AMERICAN

MACHINISTS'

HANDBOOK

r
Published

\ay

McGraw-Hill

Boole

tSucce^Aors

to

Publishing

Electric

Metallurgical

Hill

of

The

World

Engineering

of

tkcBookDepartrnenU

Company

I\ibli3lierd

Electrical

Company

Yoflc

New

McOra^v

the

books

Engineering

and

Chemical

Compony'

for

and

Joumal

Mining

Machinist

Coal

Joumal

Railway

Publishing

American

Record

tKe

Engineering

Age*

'

R"wer

Machinists* Handbook

American

AND

BOOK

REFERENCE

OF

ROOM

DRAWING

SHOP

OF

DICTIONARY

TERMS

MACHINE

SHOP

METHODS

DATA,

AND
AND

DEFINITIONS

BY

FRED

COLVIN,

H.

A.S.M.E.

Associate editor of the American Machinist,Author of " Machine

Machine
Shop Arithmetic**
Shop Calculations,*'
"

"

The

Hill Kink

Books,*'
etc.,etc.

AND

FRANK

Associate editor of the American

Tool Work**
"

EIGHTH

The

IMPRESSION

STANLEY

A.

Machinist, Author

"Automatic
HiU

"

Kink

Screw

of

*'

AuuraU

Machines"

Books," etc.

TWENTY'FOURTH

THOUSAND

CORftECTED

McGRAW-HILL
239

WEST
6

BOUVERIE

BOOK
39TH

COMPANY

STREET,
STREET,

1909

NEW

LONDON,

YORK
E.C.

:-"\^

UNiyER3ITY

"JAr:VARD

OF

DEPARTMENT

1908,by
Copyright,

the

Ail

ENGINEERINa
HitL Publishing

Compant

reserved
rights

\0
TnAM.-:rr.RR!-D
rtAHv/,/

/-"".LSGE

To

Li.'.'JARY

First Printing,
1908
October,
Second Printing,
February,1909
Third

Printing,
May,

1909

Fourth Pri.iting,
November, 1909

F"//APrinting,April,1910
5"/A

Printing,October,1910

Seventh Printing,March, 1911

Printing,November,
"t^A"/i

The Plimpton Press Norwood

1911

Mass.

USA*

PREFACE

Every
of

in

position

his

that

information

the

mechanical

shop

drawing

or

kind,

any

regardless

frequently

room,

remembered

seldom

is

of

work

and

is

requires
available

usually

not

wanted.

when

in

this

With

form

.mind

be

machine

available

of

work.

to

value

in

present

practical

to

While

it

of

some

the

mechanic

cluded
in-

in

information

without

the

matter

necessary

the

of

venient
con-

in

men

considered

was

Much
the

to

endeavor

our

will

as

complete.

work

been

been

elementary,

seem

the

before

data
of

may

make

has

it

such

branches

various

to

in

engaged

man

order

has

tiresome

never

search

and

consultation.
believe

We

to

the

such

of

by
dare

We

to

have

or

other

and

helping

found

establish

to

more

be

less

or

of

service

standard

confused

names

in

and

manufacturers

in

with

authorities

different

the

back

of

the

references

page

individuals
will

book

to

is

be

found

information

the

nished
fur-

them.
not

them

now

various

to

acknowledged,

hereby

in

are

will

section

country.

indebtedness

Our

list

the

and

which

parts
of

sections

Dictionary

mechanics

younger

various

for

the

that

hope
pointed

changes

that

no

out

which

will

errors

and

to

may

be

receive

add

found

any
to

the

and

shall

we

suggestions
value

of

The

as

the

be
to

book.

Authors.

glad
tions
addi-

CONTENTS
THREADS

SCREW

Threads

Screw

Cutting

PAOX

Stud

and

Lead
in

Examples

Screw

Finding

Diagram

and

Simple

Condensed

Lathe

on

in Screw

Cutting

Threads

Cutting Fractional
of

Gears
Gears

for

Rules

Compound

Screw

Gearing

for Screw

Cutting.

