Ellipsometry

Ellipsometry is an optical technique for investigating

the dielectric properties (complex refractive index or
dielectric function) of thin lms. Ellipsometry can
be used to characterize composition, roughness, thickness (depth), crystalline nature, doping concentration,
electrical conductivity and other material properties. It
is very sensitive to the change in the optical response of
incident radiation that interacts with the material being
investigated.

tra). The technique has been known at least since 1888

by the work of Paul Drude,[2] (the term ellipsometry
being rst used probably in 1945 [3] ) and has many applications today. A spectroscopic ellipsometer can be found
in most thin lm analytical labs. Ellipsometry is also
becoming more interesting to researchers in other disciplines such as biology and medicine. These areas pose
new challenges to the technique, such as measurements
on unstable liquid surfaces and microscopic imaging.

Typically, the measured signal is the change in polarization as the incident radiation (in a known state) interacts with the material structure of interest (reected,
absorbed, scattered, or transmitted). The polarization
change is quantied by the amplitude ratio, , and the
phase dierence, (dened below). Because the signal
depends on the thickness as well as the materials properties, ellipsometry can be a universal tool [1] for contact
free determination of thickness and optical constants of
lms of all kinds.

1 Basic principles
Ellipsometry measures the change of polarization upon
reection or transmission and compares it to a model.
Typically, ellipsometry is done only in the reection
setup. The exact nature of the polarization change is determined by the samples properties (thickness, complex
refractive index or dielectric function tensor). Although
optical techniques are inherently diraction limited, ellipsometry exploits phase information (polarization state),
and can achieve sub-nanometer resolution. In its simplest
form, the technique is applicable to thin lms with thickness less than a nanometer to several micrometers. Most
models assume the sample is composed of a small
number of discrete, well-dened layers that are optically homogeneous and isotropic. Violation of these
assumptions requires more advanced variants of the technique (see below).

This technique has found applications in many dierent

elds, from semiconductor physics to microelectronics
and biology, from basic research to industrial applications. Ellipsometry is a very sensitive measurement technique and provides unequaled capabilities for thin lm
metrology. As an optical technique, spectroscopic ellipsometry is non-destructive and contactless. Because the
incident radiation can be focused, small sample sizes can
be imaged and desired characteristics can be mapped over
a larger area (m^2).
The one weakness of ellipsometry is the need to model
the data. Entire courses are taught in the modeling of
the raw data. Models can be physically based on energy
transitions or simply free parameters used to t the data.

Methods of immersion or multiangular ellipsometry are

applied to nd the optical constants of the material with
rough sample surface or presence of inhomogeneous media. New methodological approaches allow the use of reUpon the analysis of the change of polarization of light, ection ellipsometry to measure physical and technical
ellipsometry can yield information about layers that are characteristics of gradient elements in case[4]the surface
thinner than the wavelength of the probing light itself, layer of the optical detail is inhomogeneous.
even down to a single atomic layer. Ellipsometry can
probe the complex refractive index or dielectric function
tensor, which gives access to fundamental physical pa- 2 Experimental details
rameters like those listed above. It is commonly used to
characterize lm thickness for single layers or complex
multilayer stacks ranging from a few angstroms or tenths 2.1 Experimental setup
of a nanometer to several micrometers with an excellent
Electromagnetic radiation is emitted by a light source and
accuracy.
linearly polarized by a polarizer. It can pass through an
The name ellipsometry stems from the fact that
optional compensator (retarder, quarter wave plate) and
Elliptical polarization of light is used. The term specfalls onto the sample. After reection the radiation passes
troscopic relates to the fact that the information gained
a compensator (optional) and a second polarizer, which
is a function of the lights wavelength or energy (specis called an analyzer, and falls into the detector. Instead
1

3 DEFINITIONS

Light source

Detector

Polarizer
Compensator
(optional)

Analyzer

Compensator
(optional)

Sample

Schematic setup of an ellipsometry experiment.

