192.168.0.254
With the shortage of available classful IP address ranges, CIDR is used extensively for public IP addressing so that
entire blocks of IP addresses do not have to be purchased when you just need a few. All of the other Class A, Class B,
and Class C addresses are public, routable, IP addresses and are assigned to companies through the InterNic
authority or a company that the InterNic authority appoints to sell registered IP addresses.
2.9 Identify and differentiate between the following IP

addressing methods:
Static - An IP address, subnet mask, DNS, and gateway address that is manually configured in the TCP/IP
configuration options on client operating systems (OSs).
Dynamic - An IP address that is automatically assigned to network clients from a pool of addresses residing on a
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server.
Self-assigned - Automatic Private Internet Protocol Addressing (APIPA) is used by Windows 2000 and Windows
XP NOSs when a client is unable to obtain an IP address automatically from a DHCP server APIPA
automatically configures itself with an IP address using a range of addresses from 169.254.0.1 to
169.254.255.254. Since this is a Class B address, the APIPA client also configures itself with a default Class B
subnet mask of 255.255.0.0.
2.10 Define the purpose, function, and use of the

following protocols used in the TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) suite:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
TCP, a Transport layer protocol, is a host-to-host, connection-oriented protocol. It enables two hosts to establish a
connection and exchange network data. Unlike IP, TCP guarantees data packet delivery and reassembles packets
back into the same order in which they were sent.
TCPs connection-oriented properties set it apart from similar protocols, such as UDP. TCP provides error detection
and recovery, flow control, and guaranteed, reliable delivery of data. Network applications that require reliable,
guaranteed, error-free delivery use TCP. But TCP does this at a price. The TCP header contains 20 bytes, which
means it has more overhead than UDP. Because it has more overhead, its slower than UDP. To choose between TCP
and UDP, decide whether you want speed (UDP) or reliability (TCP).
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

UDP, also a Transport layer protocol, is a streamlined, economy class version of TCP, earning it the nickname thin
protocol, which means it doesnt take up much bandwidth on the network. UDP is a connectionless, unreliable, low
overhead protocol but is faster than TCP. UDP doesnt offer the assurances of TCP, but does do a very good job of
getting data from one host to another using lower bandwidth and fewer network resources to do so. Its a good choice
to use if guaranteed delivery is not required. UDP is also used when it is paired with a service, such as NFS, that
contains its own reliability checks.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

The FTP is an Application layer protocol that allows a user to upload or download files between hosts. FTP is the
simplest way to exchange files between computers on the Internet, and is used on the Web to download files. Its often
compared to HTTP, which transfers Web pages, and to SMTP, which transfers e-mail.
FTP operates as a protocol when used by applications. However, FTP also can operate as a program. Users can use
FTP to access directories and files and to perform directory operations such as relocating directories or files. FTP is
limited to listing and manipulating directories, typing file contents, and transferring files between computers. FTP
cannot execute remote files as programs. When paired with Telnet, FTP allows for seamless login to an FTP server for
file transfers. FTP also offers authentication security.
SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol)

SFTP is an interactive command prompt, application, and file transfer program, similar to FTP. The SFTP utility comes
with SSH or Secure Shell suite to provide encryption over insecure networks such as the Internet. It can also use
public key authentication and file compression. SFTP connects and logs into the specified host, and then uses an
interactive command prompt for file transfers. SFTP is used when you want to eliminate the security risks involved in
using standard FTP file transfers. Because of the security risks, you should only use FTP for anonymous logins.
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

TFTP is also similar to FTP in that it facilitates file transfer between computers. The difference between FTP and TFTP
is speed. FTP uses TCP, which is reliable but has high overhead, and TFTP uses UDP, which uses much less
bandwidth, offering greater speeds but less reliably.

TFTP is a more primitive, simpler version of FTP. TFTP only transfers files. It
does not allow the user to browse files in a directory, and there is no security
for authentication. TFTP is the protocol of choice for users who know the file
location and exactly what files they want. Because TFTP lacks security, it is
seldom-used by users. It is, however, used in other applications by system
administrators for activities such as downloading a new Internetwork
Operating System (IOS) to a Cisco Router.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

As its name implies, SMTP is used to send e-mail. One thing to remember is
how SMTP compares with POP3, which can be used with or without SMTP.
SMTP sends e-mail whereas POP3 receives e-mail.
SMTP uses the spooled, or queued, method to deliver e-mail. An e-mail is
sent to a destination and is spooled to a hard disk drive. The destination email server regularly checks the spooled e-mail queue for new e-mails, and
when it finds new e-mails, forwards or sends them to their destinations.
Most Internet-based e-mail services use SMTP to send e-mails along with
either POP3 or IMAP to receive e-mails. SMTP is generally used to send
messages between mail servers. This is why you need to specify both the
POP3 and the SMTP server IP addresses when you configure your e-mail
application.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

HTTP is a control protocol used on Web to transfer files from a Web server
or client PC to a Web browser. When you select a URL, HTTP is the protocol
that opens a Web page, no matter where that document is located. HTTP
resides in the Application layer of the OSI model, uses little bandwidth, and
supports the use of both text and graphics
HTTPS (Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

HTTPS is the secure version of HTTP. HTTPS was developed by Netscape
using Netscapes implementation of SSL. HTTPS offers secure messageoriented communications and is designed for use with HTTP. HTTPS allows
browsers and servers to sign, authenticate, and encrypt an HTTP network
packet. HTTPS uses the Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer
Security (TLS) protocols for security.
POP3 / IMAP4 (Post Office Protocol, version 3 /

Internet Message Access Protocol, version 4)
POP3 is an Application layer protocol used for to retrieve e-mail files from an
e-mail server. Whenever you connect to a POP3 e-mail server, all messages
addressed to your e-mail address are downloaded into your e-mail
application. Once e-mail files are downloaded, you can view, modify, and/or
delete the messages without further assistance from the POP3 server. POP3
can be used with or without SMTP.
IMAP4, similar to POP3, but supporting additional features. IMAP4 allows

you to download e-mail, look at or download the message header, store messages in hierarchical structure, and link to
documents and Usenet newsgroups. It also provides search commands that allow you to locate messages based on
their subject, header, or content. IMAP4 also allows users to manipulate their e-mail and e-mail folders while
disconnected from their main messaging system and to synchronize to their message store once the connection is
reestablished. IMAP4 also contains authentication components, which support the Kerberos authentication method.
Telnet
Telnet stands for Telephone Network, so called because most Telnet sessions occur over a dial-up network. Telnet is
a terminal emulation program often used to connect a remote computer to a Web server but can connect to any kind of
server. Once the connection is established, you enter and execute commands using a command prompt. Telnet
depends on TCP for transport services and reliable delivery. To start a Telnet session using a Telnet client, you must
log onto a Telnet server by entering a valid user name and password.
SSH (Secure Shell)

SSH is an application program used to log into another computer on a network, execute commands, and transfer files
back and forth. SSH offers secure data transfers as compared to using rlogin, telnet or FTP. Actually, SSH is a suite of
protocols; slogin, ssh and scp and requires that the server and client are both running SSH software. It uses strong
authentication methods and secure communications. Because the entire session is encrypted, SSH protects against
network attacks. SSH use the RSA public-key encryption technology authentication method and can be used on
Windows, UNIX, and Mac computers.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

ICMP works with IP at Layer 3 to provide Network layer management and control. Routers send ICMP control
messages in response to undeliverable datagram's. The receiving router places an ICMP message into an IP
datagram and sends the datagram back to the source.
ICMP provides feedback about network connectivity problems and the processing of datagram's but does not
guarantee reliable delivery. ICMP is built into most network operating systems such as Windows, UNIX, and Novell,
and can use packets containing error control, The ping command, for example, uses ICMP to test an Internet
connection. When you ping a network device with an IP address, the ICMP part of that hosts TCP/IP stack responds
to the request.
ARP / RARP (Address Resolution Protocol / Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

ARP is a Network layer protocol that resolves network (IP) addresses into hardware (MAC) addresses. ARP uses the
address resolution cache table built into every NIC. This table maps IP addresses to MAC addresses on the network.
Whenever a node needs to send a packet, it checks the address resolution cache table to see if the MAC address
information for the destination is there. If so, that destination address will be used. If not, an ARP broadcast request is
issued. ARP is built into most network operating systems such as Windows, UNIX, and Novell and is executed at a
command prompt.
RARP uses a host MAC address to discover its IP address. The host broadcasts its MAC physical address and a
RARP server replies with the host's IP address.
NTP (Network Time Protocol)

NTP is an Internet standard application protocol that sets computer clocks to a standard time source, usually a nuclear
clock maintained by the U.S. Naval Observatory Master Clocks. An NTP designated server on a LAN is often deployed
to periodically connect to an NTP server on the Internet, assuring accurate synchronization of the LAN NTP server's

time clock down to the millisecond. The LAN NTP server then checks and, if necessary, adjusts, all other servers and
client computers time clocks assuring accurate time and date stamping of client files.
NNTP (Network News Transport Protocol)

NNTP is an Application layer protocol used for the distribution, inquiry, retrieval, and posting of news articles and
USENET messages. USENET is a bulletin board system that contains more than 14,000 forums, called newsgroups.
Millions of people around the world use NNTP to view, access, and use their favorite newsgroup forums.
SCP (Secure Copy Protocol)

SCP is based upon and is very similar to SFTP. It uses SSH for safe, secure copying of files between a local and a
remote computer. SCP requires the local computer running SCP client software.
LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol)

LDAP is a set of Session layer protocols used to access X.500 information directories. It is based off the earlier X.500
standard but is simpler and also supports TCP/IP. Both Microsofts Active Directory and Novells eDirectory are based
on the X.500 standard. LDAP provides directory services on a network. LDAP is used for management applications
and browser applications that need simple read/write interactive access to the X.500 Directory.
IGMP (Internet Group Multicast Protocol)

IGMP is a Network layer protocol that is used by an Internet computer to report its multicast group membership to
adjacent routers. Multicasting allows an Internet computer to send content to multiple computers. Multicasting is used
to send out company newsletters to an e-mail distribution list, and to broadcast high-bandwidth programs using
streaming media to a multicast group membership audience.
LPR (Line Printer Remote)

LPR is a printer protocol originally developed for and used on UNIX systems. Today, it's the de-facto printing protocol
used to print across different NOS platforms. The LPR client sends a print request to the IP address of the LPD print
server. The LPD print server queues and prints the file. To enable LPR, LPR software must be installed on the client
computer.
2.11 Define the function of TCP/UDP ports.