Cutting

Cutting
of the Train
of Gears
Following the Motion
Train
the
in
Effect of Compound
Gearing
Table
Thread
A Screw
Angle
for

Gears

Screw

for

Formulas
Use

the

of

in

Protractor

4
4
4

Angle of Helix
Getting the Side

5
Clearance

the

on

Tool

Multiple Thread
Table

the

Finding

Helix

for Thread

of the Tool

Side Clearance

Cutting

Distances

of

Carriage

Move

to

in

Thread

Multiple

Cutting

Opening
Face

Closing the Lead

for Multiple Thread

Screw

and

Plate

Brown

"

Table

for

for

Tooth

"

Acme

the

on

Grinding

of United

Screw

Threads,
11

Thread

Flat

for Thread

of Whitworth

"V"

on

Tools

Standard

Standard

13

of French

(Metric) Standard

Table

of International

Standard

Threads

Standard

Table

16
.

Threads

Screw

Screw
Screw

Screw

Threads

19

Threads

20
21
.

29-degree Standard
29 degree Tap Threads

17
18

Threads

Screw

14, 15

Threads

Threads

Screw

Association

of Thread

S. Form

of Screw

Screw

Standard

1 2

13

for U.

of British

of Acme

Measurements

Tools

Proportions

States

Table

Sharp

Table of Acme

10

Acme

Tools

Caliper as
Angle Measurements

Tool

of

Table

and

S. Worm

Used

Table
Table

...
~

Cutting
ThreaSd and

11

of V

Standard
Table

Worms

10

of B.

Grinding the Flat

Table

Pitch

Measurements
Gear

Pitch

Sharpe 29-degree Worm

Full Size Sections

The

the Lathe

Thread

29" Screw
i-inch

7
8

Cutting

in
Pitch Worms
Cutting Diametral
Table
for Diametral
of Change Gears
for Worm
Gears
in
Finding
Examples
The

Nut

Threads

viii

CONTENTS

lieasuringScrew

Threads

"

B.
B.

PAGE

S. Screvfr Thread Mkrometer

Micrometer
". S. Screw Thread

Readings for U. S. Threads

Readings for Sharp "V"

"

24

Threads

B.

25
Thread

S Screw
Threads
".

Micrometer

Readingsfor

Whitworth
.

Explanationof Screw Thread

Micrometer

Measuring Thread
Measuring Threads

with Micrometer

Formulas

Diameters

Caliper

Diameter
of Special
for U. S. Thread
Measurement

and

Wires

26

26, 27

27
with Micrometer

and

Wires

Table

28
for U.

S. Thread

Measurement

with

Micrometer

and

Wires

29

Formulas
Thread
with MicromMeasurement
eter
for Sharp "V"
and Wires
Table for Sharp "V"
Measurement
Thread
with Micrometer
and Wires
for Whitworth
Thread
Measurement
with MicromFormulas
eter
and Wires
Thread
Measurement
Table for Whitworth
with Micrometer
and Wires
with Micrometer
and
Measuring Fine Pitch Screw Threads

30
31
32

33

Wires

Constants
Threads

34
for

3-wire and

Tap
Brown

Table

System of Measuring
34

and Wires
of Wire Sizes for
Threads
" Sharpe
of B. " S.

Measuring

Micrometer

Screw
29-degree

MeasuringAcme
Table

27

B.

".

and

Tap Threads

with

crometer
Mi-

35
Screw
29-degree

MeasuringAcme

and

35

Worm
Thread Formulas
29-degree
Worm
Thread
Parts
29-degrees
S. 29-degree
Worm
with
Thread

36
36

...

....

and
Table of Wire Sizes for
Threads
Worm
Wheel Hobs

eter
Microm-

Wires

PIPE

37

Measuring B.

"

S.

Worm
29-degree
37

38
AND

PIPE

THREADS

BriggsStandard Pipe Threads

39

of Thread in the BriggsSystem

and Form
Section of Pipe Thread
Longitudinal
Threads
Perfect and Imperfect
Dimensions of Wrought Iron Welded Tubes, BriggsStandard
Whitworth
Pipe Sizes and Threads
Table of Tap Drill Sizes for Briggsand Whitworth
Pipe Taps
The Pipe Jointin the BriggsSystem
Relation of Reamer, Tap, Die and Gages in the BriggsSystem
Forming the Jointin the BriggsSystem
Table of Diameters, Thread
Lengths,Gaging Dimensions, etc.,
in the BriggsJoint
43,