of the compensators, some ellipsometers use a phasemodulator in the path of the incident light beam. Ellipsometry is a specular optical technique (the angle of incidence equals the angle of reection). The incident and the
reected beam span the plane of incidence. Light which
is polarized parallel to this plane is named p-polarized
(p-polarised). A polarization direction perpendicular is
called s-polarized (s-polarised), accordingly. The s is
contributed from the German senkrecht (perpendicular).
(See also Fresnel equations)

2.2

Data acquisition

Ellipsometry measures the complex reectance ratio, ,

of a system, which may be parametrized by the amplitude
component and the phase dierence . The polarization state of the light incident upon the sample may be
decomposed into an s and a p component (the s component is oscillating perpendicular to the plane of incidence
and parallel to the sample surface, and the p component
is oscillating parallel to the plane of incidence). The amplitudes of the s and p components, after reection and
normalized to their initial value, are denoted by rs and rp
, respectively. The angle of incidence is chosen close to
the Brewster angle of the sample to ensure a maximal difference in rp and rs .[5] Ellipsometry measures the complex reectance ratio, (a complex quantity), which is
the ratio of rp over rs :

rp
= tan()ei
rs

Thus, tan() is the amplitude ratio upon reection, and

is the phase shift (dierence). (Note that the right hand
side of the equation is simply another way to represent a
complex number.) Since ellipsometry is measuring the
ratio (or dierence) of two values (rather than the absolute value of either), it is very robust, accurate, and reproducible. For instance, it is relatively insensitive to scatter
and uctuations, and requires no standard sample or reference beam.

2.3 Data analysis

Ellipsometry is an indirect method, i.e. in general the
measured and cannot be converted directly into the
optical constants of the sample. Normally, a model analysis must be performed, see for example the Forouhi
Bloomer model. Direct inversion of and is only
possible in very simple cases of isotropic, homogeneous
and innitely thick lms. In all other cases a layer model
must be established, which considers the optical constants
(refractive index or dielectric function tensor) and thickness parameters of all individual layers of the sample
including the correct layer sequence. Using an iterative
procedure (least-squares minimization) unknown optical
constants and/or thickness parameters are varied, and
and values are calculated using the Fresnel equations.
The calculated and values which match the experimental data best provide the optical constants and thickness parameters of the sample.

3 Denitions
Modern ellipsometers are complex instruments that incorporate a wide variety of radiation sources, detectors,
digital electronics and software. The range of wavelength
employed is far in excess of what is visible so strictly these
are no longer optical instruments.[6]

3.1 Single-wavelength vs. spectroscopic ellipsometry

Single-wavelength
ellipsometry
employs
a
monochromatic light source. This is usually a laser
in the visible spectral region, for instance, a HeNe laser
with a wavelength of 632.8 nm. Therefore, singlewavelength ellipsometry is also called laser ellipsometry.
The advantage of laser ellipsometry is that laser beams
can be focused on a small spot size. Furthermore, lasers
have a higher power than broad band light sources.
Therefore, laser ellipsometry can be used for imaging
(see below). However, the experimental output is
restricted to one set of and values per measurement.
Spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) employs broad band
light sources, which cover a certain spectral range in the
infrared, visible or ultraviolet spectral region. By that the
complex refractive index or the dielectric function tensor
in the corresponding spectral region can be obtained,
which gives access to a large number of fundamental
physical properties. Infrared spectroscopic ellipsometry
(IRSE) can probe lattice vibrational (phonon) and free
charge carrier (plasmon) properties. Spectroscopic
ellipsometry in the near infrared, visible up to ultraviolet spectral region studies the refractive index in the
transparency or below-band-gap region and electronic
properties, for instance, band-to-band transitions or
excitons.