A port is an endpoint to a logical network connection. Both the TCP and UDP protocols must use port numbers to
communicate with the upper OSI layers and the Web. Port numbers keep track of data communications across
networks. This list of well-known port numbers specifies the port used by the server service or process as it contacts
and connects to a port. Registered port numbers range from 0 through 65,536 and are usually assigned to the both
TCP and UDP protocols even though only one or the other may be required.
2.12 Identify the well-known ports associated with the following commonly
used services and protocols:

Table 11 - Commonly Used Port Numbers
Port Number
Services and
Protocols
Function
20
FTP
Transfers data
21
FTP
Provides flow control
22
SSH
Executes commands and moves files (Remote login protocol)
23
Telnet
Connects a remote computer to a server
25
SMTP
Delivers e-mail between e-mail servers
53
DNS
Translates host names into IP addresses
69
TFTP
Transfers data (simple FTP )
80
HTTP
Opens a browser connection to a Web page
110
POP3
Delivers e-mail between a mail server and client
119
NNTP
Views and writes news articles for various newsgroups
123
NTP
Sets computer clocks to a standard time
143
IMAP4
Downloads e-mail or e-mail headers; stores, searches messages from

newsgroups
443
HTTPS
Allows browsers and servers to sign, authenticate, and encrypt HTTP

network packets (uses SSL)
2.13 Identify the purpose of network services and protocols:

Table 12 - Network Services and Protocols
Network Service
Purpose
DNS
Translates and resolves IP addresses into host names or the reverse: resolves host
names to IP addresses.
NAT
Allows a LAN to use one set of IP addresses for in-house traffic and a second set of
IP addresses for external or Internet traffic. NAT hides private, internal IP addresses,
reducing the possibility of conflict with other companies IP address assignments.
ICS
Connects multiple computers in one LAN to the Internet through a single connection
and a single IP Address. ICS uses NAT. All versions of Windows except WFWs have
ICS software built into the network operating system.
WINS
Dynamically resolves a hosts NetBIOS or computer name into an IP address. All

versions of Windows NOSs and some WINS aware applications can use WINS. It
was used in earlier Windows versions on a LAN in place of using a DNS server.
SNMP
Monitors the network and network devices. SNMP sends messages to different parts
of a network. SNMP agents store and return data to the SNMP requesters. Uses
Management Information [Data] Bases (MIB) to define what information is available
from a managed network device.
NFS (Network File System)
Permits network users to access and use shared files. Similar to peer-to-peer network
file sharing. NFS allows different computer platforms running different OSes to share
files and disk storage space across both a local network and the Internet. Is a
client/server application developed by Sun Microsystems.
Zeroconf (Zero configuration) Cconnects networking devices using an Ethernet cable. Mainly supported by UNIX
systems with a focus on GNU/Linux and BSD. No configuration or DHCP server is
required.
SMB (Server Message Block)
Shares files, directories and devices. A message format used by DOS and early
Windows NOSs. Samba also uses SMB to allow UNIX/Linux and Windows machines
to share directories and files.
AFP (Apple File Protocol)
Used with TCP/IP, AFP over TCP/IP permits users to access AFP servers. AFP is an
AppleTalk network client/server file sharing protocol. AFP can be installed on nonapple computers allowing them access to an AppleTalk server
LPD (Network Printer

Daemon)
Processes LPR client print jobs. The LPD print server queues and prints the file.
Originally used on UNIX servers
Samba
Provides file and print services to SMB clients. An open source version of the SMB
file sharing protocol. Samba, originally developed for UNIX, also runs on Linux,
2.14 Identify the basic characteristics (For example: speed, capacity and
media) of the following WAN (Wide Area Network) technologies:
Packet Switching Versus Circuit Switching
The difference between packet switching and circuit switching is the use of resources. Using circuit-switched networks,
messages are broken into packets. Circuit switching uses a dedicated connection between the sender and receiver
that is maintained throughout the exchange. Network resources using circuit-switched networks are static before the
start and until the end of the data transfer, creating a logical circuit.
Using packet-switched networks, on the other hand, messages are broken into packets, each of which can take a
different route through the network to the destination where the packets are reassembled. So, in packet-switched
networks, resources are not reserved and can travel several routes through various routers.
Not all networks can be classified as pure circuit-switched networks or pure packet-switched networks. An example of
this is Asynchronous Transfer Mode.
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

ISDN is a digital telecommunications network that can carry voice, data, and video over existing telephone networks. It
is designed to provide a single interface for connecting to a phone, fax machine, or PC containing a modem.

ISDN has two communications channels:
B-channel - The Bearer (B) channel. This is a 64 Kbps channel used for voice, video, data, or multimedia calls.
There are two B channels that can be combined for a total speed of 128 Kbps.
D-channel - The Delta (D) channel. This operates at 16 Kbps. Its used primarily for communication, or signaling,
between switching equipment in the ISDN network and the onsite ISDN equipment.
The ISDN customer purchases ISDN channels in one of two pre-defined configurations:
Basic Rate Interface (BRI) - BRI is what youll see most often in the field. ISDN users who connect to the Internet
generally do so through a BRI configuration. ISDN BRI supports two 64 Kbps B-channels and one 16 Kbps Dchannel over a standard phone line. For the test, remember that these channels combined provide you with a
data rate of 144 Kbps.
Primary Rate Interface (PRI) - PRI is used primarily by large organizations with demanding communications
requirements. PRI supports 23 64 Kbps B-channels and one 64 Kbps D-channel over a high speed DS1 (or T1)
line in North America.
Setting up ISDN includes non-ISDN equipment such as an old-style telephone cable. ISDN devices include terminals,
terminal adapters (TAs), network-termination devices, line-termination equipment, and exchange-termination
equipment.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

FDDI is a Fiber LAN network standard composed of two counter-rotating rings. As the name implies, FDDI uses fiber
optic cable. An FDDI network can up work up to distances of 100 kilometers (km) with nodes being up to 2 km apart
using multi-mode fiber, and 10 km apart on single-mode fiber. FDDI rings support up to 500 nodes. FDDI networks
commonly operate at 100 Mbps.
The maximum network packet size on an FDDI network is 4.5 KB, which compares well to Ethernet's maximum packet
size of 1.5 KB. When an FDDI network is functioning properly, data moves counter-clockwise on the primary ring. If a
failure occurs on the primary ring, the working nodes wrap into the secondary ring, which moves the data in a
clockwise direction.
The upstream neighbor is the node sending the data. The downstream neighbor is the node receiving data. Nodes on
a FDDI network are either Dual-Attached Stations (DAS) or Single-Attached Stations (SAS). DAS are attached to both
rings; SAS are attached on to one. Obviously, DAS are more fault tolerant than SAS.
In a normal FDDI data transfer, a token travels around the ring and is captured by a node ready to send data. Once the
node has the token, it can communicate on the ring. The nodes send frames toward the downstream neighbor until all
of the data is sent or until the Token Holding Timer (THT) expires. On an FDDI network, data does not bypass other
nodes on the ring. Instead, each node checks each frame for errors and retransmits it.
T1 (T Carrier level 1) / E1 /J1 and T3 (T Carrier level 3) / E3 /J3

The T-series connections are digital carrier transmission systems introduced in the United States by the Bell System in
the 1960s. ISPs and medium to large companies are likely to employ either T1 or T3 transmission lines for access to
the Internet. Both T1 and T3 lines are leased from a phone service provider.
T-series connections can use standard copper pair cables found in most telephone services, or a fiber optic backbone
line. Today, T-1 is often used on fiber optic media. T-series connections currently use Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM), which divides the bandwidth of their line into 24 channels each operating at 64 Kbps and each containing a
control line. Most telephone companies allow you to purchase just some of these individual channels, which is called
fractional T-1 access.
E1 or E3 indicates the European counterpart of a T series line. E-series lines do not generally run at the same speeds
at their T-series counter parts. Likewise J1 and J3 carriers are variants of the T1, T3 transmission line and are used
exclusively in Japan.
OCx (Optical Carrier)

The base rate for OCx using fiber optic media is called OC-1 and operates at 51.84 Mbps. ATM, which is nearly
obsolete, uses some of the Optical Carrier levels. The Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) also uses various OCx
speeds on optical fiber. You should be familiar with various Ocx transmission standards and speeds.
X.25
Used in WAN packet-switching networks, the X.25 standard was approved in 1976. The X.25 protocol suite maps to
the lowest three layers of the OSI reference model: layers 1, 2, and 3. The X.25 standard defines how connections
between user devices and network devices are established and maintained. X.25 network devices are often used by
the phone companies and fall into three general categories: data terminal equipment (DTE), data circuit-terminating
equipment (DCE), and packet-switching exchange (PSE).
2.15 Identify the basic characteristics of the following Internet access

technologies:
xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line)
Digital Subscriber Line or DSL is a high-speed Internet access technology carrying both digital voice and digital data
and is used by businesses and consumers. Transmitting digital data allows the phone company provider to produce
greater bandwidth using multiple channels in higher frequency ranges (greater than 3200Hz) than regular voice phone
calls. This bandwidth can also be divided into an analog signal so you can still use your analog voice phone while
using DSL to access the Internet. A signal splitter provided by the phone company is often required to accomplish this,
although emerging technologies such as DSL Lite and G. Lite don't use a splitter.
DSL technologies use several different modulation schemes to transmit data over copper wires. The two most
common are Discrete Multitone Technology (DMT) and Carrierless Amplitude Modulation (CAP). The type of media
used and/or the thickness of the phone line copper wire affect the maximum range of transmission. In general, copper
lines can transmit data up to 5.5 kilometers (18,000 feet) without the use of a repeater. Using fiber optical cable can
further extend phone loops. The telephone company uses a Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer (DSLAM) to
connect multiple loops of DSL users to its high-speed backbone gigabyte network,
xDSL is the term used that refers to several types of DSL technologies. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
and Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) discussed earlier, are the two primary types.
xDSL, often compared to ISDL because it also uses copper as a medium along with POTS, offers greater transmission
speeds than ISDN. Up to 32 Mbps for uploading data, and from 32 Kbps to more than 1 Mbps for downloading data at
a maximum distance of about 5.5 km or 18,000 feet.
Broadband Cable (Cable Modem)

Broadband cable, used by businesses and consumers, also provides high-speed Internet access technology carrying
digital data. Using coaxial cable for the installation media, cable modems convert analog signals into digital data.
Cable operators deliver the bandwidth using copper lines and for greater distances, fiber optic cable. Cable companies
offer a range of bandwidths from 256 Mbps to 1024 Mbps upload speed to 512 Mbps to 3 Mbps download speed.
Cable modems are popular and compete favorably with DSL.
POTS/PSTN
PSTN is our national public switched or phone network service that carries analog voice data at speeds up to 56 Kbps.
Mentioned earlier, Plain Telephone Service (POTS) is the ordinary phone service we use in our homes. Companies, of
course, use POTS for their business phones and fax machines and often also use computer modems for internal fax
sending and receiving.
Satellite
Satellite broadband technology offers Internet access by using a satellite modem that sends signals to a home-based
satellite disk that, in turn, sends and receives signals to a terrestrial satellite orbiting above the earth. Homes and small
business with twenty or less users can use satellite broadband with download speeds up to 1.5 Mbps and upload
speeds of only 128 Kbps. Due to slower Internet access speeds, satellite broadband is used primarily in rural areas
that don't have access to cable or DSL technology. As with other types of satellite technology, a clear line-of-sight,
southern orientation of the satellite disk is necessary. Satellite broadband Internet access technology hasn't really
caught on due to its slower upload and download speeds.
Wireless
Wireless Internet access technology is increasing in popularity, especially with consumers, due to its mobility.
Businesses, of course, are also providing wireless Internet access for users. Business Internet wireless applications
include e-commerce, e-mail, instant messaging, entertainment, and information services. Wireless access points are
used to send and receive data to users or consumers using wireless network devices such as laptop and notebook
computers. Due to its higher transmission speeds of 54 Mbps, 802.11g wireless network devices are favored today to
access the Web.
2.16 Define the function of the following remote access protocols and
services:
Table 17 - Remote Access Protocols
Protocol or Service
Function
RAS
A RAS service installed on the server with one or more

modems installed. Used for client remote access to a
network.
PPP
Protocol used to establish an Internet connection between

serial point-to-point links. PPP uses the Data Link layer of
the OSI model to send TCP/IP packets to a server that
connects the client on the Internet.
SLIP
Older, slower, less reliable than PPP. Used to connect to

th I t
t i
di l
d
the Internet via a dial-up modem.

