Unit 1 Review APEH

Francesco Petrarch Petrarch was born Francesco Petrarca on July 20, 1304, in Arezzo, Tuscany. He was a devoted
classical scholar who is considered the "Father of Humanism," a philosophy that helped spark the Renaissance.
Petrarch's writing includes well-known odes to Laura, his idealized love. His writing was also used to shape the
modern Italian language. He died at age 69 on July 18 or 19, 1374, in Arqu, Carrara.
Francesco Petrarcawhose anglicized name is Petrarchwas born on July 20, 1304, in Arezzo, Tuscany (now
Italy). With his family, he moved to Avignon, France, as a child. In France, Petrarch studied law, as his father had
wished. However, his passion was for literature, particularly that of ancient Greece and Rome. After his father's
death in 1326, Petrarch left law to focus on the classics.
Petrarch became a cleric, making him eligible for ecclesiastical postings, which supported him as he pursued his
interest in ancient literature. Traveling as a diplomatic envoy for the Church, he was also able to search for
forgotten classical texts. Throughout his lifetime, Petrarch amassed an impressive collection of such texts, which
he later bequeathed to Venice in exchange for a house, refuge from the plague.
As Petrarch learned more about the classical period, he began to venerate that era and rail against the
limitations of his own time. Though he felt that he lived "amid varied and confusing storms," Petrarch believed
that humanity could once more reach the heights of past accomplishments. The doctrine he espoused became
known as humanism, and formed a bridge from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance.
Petrarch's other passion was writing. His first pieces were poems that he composed after the death of his
mother. He would go on to write sonnets, letters, histories and more. Petrarch's writing was greatly admired
during his lifetime, and he was crowned Rome's poet laureate in 1341. The work Petrarch held in highest regard
was his Latin composition Africa, an epic poem about the Second Punic War. His vernacular poems achieved
greater renown, however, and would later be used to help create the modern Italian language.
Petrarch's most well-known vernacular compositions were lyrical poems about Laura, a woman he had fallen in
unrequited love with after seeing her in an Avignon church on April 6, 1327. Petrarch wrote about Laurawhose
true identity has never been verifiedfor most of his life, even after she died during the Black Death of 1348.
When he collected 366 of his vernacular poems in his Rerum vulgarium fragmentaalso known as Rime Sparse
("Scattered Rhymes") and as Petrarch's canzoniere ("Petrarch's songbook")his love for Laura was one of the
main themes. The collection also contains 317 sonnets; Petrarch was an early practitioner of the form and
helped to popularize it.
Petrarch passed away just before his 70th birthday, in Arqu (near Padua), Carrara, which is now part of Italy.
After retiring to work in his study on July 18, 1374, Petrarch died during the night. His body was discovered the
following morning.As one of the world's first classical scholars, Petrarch unearthed vast stores of knowledge in
the lost texts he discovered, while his philosophy of humanism helped foment the intellectual growth and
accomplishments of the Renaissance. Petrarch's legacy also includes his poems, sonnets and other writing. His
vernacular writing was immortalized when it was usedalongside the works of Dante Alighieri and Giovanni
Boccaccioas the foundation for the modern Italian language.
Desiderus Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467?1536) was the most famous and influential
humanist of the Northern Renaissance, a man of great talent and industriousness who rose from obscure
beginnings to become the leading intellectual figure of the early sixteenth century, courted by rulers and
prelates who wanted to enhance their own reputations by association with the greatest scholar of the age. He
was his generation's finest Latin stylist, in a society that revered good Latin, even more impressive for his much
rarer mastery of Greek that few contemporaries could equal. He was a phenomenally productive writer (the
most complete edition of his collected works fills ten large folio volumes) and was the first European intellectual
to exploit fully the power of the printed word, making the true center of his career not a university or the court
of a secular prince or high prelate but the greatest publishing houses of the Netherlands, Paris, Venice, and
above allBasel. Though most vividly remembered now for his critical satires of abuses in the church and
secular society and for his work as editor of the first published edition of the Greek New Testament, he was a
prolific and influential author in many genres. He was a leading writer on education, author of five influential
treatises on humanist educational theory and even a greater number of widely used and often reprinted
textbooks taught in humanistic schools throughout Europe, especially north of the Alps; the producer of
excellent critical editions of the works of classical Greek and Latin authors, including translations of Greek texts
into the Latin that all educated people of his time could read; and the editor and translator of the works of early
Latin and Greek Church Fathers, especially important for translations of Greek patristic literature, which had
been little known to the Western church during the Middle Ages; the author of books of spiritual counsel
addressed mainly to educated laymen of his time, all written in Latin but several of them quickly translated by