4.1

3.2

Imaging ellipsometry

Standard vs. generalized ellipsometry strate. The lm and the substrate have dierent refractive indexes. In order to obtain data about lm thickness,
(anisotropy)

Standard ellipsometry (or just short 'ellipsometry') is applied, when no s polarized light is converted into p polarized light nor vice versa. This is the case for optically isotropic samples, for instance, amorphous materials or crystalline materials with a cubic crystal structure. Standard ellipsometry is also sucient for optically
uniaxial samples in the special case, when the optical axis
is aligned parallel to the surface normal. In all other cases,
when s polarized light is converted into p polarized light
and/or vice versa, the generalized ellipsometry approach
must be applied. Examples are arbitrarily aligned, optically uniaxial samples, or optically biaxial samples.

3.3

Jones matrix vs. Mueller matrix formalism (Depolarization)

There are typically two dierent ways of mathematically describing how an electromagnetic wave interacts with the elements within an ellipsometer (including the sample): the Jones matrix and the Mueller matrix formalisms. In the Jones matrix formalism, the
electromagnetic wave is described by a Jones vector with
two orthogonal complex-valued entries for the electric
eld (typically Ex and Ey ), and the eect that an optical
element (or sample) has on it is described by the complexvalued 2x2 Jones matrix. In the Mueller matrix formalism, the electromagnetic wave is described by Stokes vectors with four real-valued entries, and their transformation is described by the real-valued 4x4 Mueller matrix.
When no depolarization occurs both formalisms are fully
consistent. Therefore, for non-depolarizing samples, the
simpler Jones matrix formalism is sucient. If the sample is depolarizing the Mueller matrix formalism should
be used, because it also give the amount of depolarization.
Reasons for depolarization are, for instance, thickness
non-uniformity or backside-reections from a transparent substrate.

the light reecting o of the substrate must be nulled.

Nulling is achieved by adjusting the analyzer and polarizer so that all reected light o of the substrate is extinguished. Due to the dierence in refractive indexes, this
will allow the sample to become very bright and clearly
visible. The light source consists of a monochromatic
laser of the desired wave length.[7] A common wavelength
that is used is 532 nm green laser light. Since only intensity of light measurements are needed, almost any type of
camera can be implemented as the CCD, which is useful
if building an ellipsometer from parts. Typically, imaging ellipsometers are congured in such a way so that the
laser (L) res a beam of light which immediately passes
through a linear polarizer (P). The linearly polarized light
then passes through a quarter wave length compensator
(C) which transforms the light into elliptically polarized
light.[8] This elliptically polarized light then reects o
the sample (S), passes through the analyzer (A) and is
imaged onto a CCD camera by a long working distance
objective. The analyzer here is another polarizer identical to the P, however, this polarizer serves to help quantify
the change in polarization and is thus given the name analyzer. This design is commonly referred to as a LPCSA
conguration.
The orientation of the angles of P and C are chosen in
such a way that the elliptically polarized light is completely linearly polarized after it is reected o the sample. For simplication of future calculations, the compensator can be xed at a 45 degree angle relative to the
plane of incidence of the laser beam.[9] This set up requires the rotation of the analyzer and polarizer in order
to achieve null conditions. The ellipsometric null condition is obtained when A is perpendicular with respect to
the polarization axis of the reected light achieving complete destructive interference, i.e., the state at which the
absolute minimum of light ux is detected at the CCD
camera. The angles of P, C, and A obtained are used to
determine the and values of the material. [10]
= A and = 2P + /2

Where A and P are the angles of the analyzer and polarizer under null conditions respectively. By rotating the
analyzer and polarizer and measuring the change in intensities of light over the image, analysis of the measured
data by use of computerized optical modeling can lead to
4.1 Imaging ellipsometry
a deduction of spatially resolved lm thickness and comEllipsometry can also be done as imaging ellipsometry plex refractive index values.
by using a CCD camera as a detector. This provides a Due to the fact that the imaging is done at an angle, only
real time contrast image of the sample, which provides in- a small line of the entire eld of view is actually in focus.
formation about lm thickness and refractive index. Ad- The line in focus can be moved along the eld of view by
vanced imaging ellipsometer technology operates on the adjusting the focus. In order to analyze the entire region
principle of classical null ellipsometry and real-time el- of interest, the focus must be incrementally moved along
lipsometric contrast imaging. Imaging ellipsometry is the region of interest with a photo taken at each position.
based on the concept of nulling. In ellipsometry, the All of the images are then compiled into a single, in focus
lm under investigation is placed onto a reective sub- image of the sample.