PPPoE
Uses PPP over Ethernet. Connects Ethernet LAN users to

the Internet using an ASDL or cable modem. Users share
the broadband connection. Phone ISPs use PPPoE with
ADSL modems for consumer DSL Internet access.
PPTP
A form of encryption that provides the tunnel for secure

connections over the Internet. Used to create a Virtual
Private Network. VPN provides users with a dial-up,
private, secure, direct connection to a server or corporate
network via the public Internet.
VPN
VPN is a private, secure connection to the public Internet.

Allows a point-to-point connection between a remote user
and their business LAN. Also used to improve security
between wireless nodes. The connection used mostly by
companies, uses encryption and authentication.
RDP
A Microsoft Windows 2000 or Windows XP network client

uses the RDP client SW utility to remotely connect to a
network via a MS Terminal server. Using authentication to
establish the connection, clients can then use the network
resources such as mapped drives to run applications and
printers remotely. There is also an open source RDP client
called rdesktop that runs on UNIX/Linux systems allowing
connections between *nix and Windows systems using
RDP.
2.17 Identify the following security protocols and describe their purpose
and function:
IPSec (IP Security)
IPSec is a security protocol that provides authentication and encryption over the Internet. It operates at the Network
layer and secures all packets operating in the upper OSI layers. It works with IPv4 and IPv6 and has broad Industry
support. IPSec uses either Authentication Header (AH) or Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) to ensure sender
authentication and data encryption. It is most often used to secure VPN on the Internet using digital certificates sent
from the server to authenticate the sender.
L2TP (Layer Two Tunneling Protocol)

L2TP was designed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to support non-TCP/IP protocols using VPNs over
the Internet. L2TP combines the best features of two tunneling protocols: PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
and L2F (Layer 2 Forwarding). As the name implies, it operates at Layer 2 of the OSI Reference Model. L2TP uses
packet-switched network connections, making it possible for endpoints to be located on different nodes It supports a
number of protocols, including IP and AppleTalk. L2TP is a good protocol to use when you have two non-TCP/IP
networks that must have Internet access.
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)

Originally developed by Netscape, SSL is integrated into both Netscape Navigator and Microsoft's Internet Explorer.
SSL uses a private key to encrypt data that's transferred over the SSL connection. SSL is based on the RSA public
key encryption and provides secure Layer 5 Session connections over the Internet. It is service-independent and can
secure many different network applications. The HTTPS protocol is based on SSL. SSL is commonly used by Web
merchants on the Internet to obtain confidential user information, such as credit card numbers.
WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)

WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is the current 802.11b standard protocol that encrypts and protects data packets over
radio frequencies providing a similar level of security as wired Ethernet networks. WEP provides either 64- or 128-bit
encryption. WEP does not, however, offer end-to-end security because it uses the lower level layers in the OSI model:
the Physical and Data link layers. Because the WEP encryption algorithm is weak, another Wi-Fi standard, WPA was
recently developed.
WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access)

WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) adds another layer of security, working with Wi-Fi devices that use WEP. It offers
improved data encryption and user authentication using the wireless devices hardware-specific MAC address as a
means of ensuring that only authorized users access the network. The current version WPA2 provides stronger
encryption than WPA1 using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Both WPA1 and WPA2 use 802.1x and Extensible
Authentication Protocol (EAP) for authentication.
802.1x
The IEEE 802.1x standard includes a method for passing the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) over both wired
and wireless networks. EAP provides authentication services for wireless networks not using PPP.
2.18 Identify the following authentication protocols:

CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol)
CHAP is an authentication protocol that uses a hashed algorithm called Message Digest 5 (MD5) S that provides client
response encryption. Remote Access Service servers, some Network Access servers, and some Proxy servers
support using CHAP. CHAP is supported on PPP connections and requires authentication not only when initially
making the connection, but also during the session. Failure to authenticate will result in the session being ended.
CHAP is a weak, one-way authentication protocol.
MS-CHAP (Microsoft Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol)

MS-CHAP v1 offers more security than CHAP and is an authentication protocol that uses a challenge handshake
process. A Remote Access Server sends a challenge to the remote client. The remote access client sends back a
response containing the user name and a non-reversible, encrypted password challenge string. The RAS checks the
response determining its validity and, if valid, authenticates the user. Microsoft CHAP v1 is supported on Windows
NT4 Server, Windows 2000 Server, and Windows Servers 2003.
MS-CHAP v2 is an authentication protocol that offers stronger security than MS-CHAP v1 by providing mutual
authentication. Using two-way or mutual authentication, the client's user name and password are validated by the
RAS. The Windows 2000 family, Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003 all support using MS-CHAP v2. Note that
MS-CHAP, Version 2 authentication is not compatible with MS-CHAP, version 1.
PAP (Password Authentication Protocol)

PAP is the weakest authentication protocol that sends the user name and password in clear text (no encryption) over
the network to be verified by the RAS. PAP should only be used as a last resort only if the RAS does not support
stronger authentication protocols. Most all NOS remote servers support PAP.
RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-in User Service)

RADIUS is an industry standard authentication protocol that provides authentication, authorization, and accounting
services. A RADIUS client such as a dial-up server, RADIUS Proxy server, or VPN server sends user name,
password, and connection information in a RADIUS message to a RADIUS server. The RADIUS server sends a
RADIUS message response that authorizes and authenticates the RADIUS client.
Kerberos
Kerberos is more than a strong, secure network authentication protocol. Its a full-fledged security system designed to
provide strong authentication for client/server applications by using secret-key cryptography. Created at MIT, Kerberos
establishes a user's identity as soon as he or she logs onto a network where Kerberos is supported. A unique key
(ticket) is issued to each user after the user logs onto the network. All network messages that the user sends over the
network contain this unique key used to identify the user-sender. The user identification and security credentials
contained in the embedded ticket are used throughout the entire network session. The encryption used by Kerberos is
freely available. The source code can also be downloaded via the Internet. The Windows 2000 family, Windows XP,
Windows Server 2003, UNIX, Novell, and Linux all support Kerberos.
EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol)

EAP is a general protocol that provides support for several different authentication protocols such as EAP-TLS (EAPTransport Level Security), MS-CHAP, Kerberos, certificates, public key authentication, and smart cards. It is often
used by wireless devices to connect to a RADIUS authenticator server. A wireless client requests a WAN connection
from an AP, which requests the identity of the user and transmits the users identity to an authentication server such as
RADIUS. The RADIUS server asks the AP for proof of identity, gets it, and sends it back to the server.
EAP-TLS uses certificates for user authentication such as smart cards. Smart cards are often used with laptop and
notebook PCs to provide remote access authentication. EAP-TLS provides mutual authentication, negotiation of
encryption type, and is the strongest authentication protocol method.
Domain 3.0 - Network Implementation 25%

3.1 Identify the basic capabilities (For example: client support,
interoperability, authentication, file and print services, application support
and security) of the following server operating systems to access network
resources:
UNIX
/ Linux
Client support - Multi-user, multitasking network operating system that comes in many flavors. Linux supports
many different NOS platforms and also uses a graphical user interface (GUI).
Interoperability - Using TCP/IP, can interoperate with Linux, Windows, NetWare, and Mac OS X clients with
often-included server/client OS software.
Authentication - Requests a user password to authenticate identity that is encrypted and compared to password
stored in etc/password directory. Uses NIS authentication on the network and etc/passwd authentication on the
local machine.
File and print services - Uses LPD/LPR printer services; file systems compatibility includes FAT-16, FAT-32, and
NTFS Linux uses Ext2 and Ext3 file systems natively.
Application support and security - Good, but not as much application support as Windows; however, Linux
applications are increasing. As secure as Windows file level security; can be spread out on several texts files as
compared to one file with Windows. Novell is one of the companies at the forefront of improving Linux application
support.
NetWare
Client support - Multi-user, multitasking, graphical user interface (GUI) network operating system.
Interoperability - Using TCP/IP can interoperate with Linux, Windows, Novel and Mac OS X clients with oftenincluded Server/client OS software.
Authentication - Requests a user password to authenticate identity. User public/private keys are stored in NDS
(Novell Directory System).
File and print services - Uses Novell's File and Print directory service. Manages all network resources using
eDirectory which is based on the X500 standard.
Application support and security - Broad application support and extensive security features. Uses NDS and
object security. The primary security features for NetWare, by default, lockdown the server and have to be
opened and changed by the server admin. No users have access to the server until you grant them access.
Windows
Client support - Multi-user, multitasking, graphical user interface (GUI) network operating system. Windows
supports many different NOS platforms.
Interoperability - Using TCP/IP, can interoperate with Linux, Windows, NetWare, and Mac OS X clients with
included server/client OS software.
Authentication - Uses domain username/password authentication
File and print services - Can use FAT-16, FAT-32 and or NTFS file system; includes printer services with large
print vendor driver support. Manages network resources using Active Directory services which is based on the
X500 standard.
Application support and security - Broad application support and extensive security features. Only NTFS offers
file-level security. The NOS, due to popularity, regularly needs security patches and OS updates.