Taper of Pipe End

39

39
40
40
41
41
42
42

43
44

CONTENTS

ix
"

Allowance

PAGE

for

BriggsPipe and Fittings

Briggs Standard-, Working Allowance-,

GageSets

45
and

Inspection

Gages

45
45* 46

Relation and Application

of the Gages
National Standard Hose CouplingDimensions

TWIST

AND

DMLLS

46
TAPS

Angleof Spiral

47

Clearance or Relief
Grooves for Best Results

47

Grindingor Sharpening
Angleof Clearance

48
48

47

Feeds and Speeds for Different Material

Reasons for Chipping and Splitting
DrillPointers and Troubles
Drills and Their
Special
Size of Drills,
Decimal

49~So
50
50
50
53~S4
55

Uses

Size of Drills,Letter
Sizes of Drills,Decimal Equivalent
Tap Drills for RegularThreads
Screw Taps
Tap Drills for Machine
Drillsfor Dowel
Pins
Double Depth of Threads

56
57

58
59
60

TAPS
Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions

of Machine
Screw
of Machine
Screw
of Hand
Taps

Taps, old Standard

Taps, A. S. M. E

Taper Taps
of Pipe Taps
of Stove Bolt Taps
of Taper Die Taps
.

Square Thread

63
65

"

of Sellers Hobs

of

62

64

of

....

66
66

67
68

Taps

69

FILES
Measurement
of Files
Methods
of Designating
Terms Used by File Makers
Hightof Work
Bath for Work
to be Filed
Pickling
Actual Spacingof Teeth
Teeth per Inch
Shapesand Grades of Files
When a File Cuts Best
pjjg Tests
Small Files for Fine Work
Needle Files and Riffles

70
70
70
70
70
71
72
72-74
7^
'!'

CONTENTS

WORK

BENCHES
PAGE

Filingand AssemblingBenches
Benches
for Average Shop Work
LocatingBench Away from Wall
Designs for

Modem

76
76
76
76

Benches

High and Low Cost Benches

Material for Benches
BuildingBenches from Small Blocks
Right of
Width

Work

77
77

78
78

Benches

and Thickness

78
SOLDERING

Cleaningthe Joint
Strengthof Soldered Joint
The Proper Heat for Soldering
Fluxes

for Sheet Tin

78
78
78
78
78
78

Fluxes

for Lead

79

Fluxes for Different Metals

Salts
Soldering

for Lead Burning

Fluxes for Brass
Fluxes for Copper
Fluxes

79

Fluxes for Zinc

Fluxes for Galvanized Iron
Fluxes for Wrought Iron or Steel
Making the Fluxes
Cleaningand Holding the Work
with Tin Foil
Soldering
SolderingCast Iron
Cold SolderingMetals,etc.

79
79
79
79
79
80
81

.........

81
81
82

GEARING
Gear

Teeth, Shapes of

Gear

Teeth,

Circular Pitch
Diametral Pitch of Gears, Table
Diametral and Circular Pitch,Table
Chordal Pitch and Spur Gear Radius
for Chordal Pitch
Table of Constants
Tables of Tooth Parts,Diametral Pitch
Tables of Tooth Parts,Circular Pitch
Diagram for Cast Gear Teeth
Laying out Spur Gear Blanks
Actual Sizes of Diametral Pitches
Laying out SingleCurve Teeth
Pressure

83
83
84

of Teeth
of Gears, Table

Parts

Angles

Stub-tooth Gears
Fellows Stub-tooth Dimensions
"JuttallStub-tooth Dimensions

85
86
.......

87
87
88-89
9c"-9i
92
93
94

96
96
97

98
98

xi

CONTENTS

PAGE

Tables
Gear

Turning Gear Blanks

for
Tooth

99-100

Cutters
Depth and Thickness

loi

of Tooth
Table
Block Indexing in Cutting Gear Teeth
Block Indexing,Tables for
and Tables
Metric Pitch,Formula
for
Sprocket-wheels Block Center Chains
for Roller Chain
Sprocket-wheels

loi

Bevel

106

of

loi
102

103
104

105

Gears

of Anglesand
Gears,
Laying out Bevel Gear Blanks
Cutters for Bevel Gears
Bevel Gear Tables
Examples of Use of Table
Miter Gear
Tables
Bevel