Advanced
proaches

experimental

ap-

4.2

In situ ellipsometry

4.3

Ellipsometric Porosimetry

REFERENCES

mobility parameter and the eective mass parameter of

free charge carriers. Without the magnetic eld only two
In situ ellipsometry refers to dynamic measurements dur- out of the three free charge carrier parameters can be exing the modication process of a sample. This process tracted independently.
can be, for instance, the growth of a thin lm,[11] etching
or cleaning of a sample. By in situ ellipsometry measurements it is possible to determine fundamental pro- 5 Advantages
cess parameters, such as, growth or etch rates, variation
of optical properties with time. In situ ellipsometry meaEllipsometry has a number of advantages compared to
surements require a number of additional considerations:
standard reection intensity measurements:
The sample spot is usually not as easily accessible as for ex
situ measurements outside the process chamber. There Ellipsometry measures at least two parameters at
fore, the mechanical setup has to be adjusted, which can
each wavelength of the spectrum. If generalized elinclude additional optical elements (mirrors, prisms, or
lipsometry is applied up to 16 parameters can be
lenses) for redirecting or focusing the light beam. Bemeasured at each wavelength.
cause the environmental conditions during the process
can be harsh, the sensitive optical elements of the ellip Ellipsometry measures an intensity ratio instead of
sometry setup must be separated from the hot zone. In
pure intensities. Therefore, ellipsometry is less afthe simplest case this is done by optical view ports, though
fected by intensity instabilities of the light source or
strain induced birefringence of the (glass-) windows has
atmospheric absorption.
to be taken into account or minimized. Furthermore, the
By using polarized light, normal ambient unpolarsamples can be at elevated temperatures, which implies
ized stray light does not signicantly inuence the
dierent optical properties compared to samples at room
measurement, no dark box is necessary.
temperature. Despite all these problems, in situ ellipsometry becomes more and more important as process con No reference measurement is necessary.
trol technique for thin lm deposition and modication
Both real and imaginary part of the dielectric functools. In situ ellipsometers can be of single-wavelength
tion (or complex refractive index) can be extracted
or spectroscopic type. Spectroscopic in situ ellipsomewithout the necessity to perform a KramersKronig
ters use multichannel detectors, for instance CCD detecanalysis.
tors, which measure the ellipsometric parameters for all
wavelengths in the studied spectral range simultaneously.
Ellipsometry is especially superior to reectivity measurements when studying anisotropic samples.

Ellipsometric porosimetry measures the change of the

optical properties and thickness of the materials during
adsorption and desorption of a volatile species at atmospheric pressure or under reduced pressure depending on
the application.[12] The EP technique is unique in its ability to measure porosity of very thin lms down to 10 nm,
its reproducibility and speed of measurement. Compared
to traditional porosimeters, Ellipsometer porosimeters
are well suited to very thin lm pore size and pore size
distribution measurement. Film porosity is a key factor
in silicon based technology using low-k materials, organic
industry (encapsulated organic light-emitting diodes) as
well as in the coating industry using sol gel techniques.