Mac
Client support - Multi-user, multitasking, graphical user interface (GUI)
network operating system. Mac OS X is supported on many different
NOS platforms.
Interoperability - Using TCP/IP, can interoperate with Linux, Windows,
NetWare, and Mac OS X clients with included server/client OS
software.
Authentication - Uses Open Directory 2 with LDAP; includes integrated
Kerberos, Samba, NFS, and AD for added compatibility. Open
Directory 2 is a directory service that manages all network resources
as well as provides authentication.
File and print services - UNIX-type file system with files organized by
membership and separation of user versus system files.
Application support and security - Good application support and good
security features.
AppleShare IP
AppleShare IP software is fast, scalable, secure, software used to
communicate and exchange information with other AppleShare or Mac
Servers. Contains integrated file, print, mail, and Web services. Server
administration uses shared users and groups. Can also be used to manage
servers remotely with remote administration interface using TCP/IP. Many
optional AppleShare IP security services are sold separately.
3.2 Identify the basic capabilities needed for

client workstations to connect to and use
network resources (For example: media,
network protocols and peer and server
services).
A "client" is a node on a network that communicates with a server to gain
access to shared network resources. The client runs various applications
and creates data, whereas the server provides authentication,
communication connectivity, and shared resources. Typically, a client uses
the server to run server applications, store client data, provide access to
network printers, store backups of client data, and provide security.
Companies generally implement client/server networks when the number of
workstations on the network surpasses 10 (recommended). Nine or fewer
workstations can be efficiently managed on a peer-to-peer network.
Installing - Setting up a peer-to-peer network is straightforward. Most
NOSs provide built-in peer-to-peer networking support.
Limited resources - Each peer-to-peer client can share its network
resources, such as printers or file folders, and can also use shared
resources from other user computers.
Security - A peer-to-peer network lacks user-level security. The folder
share-level security it provides is often not adequate, generally offering
only read-only, depends on password or full access permissions. This

is no permission control for individual file access. Lacking a centralized logon server, a peer-to-peer network
does not provide logon authentication.
Growth - A peer-to-peer network should only be used for companies that have limited security needs and are not
growing. Managing a peer-to-peer network becomes increasingly difficult as the number of computers increases.
Administration - Each client must administer their own network resources to share along with sharing other
users' resources.
Fault tolerance - Because each user can share file folders and printers on their workstations, there is no single
centralized file storage computer, making data recovery much more difficult. Fault-tolerant storage methods such
as RAID 1 and RAID 5 cannot generally be done on client computers.
Using server-based networks, the server runs software to authenticate and service client requests. The benefits of
server networks include:
Optimization - Servers quickly process client requests and efficiently share network resources.
Centralization - Files are stored in central locations, which makes file administration including backing up data
easier.
Network media - Although UTP cable media is commonly used to connect client nodes to switches, other types
of media such as fiber optic cable can and are used to interconnect switches to other switches or network
backbones.
Network protocols - Because TCP/IP is the de-facto protocol used on the WWW, most networks operate using
TCP/IP as their only protocol. Depending on the types of network operating systems in use, however, other
protocols can be used along with TCP/IP. Realizing that using several protocols increases network traffic,
network administrators try to limit the use of protocols to only the essential ones.
Security - Authentication and file-level permissions are used, making it much harder for unauthorized users to
gain access and do damage to computers.
Redundancy and backup - Data is readily accessible and stored in centralized locations on servers. Daily
backups of client data along with test restores along with other fault tolerance methods like RAID 1 and RAID 5
ensure quick recovery of data in the event of file corruption or hard drive failure.
3.3 Identify the appropriate tool for a given wiring task

(For example: wire crimper, media tester/certifier, punch down
tool and tone generator).
Wire crimper - Used for holding together UTP and STP media cable wires affixed to an RJ-45 connector.
Media tester/certifier - Used to test the continuity on UTP and STP cable media.
Punch down block - Used to connect several cable runs to each other, without going through a hub.
Tone generator - Used to troubleshoot network installations. Usually used along with a probe that traces the
signal emitted from a tone generator. The tone generator and probe are used to verify cable continuity, identify
wiring faults, and determine line polarity and voltage in networks.
3.4 Given a remote connectivity scenario comprised of a protocol, an

authentication scheme, and physical connectivity, configure the
connection. Includes connection to the following servers:
Today connecting remotely to access shared resources on a company's internal network is a fundamental business
requirement. Administrators must decide and then configure the right remote access solution. Remote clients can
connect remotely using dial-up, cable or ADSL modems. The most popular method that users employ to remotely
connect to their company's network is using a VPN (virtual private network) with the IPSec security protocol, VPNs use
IPSec to provide encryption and authentication in order to create a secure connection to the company's network. Some
companies also use a remote access technology based on SSL encryption or the less secure L2TP. In most all cases
the remote client need to install and configure TCP/IP. You need remote access permission, the server IP address,
and a valid remote access username and password to gain remote access to a server. Most all client-side VPNs are
set up using the client's ISP Internet access and browser.
To connect to a server for the purpose of remote network administration when your server is at a remote location that
you cannot physically access, you need the server IP address along with a valid remote access username and
password. Some additional remote access requirements for various servers include:
UNIX or Linux - Log onto the remote server using the SSH protocol. This may require additional software and
setup depending on the version of UNIX/Linux you are using. Enter the port that the remote SSH server is
listening on. Authenticate using password or public/private key authentication.
Mac OS X server - Apple Remote Desktop access is used for remote access to networks using dial-up (PPP)
connections. Mac OS X also provides services that allow you to both share and connect to other operating
systems, such as Microsoft Windows.
NetWare - Novell NetWare GroupWise is used to remotely connect using a server IP address via an ISP. SSL is
typically used for remote connectivity with NetWare and other Novell products. Novell Linux Desktop 9 (NLD9)
does not provide VPN support.
Windows - Remote users use the Remote Desktop connection client software to connect to a Windows 2000 or
Windows Server 2003 Terminal Server.
AppleShare IP - AppleShare clients use AppleShare IP that uses TCP over PPP to connect to a server via
Server IP Address.
3.5 Identify the purpose, benefits, and characteristics of

using a firewall.
A firewall permits or denies Internet (public) communications based on various filtering rules and hides the private IP
LAN addresses from the public network. It is designed to prevent unauthorized users from accessing a private network
or Intranet from the Internet. Anything in front of a firewall is a public network. All network nodes are behind the
firewall and are usually assigned private IP addresses. A network firewall keeps intruders including hackers, clumsy
surfers, unauthorized users, and corporate spies from accessing the private network.
A firewall can be hardware, software, or a combination of both. Although hardware firewalls are more secure and
reliable, software firewalls can and are often used along with hardware firewalls. Windows XP Professional with
service pack 2 installed, for example, enables its built-in NOS software firewall and offers additional protection against
worms entering the computer. ZoneAlarm is another good software firewall and is a free download available on the
WWW.
Packet filtering is a common firewall technique used by network administrators. Packet filtering analyzes packets of
data entering or leaving the private network or intranet passing through the firewall. It examines each packet and
blocks those packets that do not meet specified security requirements.
Firewalls, however, cannot protect against all forms of intrusion. For instance, a firewall will allow a user with a correct
login username and password to access the network. Obviously, the firewall has no way of knowing if the user is

actually the correct user logging into the network.
3.6 Identify the purpose, benefits, and characteristics of using

a proxy service.
Another way to strengthen firewall security is to combine it with a software firewall proxy server, which is a server that
sits between a client application such as a Web browser and an external Web server. A web proxy server intercepts all
requests for web access and searches its ACL for the webpage requested. If it locates the requested Web page in
cache, it sends the page request to the client. If it does not locate it, and if the Web page is not on the list of restricted
sites, it fetches the page from the Internet for the client and then caches it for future use.
3.7 Given a connectivity scenario, determine the impact on network

functionality of a particular security implementation (For example: port
blocking/filtering, authentication and encryption).
Network security implementation includes not only logon authentication and user and group file permissions, but also
port blocking and filtering along with data encryption. Listed below are various types of security measures and their
impact on networks: It is important when implementing security measures not to apply too much security. For example,
firewalls can sometimes block desired traffic if misconfigured and a proxy filter can block administrative access to a
needed website that was originally meant to block access of middle management and below.
Intrusion detectionport blocking/filtering - Firewalls and Proxy Servers are the two most widely implemented
solutions for configuring the desired amount of port blocking and port filtering.
Access controlsauthentication - Authentication is necessary for most companies. It proves that the user
logging onto the network has a valid username and password. Once authenticated, the user receives his or her
group and file permissions along with any access rights granted.
Data protectionencryption - Encryption can be used to protect the private network from unauthorized access to
sensitive company data and applications. For private networks IPSec can be used to provide authentication and
encryption of data. Network performance varies, but some network traffic flow degrading can be expected due to
the process of encrypting data. Use of encryption should be limited to protecting the most valuable company
data.
3.8 Identify the main characteristics of VLANs

(Virtual Local Area Networks).
VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks) are groups of network nodes that form a single broadcast domain based upon
logical associations rather than physical connections or location. VLANs usually use a switch operating at Layer 2 of
the OSI Model, but youll usually (but not always) need a Layer 3 device, such as a router, to allow VLANs to
communicate with each other.
VLAN Benefits
Better bandwidth management - Compared to its hub-serviced (and bandwidth challenged) alternative, VLANs
isolate traffic. Even if a device goes off the deep end and sends out broadcasts or multicasts, it only affects the
particular segment that its connected to. No other segment listens to those messages. This is great for dealing
with broadcast storms or troubleshooting a hard to track down issue.
Reduced administration costs - VLANs provide an effective mechanism to control changes, such as physical
movement of users within a network, reducing hub and router configuration costs once your VLAN is set up.

Keep in mind that this does not include the initial administrative costs. VLAN users can share network address
space, no matter where they are physically although performance constraints will suffer. If a group of users
moves physically but their group remains in the same VLAN connected to a switch port, their network addresses
do not change. Using VLANs greatly simplifies the rewiring, configuration, and debugging usually required
getting a user back online.
Well-defined workgroups - Since members of workgroups tend to communicate more among themselves,
grouping them together logically limits much of their traffic to their own segment defined by the VLAN. You can
also assign VLANs based upon application type and the amount of an application's broadcasts expected. Thus,
users who share broadcast-intensive applications can be isolated in the same VLAN.
Improved network security - By restricting users to their own VLAN, you limit their ability to see other devices on
the network. VLANs can also be used with firewalls to provide security, restrict individual user access, flag any
unwanted intrusion into the network, and control the size and composition of the broadcast domain.
VLAN Memberships
Static VLANs Typically, port switches are assigned to each VLAN. The switch port associated with the VLAN
maintains that association until the administrator changes the port assignment.
Dynamic VLANs All host devices hardware addresses are placed in a database, and the switches are
configured to assign VLANs automatically.
Creating a VLAN
Its fairly easy to create a VLAN with a switch. Just configure, Telnet into the switch and enter your VLAN parameters
(name, domain, port assignments, etc). Once youve configured this, your VLAN is set up and any network segments
connected to the assigned ports will be part of the VLAN. For security reasons, however, many system administrators
prefer to do a direct serial connection and administer the switch using Hyperterminal or the switchs web admin
interface.
You can have more than one VLAN on a switch, but they cannot communicate directly with one another on that switch.
This is an important concept because if VLANs could communicate with each other on the same switch, it would defeat
the purpose of having a VLAN, which is to isolate a part of the network. If you want your VLANs to communicate, youll
usually need to get another switch. The exception would be the router-on-a-stick setup.
VLANs, however, can span across multiple switches, or you can have more than one VLAN on each switch. For
multiple VLANs on multiple switches to be able to communicate via a single link between the switches, you must use a
process called trunking. Trunking is the technology that allows information from multiple VLANs to be carried over
just one link between switches.
3.9 Identify the main characteristics and purpose of extranets and

intranets.
Companies using TCP/IP who need to exchange information with business partners can employ an extranet to
accomplish their objective. An extranet is setup over the public Internet that can be configured to limit the amount of
information exchanged and viewed by using permissions applied to the partners' usernames. Authentication is setup
permitting users with valid usernames and passwords various degrees of access to the extranet.
An extranet is figuratively speaking, a company's intranet that is extended to suppliers, vendors, partners, customers,
or other businesses outside the company. An extranet, of course, requires security and privacy. Extranets use VPNs,
firewalls, digital certificates, and encryption for security. Extranets can also be setup using IPSec on a VPN or using
SSL to provide encryption.
An intranet, on the other hand, uses TCP/IP to provide access only to authenticated users who are members of the
same company and reside behind a firewall. An intranet appears and looks like an Internet Web site, but uses a

firewall to prevent unauthorized access. Companies use Intranets to share information securely. Intranets are very
popular because they are cheaper to build and maintain, flexible, and more versatile than private networks using other
protocols. Windows SharePoint and Novells Virtual Office both include Intranet components plus other services used
for communication and project collaboration within the networked corporate environment.
3.10 Identify the purpose, benefits and characteristics of using antivirus

software.
Antivirus software is software sold by antivirus software companies used to search your hard disk for viruses,
worms, and Trojan horses and then quarantine or remove any found. When you complete a full scan of your hard
drive partitions, it's recommended that you enable the antivirus software to always run at system startup. Doing so
allows the antivirus software to continuously monitor your computer against future virus threats. Most antivirus
software also includes an auto-update feature that enables the antivirus program to download the latest, new antivirus
definition files. Keeping your computer up to date with the latest antivirus definitions is essential to thwart off new
viruses as soon as they are released. The dark side of antivirus software is it is always reactive. A virus has to be
released into the wild, detected, reverse engineered. Then the antivirus definition then has to be written and made
available to the antivirus client software.
3.11 Identify the purpose and characteristics of fault tolerance:

A fault-tolerant network is a network that can withstand, survive, and recover from hardware and software data and
program errors and failures by using redundancy. The first line of defense includes installing UPSs on all servers and
implementing a good data backup strategy to protect data and application servers from errors. There are several types
of fault tolerance and redundancy.
Network server fault tolerance and redundancy includes different server hardware components. Server redundancy is
having a second "duplicate" hardware device ready to activate and use in the event the first hardware component fails.
Common server components used for redundancy are: Hard drives, Power supplies, Cooling fans, NICs, Multiple
processors, UPSs, Backup generators, Link redudndancy, and Cluster servers.
Power - UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

A UPS provides a battery to maintain power and protect against power surges, spikes, brownouts and other power
anomalies. A UPS also provides line conditioning to maintain a steady, even electrical flow along with surge protection.
True UPSs are always "on-line" running on battery power provided by the UPS. Regular AC current constantly charges
the UPS battery until a power outage occurs. During a power outage, a UPS avoids any break or switch-over in power
by routinely providing power from its own battery inverter, When a power fluctuation or power outage occurs, AC
current no longer charges the battery and user notification notices alert uses to save and then gracefully shut down
their workstations. When battery power is nearly depleted (usually in several minutes), the installed UPS software or
the administrator then gracefully shuts down the server unless some other power fault tolerance devices such as a
backup generator is available.
Don't confuse a UPS with a SPS (Standby Power Supply). An SPS runs on AC power and switches to battery power
once it detects a power problem. The difference between a UPS an SPS is that an SPS takes time to switch over to
battery power. The SPS can take several milliseconds of time to switch over to battery power, during which time the
network device receives no power. On mission critical application and data servers, this time lag, although short, is
enough to cause data corruption. SPSs are OK to use on workstations and other non-mission critical devices. Because
UPSs are always "on-line" running on battery power, they are much more expensive to purchase than SPSs.
Link Redundancy
Depending on the companies size, location, and need for redundancy, data and voice wireless links can be
implemented so that linked transmissions can continue to reach the network backbone providing continuous network
connectivity. This redundancy can, however, become expensive especially when leased lines are used.
For link redundancy, ISDN can be deployed as a backup link that is brought up when the T1 goes down. Wireless
technology, although expensive and not used as often, provides a flexible and scalable alternative to fiber or leased
T1/E1 lines. Wireless plug-and-play Ethernet point-to-point bridges can be employed for link redundancy providing a
variety of solutions for transparent, reliable, high-speed network connectivity. Wireless Ethernet bridges can be
installed on all types of Ethernet LANs between office buildings, factories, warehouses, and remote locations up to
forty miles in distance. Because they can cost five thousand dollars and more, wireless Ethernet bridges are primarily
used by ISPs and for Enterprise LANs and WANs.
Wireless digital spread spectrum transmission devices can also be implemented for link redundancy. Digital
microwave wireless radios can extend or link company locations at distances of up to fifty miles providing wireless
network connectivity. In the event of a network power interruption, hot standby protection switches for either wireless
technology provide instant switchover to the wireless link redundancy devices.
Storage - RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)

RAID is a type of fault tolerance, excluding RAID 1, where server data storage systems recover from data disasters.
Using one of more types of RAID, both the servers' data and error correcting information needed for data recovery are
stored on two or more physical hard disk drives. RAID provides improved reliability, recovery and oftentimes,
performance as well.
Two are two general categories of RAID:
Hardware RAID - Special SCSI host adapters contain SCSI burned-in software that provides support for various
levels of RAID. Hardware RAID is more expensive than software RAID, but produces faster hard drive
performance than compared to software RAID.
Software RAID - Integrated into the server NOS and designed to be used on SCSI hard disk drives. Software
RAID usually only offers RAID 0, RAID 1 and RAID 5 support.
RAID Level 0 - Striping without Fault Tolerance
Disk striping without parity.
Inexpensive and fastest hard drive read/writes of all RAID technologies.
Offers best performance but no fault-tolerance. If one disk in the RAID 0 array fails, all the data is lost. You need
to restore data using a different fault tolerant method such as restoring data from a backup and then reinstalling
RAID 0.
Should never be used on mission critical data servers.
Most often used in video production/editing, image editing, pre-press applications and any application that
requires high bandwidth. Also useful for proxy caches where fault tolerance isnt much of an issue.
RAID Level 1 - Disk Drive Mirroring and Duplexing
An exact copy of data written to the first hard drive is also simultaneously written to the second hard drive. If one
drive fails, you break the mirror, install a new hard drive, and then re-mirror the drives.
RAID level 1 uses one SCSI host adaptor and two SCSI hard disks. If the SCSI host adaptor controller fails, the
array fails until a new host adaptor is installed.
RAID 1, with disk duplexing uses two SCSI host adaptor controllers and two SCSI hard disks, Provides fault
tolerance for both the host adaptors and hard drives.

Hard drive read performance is improved since both disks can be read at the same time. Write performance
carries some overhead and results in slight loss of performance.
The additional cost of a second identical size SCSI hard drive.
Usually supports hot swapping hard drives through the SCSI host adaptor hardware. Does not support hot
swapping hard drives when implemented through software.
Its primary use is to mirror the boot and system server operating system files.
RAID Level 0+1 A Mirror of Stripes
Two RAID 0 stripes are configured, and a RAID 1 mirror is then configured over them. Not one of the original
RAID levels,
Its primary uses are replicating and sharing data among disks.
RAID Level 5 - Stripping with Parity
Data along with the data recovery parity information is striped across all the drivers in the array. If one drive fails,
parity information stored on other drives is used to reconstruct and regenerate the data to a new, installed drive.
Requires a minimum of three SCSI hard drives; usually five or more disks are used.
Offers excellent performance and good fault tolerance. Fastest and most reliable of all RAID technologies.
RAID Level 5 is one of the most popular implementations of RAID. Used on enterprise critical file and application
servers, Web, email intranet and news servers and database servers.
Usually supports hot swapping hard drives through the SCSI host adaptor hardware. Does not support hot
swapping hard drives when implemented through software.
RAID Level 10 A Stripe of Mirrors
A mirrored array with two drives configured as RAID 0 arrays offering the same fault tolerance as RAID Level 1.
If one drive fails, the entire array becomes, essentially, a RAID 0 array.
Offers higher performance than RAID 1 but at higher cost.
Excellent choice in environments where high performance is required but achieving maximum reliability is not a
concern.
Services
Mission critical network services are provided not only by mission critical servers, but also by various network devices
like switches, routers, gateways and other devices. All these network devices including servers should have UPSs

installed for power fault tolerant protection.
Another type of fault tolerance protection designed to protect network services is an automatic network device link
backup switch. Ethernet link backup switches provide fully managed automatic link backup capabilities to other
100Base-TX and or 1000Base-T Ethernet links. The link backup system protects vital connections to servers, routers,
firewalls, and other mission critical Ethernet devices that require fail-safe link operation. Link backup devices operate
by monitoring a "primary" link and, in the event of a failure, automatically switch over to the backup link device. Other
advanced types include SAN cluster services, MSOS (Multiservice over SONET/SDH, and fault-tolerant QoS
platforms.
3.12 Identify the purpose and characteristics of disaster recovery:

Guidelines
While disaster recovery can be both expensive and complicated, there are several basic guidelines for larger
enterprises:
Disaster-recovery management begins with a planning meeting.
Always keep a tape backup set of data offsite in a safe, secure location. Make sure to change the off-site tape
backup sets regularly to maintain up to date data.
Establish an alternative site such as a cold site, offsite new building, or a different site in a different state.
Train a special group of users to work at your alternative site and devise a plan to get them quickly to the new
site from the disaster site. Consider a rotating schedule of different technical staff members.
Decide what products are needed to support the recovery process, acquire them, and train personnel in their
use.
Consider clustering: purchasing both the hardware and software for creating a duplicate of your primary server,
standing by, in case of disaster.
Install UPSs on all mission critical network devices.
Backup/Restore
All types and sizes of businesses need to backup their important applications and data daily to a tape backup device.
There are primary types of tape backups.
Table 21 - Backup Types
Full
Backs up all data. Takes the longest time to backup. Clears file archive bit on all backed-up
files.
Incremental
Only backs up files added or changed since the last backup. Backs up faster than differential,
but restore requires multiple tapes and takes longer- last full backup tape plus all incremental
tapes since the last full backup. When restoring incremental tape backups, always take care to
restore tapes in the correct order, oldest to newest. Clears archive bit on all backed-up files.
Differential
Backs up all files since last FULL backup. Differential backups take longer than Incremental to
backup, but faster than Incremental to restore, requiring only two tapes - the most recent full
backup and most recent differential backup. Does not clear file archive bits.
Copy or Mirror
A copy backup is the same as a full backup except, they do not mark files as backed up. This
backup type is most commonly used to make offsite copies of backup data.