Names

Parts

106
106

107

108,109
108-109
no

SpiralGears

in

SpiralGears, Formulas and Rules

SpiralGears, Table and Its Uses

iir, -iia
11

3-1 14

Thread

of Worms
Width of Face of Worm
Table of Worm
Threads

MILLING

and

Wheels

MILLING

AND

Milling Machine
Cutter

Speeds for Steel,Cast

Thickness
Effect of
The

of

115
115
117

Wheels

CUTTERS
and

Feeds

Iron

and

Speeds

Brass

118

Chip

118

OverspeedingCutters

Question of

118

Power

119

Cutters with

Three and Five Teeth in Contact

Fine and Coarse Pitch Cutters
of
Comparison
Test in Cast Iron with Three- and Five-Tooth
Contact
of
Coarse
for
Pitch
Cutters
Advantages
Heavy Milling
Finer Tooth
Cutters for Finish Cuts
Clearance Angles for Roughing and Finishing
Cutters
Lubrication for Cutters MillingSteel
Examples of Rapid Milling
.

Cam

Heart-shapedCams
Milling

119
.

120

1 20
120

120

Milling
121

..

of Laying Out Cam

the Cutter
Selecting
LocatingCam and Cutter at the Start
the Correct Index Plate
Selecting
Operatingthe Table for Successive Cuts

121
121

121
121
on

the Cam

Cams
by Gearing up the DividingHead
Milling
Diagramfor Determining the Angle of Index Head
Lobes
of Different
the Machine
for Cam
Gearing

Feedingthe Work

119
120

Method

Method of

119

to the Cutter

Leads

122
122
122
12

12,

CONTENTS

xii

Tables

for Use

with

the

Dividing Head
"

PACK

the Universal Milling

Machine
on
Table for CuttingSpirals
.124-127
Method
of Findingthe Angle for Work
Larger than Given in
Table

124

"
for Plain and DiflFerentialIndexingon Brown
MillingMachines
DividingHead Arrangedfor Differential Indexing
of Computing Gears for Differential Indexing
Method

Table

MillingCutter,Reamer

and

Tap

Sharpe
128-137

128
128

Flutes

and Spiral
Flute
No. of Teeth in End Mills,Straight
Cutters
No. of Teeth in inserted Tooth
Cutters
Pitch of Metal Slitting
Cutters
Pitch of Screw Slotting
No. of Teeth in Plain MillingCutters
Form
of Cutter for MillingTeeth in Plain MillingCutters
No. of Teeth in Side or Straddle Mills
."
in
Cutter
Teeth
Side
for
Straddle Mills
or
Milling
Angular
No. of Teeth in Comer
Convex
Concave
and
Rounding,
Cutters,
"
"
"
"
AngularCutter for MillingTeeth in
in Singleand Double
No. of Teeth
Angle and SpiralMill
...

Cutters

138
138
138
138
139
139
139
139
140
140

140

Cutter for Milling

Teeth in Double Angle and SpiralMill
No. of Flutes in Taps
Hand, Machine
Screw, Tapper, Nut,
and Screw Machine

140

Tap FlutingCutters
No. of Flutes in Taper and Straight
PipeTaps
Cutters
for
and
Fluting
Taper
Pipe Taps
Straight
No. of Flutes in Pipe Hobs, Sellers Hobs and Hob Taps
FlutingCutter for Hobs

141

"

142
.

142
.

i43

Cutters for FlutingReamers

No. of Flutes in Chucking and
of Straddle Mills for
Diameters
Table
Table
Table

i43

Taper Reamers
FlutingCenter

Key ways, Square and Half-round

of Standard T-Slot Cutter Dimensions
of LargestSquares that can be Milled
of Divisions

142
142

No. of Flutes in Shell Reamers

Cutter

141

to
Corresponding

Given

i44

....