other hands into most of the European vernacular languages and frequently reprinted; he even wrote and
published Latin poems on both secular and religious themes, the one genre in which he had no lasting influence.
The guides to theological method and exegesis of the Bible that he wrote as prefaces to the 1516 and 1518
editions of the New Testament mark a major turn in theology and the interpretation of Scripture and posed a
serious challenge to the scholastic theology that had dominated university faculties of theology since the
thirteenth century. He was also an active letter-writer, corresponding with contemporaries high and low, famous
and obscure, and carefully preserving his letters and publishing some of them since like his Roman models, he
regarded the letter as an important literary genre. The one genre in which Erasmus wrote no works at all was
philosophy, though he often cited ancient philosophers and dealt (normally in a non-philosophical way) with
several intellectual problems of interest to philosophers.
Niccola Macchiavelli The father of modern political theory, Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli, was born at
Florence, May 3, 1469, saw the troubles of the French invasion (1493), when the Medici fled, and in 1498
became secretary of the Ten, a post he held until the fall of the republic in 1512. He was employed in a great
variety of missions, including one to the Emperor Maximilian, and four to France. His dispatches during these
journeys, and his treatises on the Affairs of France and Germany, are full of far-reaching insight. On the
restoration of the Medici, Machiavelli was involved in the downfall of his patron, Gonfaloniere Soderini. Arrested
on a charge of conspiracy in 1513, and put to the torture, he disclaimed all knowledge of the alleged conspiracy.
Although pardoned, he was obliged to retire from public life and devoted himself to literature.
It was not until 1519 that he was commissioned by Leo X to draw up his report on a reform of the state of
Florence. In 1521-25 he was employed in diplomatic services and as historiographer. After the defeat of the
French at Pavia (1525), Italy was helpless before the advancing forces of the Emperor Charles V and Machiavelli
strove to avert from Florence the invading army on its way to Rome. In May 1527 the Florentines again drove out
the Medici and proclaimed the republic -- but Machiavelli, bitterly disappointed that he was to be allowed no part
in the movement for liberty, and already in declining health, died on June 22.
Through misrepresentation and misunderstanding his writings were spoken of as almost diabolical, his most
violent assailants being the clergy. The first great edition of his works was not issued until 1782. From that
period his fame as the founder of political science has steadily increased.
Besides his letters and state papers, Machiavelli's historical writings comprise Florentine Histories, Discourses on
the First Decade of Titus Livius (commonly known as The Discourses), a Life of Castruccio Castrancani
(unfinished) and History of the Affairs of Lucca. His literary works comprise an imitation of the Golden Ass of
Apuleius, an essay on the Italian language, the play Mandragola, and several minor compositions. He also wrote
Seven Books on the Art of War.
The greatest source of Machiavelli's reputation is, of course, The Prince (1532). The main theme of this short
book is that all means may be resorted to for the establishment and preservation of authority -- the end justifies
the means -- and that the worst and most treacherous acts of the ruler are justified by the wickedness and
treachery of the governed. The Prince was condemned by Pope Clement VIII. See the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy for a sound biography of Machiavelli.
Dante Dantes Divine Comedy, a great work of medieval literature, is a profound Christian vision of mans
temporal and eternal destiny. On its most personal level, it draws on the poets own experience of exile from his
native city of Florence; on its most comprehensive level, it may be read as an allegory, taking the form of a
journey through hell, purgatory, and paradise. The poem amazes by its array of learning, its penetrating and
comprehensive analysis of contemporary problems, and its inventiveness of language and imagery. By choosing
to write his poem in Italian rather than in Latin, Dante decisively influenced the course of literary development.
Not only did he lend a voice to the emerging lay culture of his own country, but Italian became the literary
language in western Europe for several centuries.
In addition to poetry Dante wrote important theoretical works ranging from discussions of rhetoric to moral
philosophy and political thought. He was fully conversant with the classical tradition, drawing for his own
purposes on such writers as Virgil, Cicero, and Boethius. But, most unusual for a layman, he also had an
impressive command of the most recent scholastic philosophy and of theology. His learning and his personal
involvement in the heated political controversies of his age led him to the composition of De monarchia, one of
the major tracts of medieval political philosophy.
Donatello master of sculpture in both marble and bronze, one of the greatest of all Italian Renaissance artists. A
good deal is known about Donatellos life and career, but little is known about his character and personality, and
what is known is not wholly reliable. He never married and he seems to have been a man of simple tastes.
Patrons often found him hard to deal with in a day when artists working conditions were regulated by guild