Smaller business can often perform a daily full backup of all their data. Medium and large size companies that have
many gigabytes of company data of their servers often use the GPS backup method. The recommended method of
tape backup uses a tape rotation system known as the GFS (Grandfather, Father, Son) tape backup rotation system.
Backup Tape Drive Types
Quarter Inch Cartridge (QIC) - QICs are slow, inexpensive and used on stand-alone workstations, but not
servers. They are slow and capacity is limited. The name is derived from the width of the tapeone-quarter inch.
The drive comes in two sizes.
Travan - An enhancement of QIC, newer network storage versions hold up to 20 GB of compressed data. Small
size businesses often use travan tapes due to their low cost.
Digital Audio Tape (DAT) - Standard for companies that require high-speed, reliable tape storage devices. This
tape drive uses the same technology found on a VCR tape. Comes in two formats:
Digital Data Storage (DDS) - The current DDS standard, DDS-4, uses a 120-meter cartridge tape that can store
up to 40 GB of data compressed.
Digital Linear Tape (DLT) - High-capacity, faster and more expensive than DDS tape storage that stores up to
160 GB of compressed data on a single tape.
Mammoth - Introduced in 1996 by Exabyte Corporation, these tape drives have a 20-GB capacity with a transfer
rate of about 3 MBps.
Offsite Storage
Besides using a standard backup to tape or disk, cost effective solutions also include Data Warehousing - using a
third party company to store your mission critical databases off site.
Hot and Cold Spares
Hot Spare/Hot Swapping - RAID storage feature that allows a spare SCSI hard drive to be installed and
configured on a on-line, running server for automatic regenerating of lost data in the event of hard disk failure.
Replacing one failed SCSI hard disk drive in a RAID array while the RAID array server is operating.
Cold Spare/Cold Swapping - A spare SCSI hard drive available. The RAID array server has to be shut down and
power off before replacing a SCSI hard drive in a RAID array
Fail Over - When one device, database, server, or network fails, a standby automatically takes its place. This is
an important fault tolerance function for mission-critical environments where constant accessibility to mission
critical data is a must. Banks, for example, often employ this method along with clustering.
Hot, Warm, and Cold Sites

Hot site/hot standby - A redundant method where the primary and secondary backup systems run
simultaneously. Data is mirrored to a secondary server so that both servers contain identical information. A hot
site is an off-site location containing a fully operational network equipped with all the necessary hardware and
software. Hot sites are used in the event of a disaster or for recovering from a disaster.
Cold site/cold standby - A redundant method where the secondary backup system is only used when the primary
server fails. The standby server receives data backups less frequently than a warm standby. Cold standby
systems are used for infrequently changed data and non-critical data and applications. A cold site is a backup off
site location that provides space for containing redundant network hardware and resources that becomes "hot"
should the primary site become unavailable. In the event of a disaster, a cold site network is implemented thus
allowing work to continue. Cold sites, however, are expensive and are initially designed and used for
development testing or temporary work.

Warm site/warm standby - A redundant method where the secondary backup system runs in the background
while the primary server backs data real-time. With the warm standby method, data is mirrored more frequently
than the cold standby method but not continuously as in the hot standby method. A warm site is a backup off
site location where your data is periodically backed up and updated. Server and data synchronization occurs
over a secure network although servers are not continuously mirrored. In the event of a disaster, you can
restore, critical servers and continue network operations.
Clustering, Scalability, and High Availability

Clustering, scalability, and high availability are not separate, distinct concepts, but rather closely interrelated.
Clustering - A combination of hardware and software solutions used to produce a group of redundant, mirrored
servers in a network. If one of the clustered servers fails, the remaining clustered servers continue, albeit slower,
until a new server is added back to the cluster. Clustered servers are used for Load Balancing and high
availability, An optimally designed cluster appears to the user as a single system.
Scalability - Clustered servers are highly scalable - more servers can be added when needed.
High availability - Clustered servers are highly available. Optimally, the percentage of up-time should be between
99.9% and 99.999 percent. Five nines works out to 5.39 minutes per year of total downtimeplanned or
unplanned.
Domain 4.0 - Network Support 35%

4.1 Given a troubleshooting scenario, select the appropriate network utility
from the following:
Table 23 - Network Utilities
Utility
Operating System
Function
config
NetWare
Displays IP stack configuration, including IP address, subnet mask,

and gateway IP address
ifconfig
UNIX/Linux
Displays IP stack configuration
winipfcg
Windows 95/Windows 98
Displays IP stack configuration
ipconfig
Windows NT/Windows
2000/Windows XP
Displays IP stack configuration, release/renew DHCP IP address,

flush/register DNS
ping
Windows/UNIX/Linux/NetWare Verifies end-to-end network connectivity; uses ICMP echo packets
tracert
Windows 2000/Windows
XP/Windows 2003
Traces routes to Internet sites based on the number of hops, and

displays time taken
traceroute
UNIX/Linux
Traces routes to Internet sites based on the number of hops, and

displays time taken
netstat
Windows - all versions
Displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP network connections
UNIX/Linux/NetWare
nbtstat

UNIX/Linux/NetWare
arp

UNIX/Linux/NetWare
Displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP network connections

using NetBIOS over TCP/IP. Although NBTSTAT does not run
natively on UNIX/Linux, you can download and use the Linux
NBTSTAT utility.
Displays and/or modifies the IP-to-physical address translation
tables; displays current ARP cache
nslookup
Windows 2000/Windows
XP/Windows 2003
Queries a DNS name server; used to troubleshoot DNS and verify

DNS resolution
dig
UNIX/Linux
Nslookup equivalent
4.2 Given output from a diagnostic utility (for example: utilities listed in
4.1), identify the utility and interpret the output.
The easiest and best way to become familiar with the troubleshooting utilities listed in Section 4.1 is to execute them at
a command prompt on your own machine. Typing the utility name followed by a space, forward slash, and question
mark displays all the optional switches, along with a brief description of their functions. You should try all the above
listed utilities along with their common switches and settings. You will best learn how to use each utility by opening a
command emulator in your GUI and trying it out.
4.3 Given a network scenario, interpret visual indicators (for example: link
LEDs (light emitting diodes) and collision LEDs) to determine the nature of
a stated problem.
1. Shortly after your PC POST completes, NIC drivers load and the NIC link light displays. The link light LCD
on the back of the NIC is green and the collision LCD light is amber. The link status light should always be
on, emitting a steady, constant green color. If the link light is not displayed or is flickering, the NIC may be
defective.
2. Next, check the LCD link light on the switch port to which the NIC is connected. This light should also
display a steady, constant color, usually green. If the NIC card is defective, the cable is bad, or the switch
port is bad, no light is displayed.
3. The amber color collision light on the back of the NIC should blink intermittently, indicating normal Ethernet
network collision activity. If it stays on continuously, it indicates high network activity caused by many
packet collisions. This result indicates either an overloaded network segment or a defective NIC. Similar
network activity is also displayed on the network activity switch port LCD to which the NIC is connected.
4.4 Given a troubleshooting scenario involving a client accessing remote

network services, identify the cause of the problem (for example: file
services, print services, authentication failure, protocol configuration,
physical connectivity, and SOHO (small office/home office) routers).
Troubleshooting remote clients accessing network services is no different than troubleshooting network services onsite. Careful troubleshooting pre-planning and educating users on company policies, such as password length,
duration, and complexity requirements, are requirements. You must identify the causes and symptoms of problems,
along with how many users or network segments are affected. If you isolate the problem to an individual user, ask the
user what he or she was doing on the PC right before the problem occurred. For user connectivity issues, check both
the local and remote physical connections, along with the remote access server itself, the users network protocol
configuration settings, recently installed hardware or software, and user's rights and permissions. The following is a list
of common remote client network services troubleshooting issues and their causes:
File and print services - Check the local user properties and remote environment settings for enabled access to
client drives and printers. Check the user's remote desktop application connection local resource settings for
enabled access to files and printers. For remote access to mapped network drives, check the user's roaming
profile path and home folder, along with any appropriate login scripts. Make sure the client's printer drivers are
up to date and the printer is functioning correctly. Above all, check for obvious printer problems, such as printer
is offline, out of paper, paper is jammed, printer is unplugged or turned-off, and whether the printer queue is in
an error state.
Authentication failure - Verify that the user has a valid, enabled username and password and that the password
hasn't expired. The most common reasons for authentication failure is that the user forgot the password, has the
Caps Lock key on, or is still trying his old password out of habit. Verify that remote access is enabled for the
user, or that the company's remote access policy includes this user for access to the remote server. Check user
access rights and permissions and computer account remote access permission, and make sure that the user
workstation logon times and/or schedules is accurate.
Protocol configuration - Verify that the user's network protocol configuration settings are correct. Because most
companies use a DHCP server to automatically assign TCP/IP configuration settings, have the user check their
TCP/IP properties to ensure they are enabled to obtain IP and DNS addresses automatically. If TCP/IP
configuration settings are set up manually, have the user check the IP address, subnet mask, gateway address,
and preferred DNS address. If the protocol settings are correct, have the user ping the loopback address
(127.0.0.1) to verify that the protocols are properly bound to the user's NIC.
Physical connectivity - Verify that all network cables are in-tact and free from tears, that the media connector is
firmly connected and plugged in, and that both the NIC and hub (switch) port have active link and collision LCD
lights.
SOHO (small office/home office) router - Verify that the router is plugged in and that the router power LCD and
activity LCD are operational. Occasionally, even though all the router configuration settings appear correct on
the router, rebooting it resolves the problem. Using a browser, type the router's IP address, type the router
username and password to open the router settings pages, and verify that the router is fully operational by
checking the router's settings and status pages. Use the ping utility to ping and verify the router's nearside
private IP address and the router's far side (WAN) IP address. Pinging by both IP address and domain name
also tests and verifies that DNS is working properly. ISPs occasionally change their DNS server IP addresses.
You may also have to verify the IP address of the DNS servers with your ISP. Also, make sure that your
computer is on the same network (subnet) as the LAN port of the SOHO device. Usually the ISPs DHCP server
takes care of all of this, but occasionally, configuration settings are set manually and incorrectly.
4.5 Given a troubleshooting scenario between a

client and the following server environments,
identify the cause of a stated problem:
UNIX/Linux
For most troubleshooting problems with Unix/Linux systems, you have to be
logged in as root. If you are not logged in as root and issue a command, you
receive either a command not found message giving the false impression
that you typed in the watrong command or a permission denied message.
Installing Updates
If you are installing new hardware, or having trouble with new hardware,
make sure you have the right drivers. Visit your UNIX/Linux manufacturer's
Web site and download the most recent driver files. Also make sure to have
the recommended operating system updates and patches. UNIX/Linux Web
operating system sites also contain extensive support and troubleshooting
tips along with FAQs (frequently asked questions).
Discovering Problems
Both UNIX and Linux maintain files and directories by last access date.
Typing ls -lud and the directory name retrieves file information by date.
Typing ls -l lists files by last access modify date. For a listing of open
network connections use the lsof utility. Reviewing system logs can often be
helpful. SCO UNIX logs contain words like "CONFIG" "NOTICE" and
"WARNING" to assist you, but for other OSs, you may have to look manually
to figure out what key words they use.
Reading Log Files
Both UNIX and Linux maintain log files. Log files are your primary source for
obtaining clues and debugging information. On some systems, typing dmesg
gives you a lot of information to resolve boot up problems. For SCO, log files
are found in /var/log or /usr/adm directories; the syslog is useful for
troubleshooting. If printing is the problem using SCO, the primary log files
are located in /usr/spool/lp/logs directory. For Linux type tail
/var/log/messages to examine the main log file and /var/log/XFree86.0.log
for problems with the graphical mode GUI.
Resolving Software Problems
Type trace for UNIX OSs and strace for Linux to discover what files a
program tries to read and write. Try uninstalling, rebooting, and then
reinstalling the offending software program. If errors still appear, visit the
software's manufacturer's Web site and see if a software patch is available
and if other users are having problems.