Reamers

i45
i45

146

Stock
Round
146
tances
Circumferential Dison

147

GRINDING

Grinding

AND
Wheels

LAPPING
and

Grinding

The Commercial
Abrasives;Emery, Corundum, Carborundum
and Alundum
Grading of Wheels
election of Suitable Wheels
Grit Wheel
e Combination
rd Wheels
leelGrades for Given Classes of Work

148
148
149
149
149

150

xiii

CONTENTS

PAGE

and Efficient Cutting

of Wheels that are Too Hard or Too Soft
Action
Wheel is Sharp
When
a
of Wheel
Different Diameters, Flat Surfaces,and
on
Contact
Internal Work
SelectingWheels Accordingto Contact
Area of a Wheel
Contact
The
Pressure and Wear
Wheel
Wearing Effect of High Work Speeds
Grinding Allowances
Grinding Hardened Work
for Shoulders to be Ground
Comers
Undercut
Water
Use of
of SettingDiamonds
Methods
Use of Diamonds
The
Preservation of the Diamond
SettingDiamonds
Speed Table for GrindingWheels of Various Diameters
Grading Abrasive Wheels
Co.*s Grade Marks
The
Norton
Co.'s Grade Marks
The Carborundum
the
of
List
Grade
SafetyEmery Wheel Co
of Wheels
Table of Grades
Usually Furnished for Different
Classes of Work

Speed

150
150
151
151
151
152
152
152
153
153

153
154
154
154
154
155
155

156
156
156
156
157

Lapping
The

Classes of

Laps

158

Plate for Flat Work

158

Common

Lapping
Speed of Diamond
A

Laps

158

Lapping Flat Surfaces

Lubricant Used
The

159
159

Laps

for Holes

159

AdjustableLaps

159

Advantages of Lead Laps

Various Types of Internal Laps
How
to do Good
Lapping
Cast
Iron,
Copper and Lead Laps
Using
and
Work
Other
Ring Gage
A Lap for Plugs
Abrasives for Different Kinds of Laps

160

J)iamond Powder in the Machine

Used
The
Kind of Diamond
the
Diamond
to Powder
Reducing
Powder
in Oil
Diamond
Settling

Shop

..........

Table

for

Powder

160
161
161
161
161
162
162
162
162

Diamond
Settling

Rollingthe Diamond

160

162

into

Laps

Diamond
Laps
Tools used in ChargingLaps
Diamond
Lap for Grinding Small Drills
in Hard Spindles
Holes
Grinding
used on Boxwood
Diamond
Laps
......

162

163
163
163
-'^^

xiv

CONTENTS

Cutter

and

Reamer

Grinding

Clearances

Reamer

164

Blade for Cast Iron.and Bronze

165
Blade for Steel
165
Clearance
of Reamer
Blades
165
Various
of
the
Kinds
Reamers
Clearances
on
Grinding
165
Table for GrindingClearances on Different Sizes of Reamers, 166,167
for
Cup Wheel Clearance Table, Giving Tooth Rest Settings
Desired Clearance
168
Disk Wheel
Clearance Table
168

Chucking Reamer
Shape of Reamer

SCREW

MACHINE

of Tools

Types
Box

Tools and

TOOLS,

SPEEDS

Their

and

AND

FEEDS

Construction

Cutters

Tool

Roughing

Box

Clearance

for Box

169

with

Tool

Tangent Cutter

169
169

Cutters

for Box Tool

Sizes of Steel Recommended
Tool
Radial
Box
with
Cutter
Finishing

Cutters
.

Mills

Hollow

of

Location

and

CuttingEdge

Rake

for Hollow

Dimensions
Collar
Proportionsfor Hollow
Clamp
Dies and Taps
Tapping Out Spring Dies