4.4

Magneto-optic generalized ellipsometry

Magneto-optic generalized ellipsometry (MOGE) is an

advanced infrared spectroscopic ellipsometry technique
for studying free charge carrier properties in conducting
samples. By applying an external magnetic eld it is possible to determine independently the density, the optical

6 See also
Polarimetry
Spectroscopy

7 References
[1] http://www.jawoollam.com/tutorial_1.html
[2] P.Drude, Ueber die Gesetze der Reexion und Brechung
des Lichtes an der Grenze absorbirender Krystalle,
Annalen der Physik, Volume 268, Issue 12, 1887,
Pages: 584625, DOI: 10.1002/andp.18872681205;
Ueber Oberchenschichten. I. Theil, Annalen der
Physik, Volume 272, Issue 2, 1889, Pages: 532
560, DOI: 10.1002/andp.18892720214; Ueber Oberchenschichten. II. Theil, Annalen der Physik, Volume 272, Issue 4, 1889, Pages: 865897, DOI:
10.1002/andp.18892720409 (in German)
[3] A. Rothen, The Ellipsometer, an Apparatus to Measure
Thickness of Thin Surface Films, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 16,
No. 2, 26 (1945)

[4] Gorlyak A.N., Khramtsovky I.A., Solonukha V.M.

(2015). Ellipsometry method application in optics of inhomogeneous media.. Scientic and Technical Journal of
Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics 15 (3):
378386.
[5] Butt, Hans-Jrgen, Kh Graf, and Michael Kappl. Measurement of Adsorption Isotherms. Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2006. 20609. Print.
[6] http://www.jawoollam.com/
[7] Tompkins, Harland (2005). Handbook of Ellipsometry. p.
13.
[8] Tompkins, Harland (2005). Handbook of Ellipsometry. p.
329.
[9] Tompkins, Harland (2005). Handbook of Ellipsometry. p.
329.
[10] Tompkins, Harland (2005). Handbook of Ellipsometry. p.
329.
[11] P. Koirala, D. Attygalle, P. Aryal, P. Pradhan, J. Chen,
S. Marsillac, A.S. Ferlauto, N.J. Podraza, R.W. Collins,
Real time spectroscopic ellipsometry for analysis and
control of thin lm polycrystalline semiconductor deposition in photovoltaics
[12] http://www.semilab.hu/metrology/ellipsometry/
ellipsometry-porosimetry

Further reading
R. M. A. Azzam and N. M. Bashara, Ellipsometry
and Polarized Light, Elsevier Science Pub Co (1987)
ISBN 0-444-87016-4
A. Roeseler, Infrared Spectroscopic Ellipsometry, Akademie-Verlag, Berlin (1990), ISBN 3-05500623-2
H. G. Tompkins, A Userss Guide to Ellipsometry,
Academic Press Inc, London (1993), ISBN 0-12693950-0
H. G. Tompkins and W. A. McGahan, Spectroscopic
Ellipsometry and Reectometry, John Wiley & Sons
Inc (1999) ISBN 0-471-18172-2
I. Ohlidal and D. Franta, Ellipsometry of Thin Film
Systems, in Progress in Optics, vol. 41, ed. E. Wolf,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2000, pp. 181282
M. Schubert, Infrared Ellipsometry on semiconductor layer structures: Phonons, Plasmons, and Polaritons, Series: Springer Tracts in Modern Physics,
Vol. 209, Springer (2004), ISBN 3-540-23249-4
H. G. Tompkins and E. A. Irene (Editors), Handbook of Ellipsometry William Andrews Publications,
Norwich, NY (2005), ISBN 0-8155-1499-9

H. Fujiwara, Spectroscopic Ellipsometry: Principles

and Applications, John Wiley & Sons Inc (2007),
ISBN 0-470-01608-6
M. Losurdo and K. Hingerl (Editors), Ellipsometry at the Nanoscale, Springer (2013), ISBN 9783-642-33955-4
K. Hinrichs and K.-J. Eichhorn (Editors), Ellipsometry of Functional Organic Surfaces and Films,
Springer (2014), ISBN 978-3-642-40128-2

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

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Ellipsometry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsometry?oldid=676896773 Contributors: Maury Markowitz, Tedernst, Henrygb,

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9.2

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