Resolving Network Issues
First, type ifconfig to check your TCP/IP configuration. Next, try pinging your loop back address (127.0.0.1) to prove
that TCP/IP is working. After that, ping your local IP address, the near-side router IP address, the far-side router
address, and a host IP address.
Also try using both netstat -n and arp commands to display your local PC network settings. Type netstat -an to
review what network ports are open and in use. For slow network connections, type netstat -in and, on SCO, type
llistat -l and then review the results for problems. Long network delays can also be caused by DNS resolution
problems. Try using the dig command mentioned earlier to resolve DNS problems. If the server tries to resolve the
client name and can't, there will likely be a long delay.
NetWare
Network connectivity issues and is always a good place to start. For example, if your connection to the NetWare server
is slow or intermittently lost, you could change the NICs on the server and client to half-duplex.
Current versions of NetWare like current version of Windows products natively support TCP/IP. Early versions of
Novell's NetWare operating system used proprietary protocols. NetWare 3.11 uses IPX/SPX (Internet Packet
Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange) protocols. Windows NT 4, no longer supported by Microsoft, uses NWLink,
which is Microsoft's version of IPX/SPX that communicates with Novell NetWare servers using the IPX/SPX protocol.
Windows 2000 and Windows XP clients also need to install NWLink to use network resources on NetWare servers.
NWLink is a low-level transport protocol that provides services for upper-level protocols. Improperly configuring
NWLink is a common problem and results in lack of connectivity to NetWare servers.
Frame type detection: A frame type is the format a packet uses to communicate on your network. Many
problems on Ethernet networks occur from selecting the wrong frame type. If you selected Manual frame type
detection, and clicked Add, four choices are available: Ethernet 802.2, Ethernet 802.3, Ethernet II, and Ethernet
SNAP. The first two are the most common on a NetWare network. NetWare servers before version 3.12 default
to Ethernet 802.3. Newer NetWare versions default to Ethernet 802.2. Ethernet II and Ethernet SNAP are
usually used for TCP/IP and AppleTalk; select the frame type you use on your network. It's best to leave the
default adapter radio button to Auto frame type detection. Using Auto, Windows tries each frame type until it
finds one that works.
Network number - Also displayed in the Manual frame detection dialog box is the Network number. Routers use
this number to determine whether to route packets to another network. Every network that is segmented with a
router must have a unique IPX network number. This IPX network number is configured on NetWare servers and
routers. NWLink always attempts to auto detect this number. If it can't detect an IPX network number, the default
number zero is used. If you need to troubleshoot the frame type and network number, open a command prompt
and type IPXROUTE CONFIG, which returns a description of your network card, the frame type(s) in use, and
the network number.
Internal network number -The internal IPX network number is also displayed in the NWLink dialog box. This
number refers to a virtual network to which the NetWare server routes. NetWare servers always have an
internal, unique IPX network number. You can also set this number in Windows, but it is usually left at the default
setting because only File and Print Services for NetWare and Multi-Protocol Router services use it.
Client Services for NetWare - Client Services for NetWare (CSNW) runs as a service on Windows workstations
allowing users to access file and print resources on a NetWare server. CSNW uses NWLink to communicate on
the network. CSNW supports NetWare versions 2.x, 3.x, and 4.x in bindery emulation mode.
Gateway Services for NetWare - Gateway Services for NetWare (GSNW) provides similar functionality of
CSNW. GSNW runs only on Windows NT Server and adds a gateway between NetWare servers and Windows
clients. It is often employed on a network when only a few Windows clients need access to NetWare shares.
GSNW lets you share a NetWare volume to Microsoft clients. NetWare uses NetWare Core Protocols (NCPs).
Windows NT uses Server Message Blocks (SMBs). GSNW converts SMB requests from a Microsoft client to
NCP requests. This conversion lets a Microsoft client attach to a share on the Windows NT Server that in
actuality is connected to a NetWare server. GSNW supports NetWare versions 2.x, 3.x, and 4.x in bindery
emulation mode.

File and Print Services for NetWare - FPNW is a server-only service that permits NetWare clients to log onto a
Windows NT Server. FPNW makes a Windows NT Server look like a NetWare server on the network. Windows
NT Server allows both SMB and NCP clients to connect simultaneously. FPNW lets you install a Windows NT
Server on an existing NetWare network without changing any client configurations.
Service Advertising Protocol - SAP is another NetWare protocol that can be used on Windows 2000 or Windows
Server 2003 to identify NetWare services and addresses of NetWare servers attached to the network. The
responses are stored in a server information table on a router. SAP is installed by clicking the Install button from
the Server LAN Properties box.
Network connectivity using either NetWare 4 or NetWare 5 - If you cannot connect to the target NetWare server,
try disabling SAP Filtering between the Staging and Target Servers.
Windows
Client for Microsoft Networks Network Connectivity
All Windows clients need to have a network service (Client for Microsoft Networks), a protocol for communicating
(TCP/IP), and a method for sharing files and printers (File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks) installed. During
the network card detection phase on a Windows 2000 or Windows XP installation, the operating system auto detects
the NIC and automatically installs these services and protocol. A dialog box prompts you to either accept the default
typical settingsobtain an IP address automaticallyor you can choose custom and manually configure your TCP/IP
settings.
Troubleshooting Network Connectivity
Make sure your NIC and cable are properly functioning. Use Device Manager to check the functioning of your
computers or servers NIC.
Make sure your TCP/IP configuration settings are accurate by typing Winipcfg (Windows 98) or Ipconfig /all at
a command prompt.
Use the ping command sequences to determine the source of the problem.
Remote Desktop Connection Manager (RDC): Windows 2000 and Windows XP clients can test network connectivity to
a Windows server by using the RDC utility. To access the use the RDC utility, click Start > All Programs >
Accessories > Communications > Remote Desktop Connection, and type the Windows server computer name in
the resulting dialog box. Clients running Windows NT, Windows 98, or Windows 2000 can install the Client for Remote
desktops application by browsing to the following Web site and downloading and installing the Client for Remote
Desktop file: Client for Remote Desktop.
Windows NT and Windows 98 clients can also check server connectivity by clicking Start > Find > Find Computer,
and then entering the computer name of the Windows server.
If you are having problems using PPP, make sure to start PPP logging and review the results. Modems are sensitive to
variations in electrical current. If you are using a dial-up connection and having problems, be sure to test your modem
in: Phone and Modem Applet, Modems tab, Properties, Diagnostic tab, Query Modem button.
Also use Event Viewer to detect and troubleshoot possible operating system issues. Event Viewer displays detailed
information about system events. The information includes the event type, the date and time the event occurred, the
source of the event, the category for the event, and the event ID.
Windows System Information utility is another useful diagnostic tool. You access it by clicking Start > All Programs>
Accessories > System Tools> System Information. Hardware settings and components and Internet and
application settings are all listed and summarized. The NetDiag utility can be run (Start > Run, type NetDiag) to
review diagnostic output information. Finally, to check the status of services, click the Services applet found in the
Administrative Tools folder and review running services relative to network connectivity.
AppleShare IP
Troubleshooting Network Connectivity
Workstations are unable to connect to the server, the screen freezes while connected to the server:
Run a diagnostic repair utility to check and/or repair the hard disk drive. If necessary, run the utility again until no
problems are reported. If the hard disk cannot be repaired, backup and reformat your hard disk, then restore the
software.
Run an anti-virus utility with your latest, updated virus definitions. For Mac OS 8.6 or earlier, uncheck
Remember recently used items in the Apple Menu Options control panel.
Mouse drag the TCP/IP, AppleTalk preferences, and the AppleShare Prep files to the Trash. Click Empty
Trash from the Special menu. Reset PRAM and reconfigure AppleTalk and TCP/IP.
Verify that your version of AppleShare client is compatible with your OS. Use AppleShare client 3.8.1 on
workstations using operating System 7.6 and above.
AppleShare IP 6 Troubleshooting
Use the AppleShare IP 6 Web and File Admin application to enable TCP/IP and SMB connectivity.
In the AppleShare menu, in the Web and File Server Settings window, click Enable File Server Clients to
Connect over TCP.
Using the Windows File Sharing menu, click Enable Windows File Sharing (SMB). Make sure to type the
server name, workgroup name, and description.
AppleShare IP Web Sharing is to test TCP/IP network connectivity. The PING utility is located under the Start menu is
used to ping the IP address of the AppleShare IP server, or you can use Windows Internet Explorer to test
connectivity.
Name resolution requires the use of a DNS or Hosts file. The Hosts file contains text describing the proper syntax and
usage. Because the Hosts file is static, it requires manual updating. A DNS server is the preferred method for resolving
host names into IP addresses.
Windows Clients: Connecting to an AppleShare IP server
Windows 2000 and Windows XP clients can test connectivity to the AppleShare IP server by using the Remote
Desktop Connection (RDC) Manager utility. Review the above section under Windows, Troubleshooting network
connectivity for installation and RDP operation. For Windows 98 and Windows NT clients, click Start and choose
Find, Find Computer, and then enter the computer name of the AppleShare IP server. For frequent access to this
server, create a desktop shortcut. You can also map a drive to the AppleShare server by right-clicking Network
Neighborhood (Windows 98) or right-clicking My Network Places (Windows 2000 and Windows XP) and choosing
Map Network Drive.
4.6 Given a scenario, determine the impact of modifying, adding or

removing network services (for example: DHCP, DNS, WINS) for network
resources and users.
Changes on the network should always be seamless but, in practice, this is not always so. For the exam, you should
be able to determine which network service has been modified, added or removed based on the given scenario.
DHCP
A DHCP server is used to automatically provide clients with an IP address and other important IP addresses, such as
the network gateway address and preferred DNS server IP address. DHCP servers are first configured with a scope,
or range, of IP addresses so that clients can obtain IP address leases for a certain period of time. Also configured with
the scope is an exclusion range of IP addresses used to manually configure network-shared devices, such as servers.
In addition, DHCP server options, such as the IP addresses of the gateway router, DNS name server, and WINS, are
configured.
Adding DHCP - DHCP servers are commonly used on all types of TCP/IP networks. DHCP clients must have
their TCP/IP configuration set to automatically obtain an IP address. Clients contact the DHCP server after boot
up to obtain their DHCP IP leased address and other DHCP settings. If clients are initially configured with static
IP addresses and a DHCP server is later added to the network, client machines need to be reconfigured to
obtain an IP address automatically. Next, each client either needs to be rebooted to obtain a DHCP IP address
or type ipconfig /renew at a command prompt to obtain a DHCP IP address.
Modifying DHCP - Modifying the DHCP scope so that is contains IP addresses being used by other devices can
cause problems. This results in one of the devices not being able to connect. Additional DHCP scopes can be
added to the DHCP server at any time. Because a current scope is in use, it needs to be deactivated but not
deleted until all DHCP clients are leasing IP addresses from the new scope. For clients to use the new scope, at
each client machine, type ipconfig /release and then type ipconfig / renew to obtain the new scope IP address
and scope options.
Removing DHCP - If a DHCP server is removed from the network, all former DHCP clients need to manually
configure their TCP/IP settings to static IP addresses. Failing to do so results in clients obtaining an APIPA IP
address. Because the APIPA IP address is not in the current subnet range, network shared resources are
unavailable to APIPA clients until their IP settings are manually configured to a valid IP address in the network
subnet.
DNS
A DNS server is used for name resolution. It resolves host names into IP addresses and vice versa. Using name
resolution allows LAN clients to browse and use shared network resources by name rather than memorizing IP
addresses. Typing a URL in your browsers address box is much easier to do than trying to find the IP address of the
server. Using the WWW service on the Internet and typing in URLs is a great example of using DNS name resolution.
DNS servers maintain a list of host names and their associated IP addresses in a dynamic database.
Adding DNS - Adding a DNS server to your TCP/IP LAN reduces network traffic and increases client response to
accessing shared network resources. Note that if clients were using the lmhosts file for name resolution prior to
adding the DNS server, the IP to name statements in the lmhost files need to be commented out because
windows computers look at those files first before using DNS by default, If these statements are not commented
out, the client computers are likely to have name resolution connection problems. Windows DNS-aware clients,
such as Windows 2000 and Windows XP clients, must register their host name and IP address with the new
DNS server. To use the new DNS server, each client either needs to be rebooted to register their host name and
IP address, or type ipconfig / registerDNS at a command prompt to register their host name and IP address.
Note that these actions do not apply to Windows down-level, non-DNS aware clients, such as Windows 98 or
Windows NT.
Modifying DNS - Although DNS servers add DNS records dynamically, administrators can and do add static
Hosts records to the DNS database. Adding a static Hosts record, such as your WWW Web page host name
and IP address, improves response time and does not disrupt LAN functions.
Removing DNS - Removing a DNS server because of a failure or for maintenance results in client network
connectivity problems for all DNS aware clients. Windows 2000 and Windows Server 2003 networks are
essentially non-functional until a new DNS server is configured and running. Clients may have to register with
the new DNS server by typing ipconfig /flushDNS to purge old, stale records and then typing ipconfig
/registerDNS to register their DNS record with the new DNS server. Note that this example is a worst-case