Mills

Mill

Hollow

171

Mills

171
171
171
172
172

SpringDie
Work
^Sizing

Dimensions
for

Threading
and

of Over-

Table

Threading
Tap Lengths,Number
Cutting Clearances
Diameters

on

of Circular Tools

and

175

Usually Cut

Amount

Below

175
a

Form

Formulas

for

Center

Line
Tool

a
Finishing

Tool

Obtaining Depths

176
176

Outline

to Correct

Finish

to

Circular Tool

on

176

Depths for ProducingCorrect

Dovetail

of Master

Outline

Work,

on

Forming Tool
Tool

in

FinishingCircular

and

177

Speeds
of

and

Speedsand

Feeds

Speeds and

Feeds
Feeds

Cone
60-degree

for Screw

for

for
Feeds
for
of Speedsand
of

177
177

Dovetail

Tools

Circular Tools for Conical Points

a Circular Tool to Produce
Finishing

Table
Table
Table

173
173
174

at Different Points to Produce

Diameters

a Circular
Finishing

Location

of Lands

Gettingthe Tool

Dovetail

and

Tapping

Forming Tools

Center

Given

for

of Flutes and Width

Forming Tools

Dovetail

Circular and

Allowances

Under-size

170
170
170
170

Machine

Turning Screw
Turning with

Forming

Stock
Finish

178
178

Work
and Brass
Box

Tool,

179
180

181

CONTENTS

XV

PAGE

Table
Table
Table
Rate

Speedsand Feeds for Drilling

of Speedsand Feeds for Reaming
of Speedsand Feeds for Threading
of Feed for Counterboring
of

PUNCH
Method

of

PRESS

iga

igj
183
igj

TOOLS

FindingDiameters

of Shell Blanks
184
Formulas
Blank
Diameters
for Plain,
Diagrams
Flanged,Hemisphericaland Taper Shells
185
Punch
and Die Allowances for Accurate Work
184
Governing Size of Work by Punch and Die
186
of Clearance
between
Table
and
Punch
Die for Different
Metals
187
Clearance
for Punches and Dies for Boiler Work
187
Lubricants for Press Tools
188
German
and
Silver
Sheets
for
188
OilingCopper
Punching
for Drawing Steel Shells
Mixture
188
for Drawing Brass,Copper,etc
188
Preparations
and

"

for

HUTS

BOLTS,

AND

SCREWS

U. S. Standard Bolts and Nuts

189-191
of
Tensile
Bolts
and
from
to
inches
Strength
J
Shearing
3
Diameter
189
U. S. Standard Rough Bolts and Nuts
Dimensions
190
Dimensions
U. S. Standard Finished Bolts and Nuts
191
Bolts with Manufacturers' Standard Heads
Sizes of Machine
192
*

....

Set Screw

Hartford

Dimensions

Machine

Tables

193

Screw Co.'s Standard

of

and

Cap

Machine

Set Screw

Screw

Dimensions, 193

Dimensions

and Square Head Cap Screws

Collar Head or Collar Screws
FillisterHead
Cap Screws (P. ". W Std.)
and Oval FillisterHead Cap Screws
Flat, Round
Head
Button
Cap Screws
Head
Countersunk
and
Oval
Flat
Cap Screws
Screws (American Screw
Head Machine
Flat and Round

Hexagon

194

195
195

197
197

Co.'s

Standard)
FillisterHead
Threads
per
Co.'s

198
Machine
Inch- on

Screws (American Screw Co.*s Std.)

Screws
Machine
(American Screw

Standard)

Diagrams

of

Form

Thread, Pitch Formula, Etc.

and Minimum
Screw and Tap
.

of Basic Maximum

Threads

Tables

200

201

of A. S. M.

Outside,Root
Diameters

199
200

E. Standard

A. S. M.

196

of

Outside,Root

and

".

Standard

Pitch Diameters

Taps for Standard

and

Machine

Screw

of Standard

Dimensions

Screws

Screws

Pitch Diameters of

202

203

Screws
Special

...

xvi

CONTENTS
PAGE

of Taps for SpecialScrews

Dimensions
of Oval Fillister Heads
Dimensions
of Flat Fillister Heads
of Flat Countersunk
Dimensions
Heads
Button
Heads
of Round
Dimensions
or

Diameters

Nut

Length of

Loom

Diameters
Bolt and

and
Nut

Bolts

Threads
Standards

214

Bolts

215
215

Adopted by the

215
216

A. L. A. M.

217
.'

and

Washers

Tables

Washers
and
Narrow
Square Washers
Gage
Cast Iron Washers
RivetingWashers
Machine and Wood Screw Gage Sizes
Coach and Lag Screws
Threads

on

Coach

and

The

Lag

221

221

222

Screws

222

Heads

224

AND

the Vernier

FITTING

it

225
225
226
226
226

Scales

Micrometer
Micrometer Parts
Ten
Micrometer
Thousandth

227

Graduations

Three-Fluted
Measuring

221

223
Rivet

Vernier and How

to Read
Vernier Graduations

Micrometer

222

CALIPERING

The

219
220

Test

of
Principle
the
Reading

220

Wood

The
The

219
'

S. Standard

Screws
Boiler and Tank

218
218

Bolts

Lengths of
Lag Screw

217
217 I

Drill and Tap for Studs

for Standard T-Slots

SpringCotters
U.