rules. Donatello seemingly demanded a measure of artistic freedom. Although he knew a number of humanists
well, the artist was not a cultured intellectual. His humanist friends attest that he was a connoisseur of ancient
art. The inscriptions and signatures on his works are among the earliest examples of the revival of Classical
Roman lettering. He had a more detailed and wide-ranging knowledge of ancient sculpture than any other artist
of his day. His work was inspired by ancient visual examples, which he often daringly transformed. Though he
was traditionally viewed as essentially a realist, later research indicates he was much more.
Michelangelo
Baldassare Castiglione
Leonardo DaVinci
Giotto
Titian
Paolo Uccello
Fra Angelico
Tommaso Masaccio
Raphael
Bottacelli
Albrecht Durer
Jan van Eyck
Hans Holbein
Rembrandt van Rijn
Filippo Brunelleschi
Platonism
Pico della Mirandola
Johann Gutenberg
Lorenzo de Medici
Catherine de Medici
Cosimo de Medici
Giovanni de Medici
Guilio de Medici
Savanarola
John Wycliff
John Hus
Lucrezia Borgia
Cesare Borgia
Thomas More
Andreas Vesalius
Nicolas Copernicus
Christopher Columbus

Amerrigo Vespucci
Ferdinand of Aragon
Isabella of Castille
Pope Sixtus IV
Pope Julius II
Pope Leo X
Pope VI
Bartolomeo Dias
John Cabot
Donato Brammante
Guillaume Dufay
Leonardo Bruni
Lorenzo Valla
Poggio Bracciolini
Marcilo Ficino
Henry VII (E)
Ivan III (R)
Ivan IV (R)
Charles VIII (F)
Louis XII (F)
Charles VII (F)
Louis XI (F)
Emperor Frederick III
Emperor Maximillian I
Diet of Worms
Edict of Worms
antinomianism
Martin Luther
John Calvin
John Knox
Council of Trent
Predestination
Johann Tetzel
Frederick of Saxony
Emperor Maximillian
Emperor Charles V

Ignatius Loyola
Ulrich Zwingli
Jacob Arminius
Henry VIII (E)
Edward VI (E)
Queen Mary (E)
Queen Elizabeth (E)
Phillip II (S)
Pope Leo X
Anne Boleyn
William Tyndale
Catherine of Aragon
Sir Thomas More
Anabaptists
Angela Merici
Act of Succession
The Society of Jesus
Pope Clement VII
Pope Paul III
Pope Paul IV
Huguenots
Anabaptists
Lutherans
Presbyterians
Anglicans
indulgences
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office
Matteo Ricci
Archbishop Thomas Cranmer

The Decameron
The Prince
The Birth of Venus
The Torment of St. Anthony
The Book of the Courtier
Letters to the Ancient Dead

The Divine Comedy

Oracle on the Dignity of Man
sculpture of David
Mona Lisa
Arnolfini Wedding
School of Athens
Utopia
The Praise of Folly
Handbook of the Christian Knight
The Imitation of Christ
Book of Common Prayer
Institutes of Christian Religion
The Spiritual Exercises
Ecclesiastical Ordinances
Defense of the Seven Sacraments
Address to the Nobility of the German Nation
On the Freedom of a Christian Man
On Christian Liberty
Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of the Peasants
Index of Prohibited Books
What distinguishes the Renaissance from the Middle Ages?
What were the Italian city-states and where were they located?
How does Renaissance art differ from Medieval art?
How does Francesco Petrarch impact the Renaissance?
Who was the de Medici family? Where did they originate, who were the significant family members and how did
they impact Western Europe?
How does the Italian Renaissance differ from the Northern Renaissance?
Whats humanism? How does humanism differ between Italy and Northern Europe?
How does the relationship between God, the Church, and Man change during the Renaissance?
Who were the principle renaissance painters from both the Italian and the Northern Renaissance? How did their
work influence the time period and other artists?
What were the artistic advancements of the time period, and who developed them?
Who were the principle authors of the time period and what did they write? How did their ideas differ from
previous thought?
What were the significant wars of the time period and who fought them?
Who were the powerful Italian families (i.e. Medici, Borgia, Sforrza) and how do they impact the history of
Western Europe?
Who were the influential artists of the Renaissance, and what works did they create?