scenario. Most companies maintain either a Secondary DNS server or an Active Directory integrated (Windows
2000 and Windows 2003) second server for fault tolerance and redundancy.
WINS
A WINS server is used to provide name resolution for Windows down-level clients, such as Windows 98 and Windows
NT 4. WINS resolves NetBIOS or computer names into IP addresses and vice versa. A NetBIOS name up to 15
characters is entered during the installation of Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows NT clients in their Computer
Name text box. Using WINS for name resolution allows WINS-aware clients to browse and use shared network
resources by name rather than IP addresses.
Adding WINS - Adding WINS for down-level Windows clients improves response time to mapped or shared
network drives and resources. Similar to DNS, WINS maintains a dynamic database of computer names and
their associated IP addresses. Note: if your network does not contain any down-level Windows clients, installing
WINS is not necessary.
Modifying WINS - Although WINS records can be added manually, there is seldom a need to do so. Modifying
WINS does not affect client name resolution.
Removing WINS - Removing a WINS server is generally done after all Windows down-level clients are upgraded
to either Windows 2000 or Windows XP. Because Windows 2000 and Windows XP or any other clients such as
Linux, NetWare or AppleShare IP are DNS aware, DNS servers are used for name resolution for these clients. If
a WINS server is removed for maintenance or hardware/software failure, name resolution for Windows downlevel clients is performed by the NOS, and usually results in longer response time to accessing shared
resources.
4.7 Given a troubleshooting scenario involving a network with a particular

physical topology (for example: bus, star, mesh, ring) and including a
network diagram, identify the network area affected and the cause of the
stated failure.
Bus
Because all network devices are connected in series on a bus network, a bad node, a break in the cable anywhere on
the bus, or a defective NIC or connector causes the entire bus network to fail. Thus, troubleshooting a bus network is
difficult. A common method used to troubleshoot failed bus networks is to begin troubleshooting at a terminated end,
removing the other terminator at the opposite end and placing it on the first node. Next, either browse the network or
use the ping command to ping the local node. Continue troubleshooting removing the terminator and connecting it to
the next node until you can no longer browse the network or ping the node. At that point, isolate the problem to the
network device or NIC, break in or defective media cable, or a bad or loose connector, and replace the defective
component.
Star
Troubleshooting a star topology is straightforward and simpler than troubleshooting a bus topology. A bad or defective
cable or cable break, or a defective network device or NIC affects only that node and not the entire network segment.
Begin troubleshooting at the network device NIC by examining the NIC link and activity LCD lights. If they are OK,
examine the segment switch node connector port light for connectivity and network activity. Depending on your results,
replace the defective network device or NIC, or the defective cable or connector. If the entire star topology segment
has failed, troubleshoot or replace the central segment switch.
Mesh

Mesh topologies offer the best fault tolerance of all topologies and are also simple to troubleshoot. Using one of the
network servers connected to the mesh and the included network browsing utility, browse the mesh network and
review and compare the connected nodes NetBIOS names with your original documentation. The missing NetBIOS
name is the faulting network node. Next, troubleshoot the faulting node's device, NIC, or cable and connectors and
replace the defective component.
Ring
Although the ring topology eliminates Ethernet network packet collisions, it is similar to bus topology in
troubleshootingit can be difficult to troubleshoot. A defective node on a logical ring causes the entire logical ring
segment to fail. To troubleshoot and determine the defective node, begin troubleshooting at one of the ring's nodes by
examining the NIC status and LCD indicators, cable, and connectors. If the node appears OK, use the included
network browsing utility or the ping command and browse or ping the local node. Continue troubleshooting to the next
node until you can no longer browse the network or ping the node. At that point, isolate the problem to the network
device or NIC, break in or defective cable, bad or loose connector and replace the defective component,
4.8 Given a network troubleshooting scenario involving an wired or

wireless infrastructure problem, identify the cause of a stated problem (for
example: bad media, interference, network hardware or environment).
Wired Networks
For maximum network reliability and performance, all cables in your network must form an unbroken, interference-free
link between workstations and servers. Electrical noise or interference, or other line transmission problems can cause
your LAN to mysteriously slow down or fail. Network cable testers are used to wire new LANs, modifying existing LAN
segments, and troubleshoot poor network performance. They are used to detect defects in wiring, cable length, short
circuits, noise interference, and signal strength.
Wired network troubleshooting tools and their uses:
Crossover cable - Used for testing network connectivity between two network nodes, bypassing the hub or
switch to which the nodes connect.
Hardware loop-back cable - Connects send wires to receive wires. Used to test a NIC card that's not attached to
the network and to test network connectivity between two hubs or switches.
Digital volt meter - Used to determine if cables are faulty and/or to test power supply voltage.
Oscilloscope - A device that measures signal voltages per unit of time.
Media tester/certifier - Tests the continuity and polarity of UTP and STP media cable.
Advanced cable testers - Analyze network traffic to isolate and locate excessive packet collisions.
Wireless Networks
To troubleshoot wireless connectivity problems, follow these steps:
Check physical connections. Check media cables and connectors for wired PCs connected to the WAP router
ports. Check both PC NIC and LAN port activity lights.
Check wireless adapter. Check the wireless network adapter properties using the Windows Device Manger. If
you have a yellow question mark or red X, download an install the latest wireless adapter drivers to fix the
problem. Verify that the adapters LAN connection properties status is enabled.
Verify your network configuration. Using a browser, type the routers gateway address and verify that the routers
LAN status is active. If DHCP is enabled, verify that the scope of DHCP addresses is on the same subnet as the
router's gateway address.
Verify PC configuration. Type ipconfig at a command prompt to verify that you have a valid IP address and
default gateway address. Use the ping command to ping the gateway address. Note that you may have to
enable using ping in the router admin console, or you may have to disable personal software firewalls.
No packets received. If your adapter is properly configured, operational and able to ping, but you aren't sending
or receiving packets, then your wireless adapter is not communicating with your WAP router. Check that both
your router and adapter are using the same SSID, WEP, and WPA settings.
A wireless networking troubleshooting tool includes a spread spectrum analyzer, which you use to test for radio
frequency interference and wireless interference.
Interference is a significant problem on wireless networks. Check for nearby wireless networks using the same or
similar channel number, wireless phones using the 2.4 GHz band, microwave ovens, metal objects such as file
cabinets, partitions, and metal blinds that could be deflecting the RF signal. Also, the distance a node is from the
nearest AP makes a big difference in the connection speed: the further away the wireless device is from the AP, the
slower the connection speed.
4.9 Given a network problem scenario, select an appropriate course of

action based on a logical troubleshooting strategy. This strategy includes
the following steps:
Identify the symptoms and potential causes. You can accomplish this by interviewing the user or users with the
problem. Asking the right questions is crucial since users will not likely know what data is and isnt important for
you to know. Remember to ask the user what they were doing right before this problem occurred. Observing the
symptoms and seeing if you can replicate them works at this level. Here you start to formulate your theories as
to the cause.
Identify the affected area. Do this by interview and observation. Which computers are and arent affected? Does
the problem affect only one user or several users? What is the range of the problem?
Establish what has changed.
Select the most probable cause.
Implement an action plan and solution including potential effects.
Test the result.
Identify the results and effects of the solution.
Document the solution and process.
Troubleshooting Strategies
Following a logical troubleshooting strategy is essential. Begin by identifying the symptoms of the problem, and then
isolate the problem to a hardware or software issue. Remember, software problems are usually repetitive and occur in
the same place at about the same time. Hardware problems are just the opposite, often occurring randomly at different
time intervals. Another clue is whether this problem occurs with just one user or several users. If the problem occurs
with several users, the problem is usually software related (excluding a server hardware failure); with one user, the
problem can be either software or hardware. If this problem occurs with just one user, ask the user what he or she was
doing right before the problem occurred. Based on the user's answers and your own findings, implement a course of
action and probable solution. If you can, test the action plan solution and results before you actually implement it.
Review the results of your implementation and any side effects that occur. Finally, be sure to document your process
and results for future reference.

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CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

Domain 1.0 - Media and Topologies 20%

1.2 Specify the main features of 802.2, 802.3, 802.5,

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

IEEE 802.3 Ethernet

IEEE 802.5 Token Ring

IEEE 802.11 Wireless

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

This specification extends into 802.11b.

"Wi-Fi" certified products. Up to 12

"Wi-Fi" certified products. Requires fewer

"Wi-Fi" certified products. May replace

Bluetooth does not support TCP/IP and

Employed in metropolitan area networks

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

10, 100, or 1000

UTP, STP, or Fiber

Cellular (because its wireless)

Dual logical ring

Maximum Cable Length

Maximum Transfer Speed Connector Topology

Multimode 2 kilometers (6,561 feet) without 10 Mbps

100BASE-TX Cat 5 UTP

100 Mbps (half duplex) or SC fiber200 Mbps (full duplex)

Table 5 - Gigabit Ethernet

Max Cable Length

Micro multimode 550 meters (50u)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

Table 6 - 10 Gigabit Ethernet

Max Cable Length

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

IEEE 1394 (FireWire)

Fiber LC (Local Connector)

MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack)

USB (Universal Serial Bus)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

(Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit)

NICs (Network Interface Cards)

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) Adapters

WAPs (Wireless Access Points)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

Transceivers (Media Converters)

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

1.7 Specify the general characteristics (carrier speed, frequency,

DSSS with CCK

OFDM above 20Mbps

DSSS with CCK below

CompTIA Network+ (N10-003)

Domain 2.0 - Protocols and Standards 20%

Telnet, FTP, SMTP, Where users request network processes. Network

ASCII, TIFF, JPEG,

RPC, ZIP, SCP,

Segments TCP, NBP, UDP,

Data representation and application translation to

Reliable transmission and transfer of data packets.