213
214

....

Miscellaneous

Bolt Heads

211
212

Nuts

Coupling Bolts
Planer Head Bolts,Nuts

Eye

210

214

Bolt

Depths to

209

210

Bolts

Automobile
Planer

205
206

Tables

Machine, Carriageand

Lengths of Threads Cut on Bolts

Head
Round and Square Countersunk
Bolts
Tap
Stove

"

...

Cold

Head

207
208

Hot Pressed and Cold Punched

Nuts
and
Check
Jam Nuts
Standard Hot Pressed and Forged Nuts
Nuts
Standard Cold Punched
Standard Narrow
Gage Hot Pressed Nuts

S. Standard
Punched
Manufacturers'
Manufacturers*
Manufacturers'
U.

Button

Bolt

and

227

Tools with Micrometer

and V-Block,
227, 228

Xvii

CONTENTS

Press

Running Fits

and

PA(.E

228

ParallelPress, Drive and Close Fits

ParallelRunning Fits
Table of Limits for Press,Drive and

228
Hand

Fits

229

Table of Limits for Close, Free and Loose Running Fits

230
231
Shrink Fit Allowances
Fits
of
for
Kinds
Various
in
Limits
.231,232
Shop Gages
Limits in Plug Gages for Standard Holes
23 1
232
Allowances Over Standard for Force Fits
Fits
for
Standard
232
Allowances Over
Driving
Allowances Below Standard for Push or KeyingFits
232
.

Clearances of Running Fits

Making Allowances with the

232

of

Kinds

for Various
Calip"ers

233-236

Fits

when Measuring for Running Fits

Side Play of the Calipers
233
Side
Indicated
of
of
Reduced
Diameters
Table
Play Calipers,233
by
Axial Inclination of Calipersin Measuringfor Shrink or Press
.

Fits

234

for Shrink or
Table of CaliperInclination for Allowances
Force Fits
Side Play of Calipersin BoringHoles Larger than a Piece of
Known
Diameter
to
Rule for FindingVariation in Size of Hole Corresponding
of Side Play
Amount
Given
f
or
Allowing Running and DrivingFits

of

Dimensions

Keys

and

235
235

236

Key-Seats
236

Rules for

Key and Keyway Proportions

Key and Keyway Dimensions
Dimensions of StraightKeys
Key Sizes
SquareFeather Keys and Straight
Barth

234

237
,

238, 239

238

Keys

239

and

Cutters

WhitneyKeys
of Key Heads
Proportions
Table for FindingTotal Keyway Depths
Table of Amount
of Taper for Keys of Various Lengths.
TAPERS

AND

240,

241

242,

243

241

244

DOVETAILS

Measuring Tapers
An Accurate

Taper Gage
of the Taper Gage
Applications
the Adjustable
Gage Jaws by
Setting
Formulas for Use

with

Center Distances
Finding
the Disk Diameters
Finding
the Amount
of Taper
Finding

Width

246
Means

of Disks

246

Taper Gage
between

the
Finding

245

the

Gage

per Foot
of Opening at the Ends

Disks

247
247

248
248
of the

Gage Jaws

2J'

xviii

CONTENTS

Tables

of Standard

Tapers
PAGE

" Sharpe Standard Tapers

250, 251
Standard Tapers
Morse
252, 253
Reed Standard Tapers
254
Jamo Standard Tapers
254, 255
Sellers Standard Tapers
256,257
Pins
Reamers
and
Taper
257
of Taper for Work
Table GivingTotal Amount
Tapering from
o to li in. per Foot and
Ranging up to 24 inches long
258
in Inches
and
of Tapers per Foot
Table
Corresponding

Brown

Angles
Table

259

for

Computing Tapers Correspondingto

Given

any

Angle

260, 261

Explanationof Table

for Computing Tapers

Table for Dimensioning
Dovetail Slides and Gibs
Measuring External and Internal Dovetails
Diagrams of Various Classes of Dovetails
Table
of Constants for Measuring Dovetails with
Examples of Uses of the Table of Constants

SHOP

AND

DRAWING

ROOM

Standard
Drill

Jig

262
.