The Renaissance movement was not universally supported, so who was opposed to it and why?
What were the political changes that occurred in Europe during the Renaissance?
Who were the significant Popes of the Renaissance?
Who were the significant political leaders of the Renaissance?
What is the significance of the French invasion of Northern Italy by Charles VIII?
What were the consequences of the Sack of Rome (1527) on the Renaissance?
What impact does the commercial revolution from the 12th 14th centuries have on the development of the
Renaissance both in Italy and in Northern Europe?
What is family life like during the Renaissance? Does life in Southern Europe during the Italian Renaissance
differ from its counterpart in Germany and the Low Countries during the Northern Renaissance?
How did the Renaissance impact education in Western Europe?
How did the Humanist philosophy of history differ from their predecessors?
The Renaissance Papacy differed significantly from the Medieval Papacy in several aspects, particularly in
respect to its responsibilities regarding the spiritual leadership of the Church. How and why were the
Renaissance Popes different from the Medieval predecessors?
Whats a Lollard? How were they a sign of things to come?
How did John Hus and John Wycliff impact the religious world of the Renaissance?
How did music change during the Renaissance?
What is Neoplatonism?
What is Hermeticism?
How do Neoplatonism and Hermeticism fit with the teachings of the Christian Church?
Who were the significant heretics and schismatics of the Renaissance period?
How does the political landscape change during the Renaissance?
Whats a nation state? What were the first nation states?
What families sat on the principle thrones in Europe (i.e. the Tudors, Hapsburgs, etc.)?
What factors lead to the Protestant Reformation?
What role did Humanism particularly in the north play preparing the way for the development of the
Reformation?
How do Christian Humanists differ from Protestant reformers?
The collecting of relics was very popular during this period of history. Why did people collect relics?
In terms of religion, what was the practice of pluralism?
Who are the principle actors in the Protestant Reformation?
Why did Martin Luther post his 95 Theses on the Cathedral door in Wittenberg?
What is the significance of the Diet of Worms?
What is Martin Luthers response to Charles V at the Diet of Worms?
Who were the principle actors in the Catholic Reformation?
What reforms did the Catholic Church adopt as part of the Counter-Reformation?
The Catholic Reformation produced a number of new religious orders (in addition to the Jesuits). What were
these orders, and how did they differ?

How is the Anglican Reformation different from the Protestant Reformation?

What did the following pieces of legislation do: The Act in Restraint of Appeals, The Act for the Submission of the
Clergy, and the Supremacy Act?
What is transubstantiation? What is consubstantiation? How do Catholics and Protestants differ on this concept?
How do Catholics and Protestants differ regarding the issues of absolution and justification by faith?
What is the impact of the Protestant Reformation on the family? How do Protestants interpret the idea of
submission?
How does the Reformation affect education in Europe? How does the Protestant view of education differ from
the Catholic perspective?
What are the doctrinal differences between the various Protestant denominations?
How is the map of Europe affected by the Reformation?
What motivations lie behind Henry VIIIs desire for a male heir?
What are the principle tenets of Calvinism?
What is predestination?
The Protestant Reformation is hardly a monolithic movement. What are the different factions of Protestantism?
What were some of the Radical Protestant movements?
Who is Jacob Arminius? How does Arminius theology differ from that of Calvin?
Who are the elect?
What is the Council of Trent?
Some historians see the Protestant Reformation as a land grab. Why?
Who are the Jesuits? How do they influence the Catholic Church?
How does the Religious turmoil of Western Europe impact Russia and Eastern Europe?
Why was Calvinism so militant in its approach?