Plugs

Fixed

Dimensions

Dimensions

of Fixed Bushingsfor Tools

of Collar Head
Jig Screws

Dimensions

of

Bushings
Having Stop Collars

Winged Jig Screws

of Dimensions

Hand
Wheels
Handles for Hand
Ball Handles

Binder

Handles
Ball Handles
End
Single
Ball Lever Handles
Handles

of Standard

266
.

268
268

269
269
269
Machine

Parts
270

Wheels

Knobs

Nuts
Thumb
Hook
Bolts

265
265

267
267
267
268,269
268, 269

Supportingand Locking Screws

of Square Head
Dimensions
Jig Screws
of Headless
Dimensions
Jig Screws
Dimensions
of Nurled
Head
JigScrews
Dimensions
of Locking JigScrews
Sizes of Strapsfor Jigs

Nuts

Parts

BindingScrews

Wing

266,267
and

of Loose

Machine

262, 263.
264
264

STANDARDS

Bushings

Dimensions

Tables

27 1
271
272
272
273
273
274
274
275

275

Xix

CONTENTS

Tables

Miscellaneous

PAGE

Standard Plug and Ring Gages

276
Counterbores with Inserted Pilots
277
278, 279
Two-point Ball BearingDimensions
280
Four-pointBall Bearing Dimensions
for
281
Erecting
Perp"endiculars
T
riangles
R
ight-angle
Integral
Minutes
to 90 degrees
Chords of Arcs from
10
281-283
Table
of Chords
from
281
Construction of Angles
Table for SpacingHoles in Circles;Diameters
i to 1 2, Holes 3
.

to

284-285

32

of
Explanation

for

SpacingHoles
Sides,Anglesand Sines for Spacing3

Table of
Sides in
Actual

Table

500 Holes

to

Circle

of Planers
CuttingSp"eeds

Stock

for Standard
Requiredto Make Bolt

Stock

Requiredto

Allowed

Stock

286

Make

with Various

Return

or

286-291
Ratios, 292

Upsets

292

Heads, Mfgrs.Standard
Bolt Heads, U. S. Standard

of

Sizes
Sizes

293

293

for a Pattern
EstimatingLumber
of ProportionateWeight of Castings to Weight of

Quick Way
Table

....

Pattern

294

DegreesObtained by Opening a Two-foot

Weight of Fillets
of Areas

Table

Volumes

or

WIRE
Drill and

Twist
Stubs*

GAGES
Steel Wire

Rule

294

295

of Fillets

AND

295

WEIGHTS

STOCK

Gage Sizes

296

.......

Gages

296

Standards

for Wire

Gages in Use in the

Wire and Drill Sizes ArrangedConsecutively
Stubs' Steel Wire Sizes and Weights
Different

United States, 297

298, 299

....

Music

294

Wire

300

Sizes

Weightsof Sheet

301
Steel and

Iron, U. S. Standard Gage

301
Brass
and Copper Plates,B. ". S. Gage, 302
of
Weights Steel,Iron,
Weightsof Steel,Iron, Brass and Copper Plates,B'ham. Gage, 303
Weightsof Steel,Iron, Brass and Copper Wire, B. " S. Gage
304
Weightsof Steel,Iron, Brass and Copper Wire, B'ham. Gage
305
.

Weights of

Steel and Iron Bars per Linear Foot

306
Bars per Linear Foot, 307
Weights of Brass, Copper and Aluminum
308
Weights of Flat Sizes of Steel
Weights of Seamless Brass and Copper Tubing
309
....

BELTS
Belt

Fastenings

Belt Hooks

Belt Lacings
Belt Splices
Belt Studs
Lacing Belts with Leather

AND

SHAFTING
310
310
310
310
310
3'

CONTENTS

XX

PAGE

Lacing Belts with

Wire

310

Strengthof Lacings
Tension

311

Belts

on

311

AliningShaftingby Steel Wire

Table of Wire Sag for LiningShafting
Speeds of Pulleysand Gears
Rules for Speeds of Pulleysand Gears
STEEL

.312,313
314
314

METALS

of Steel

Treatment

Heat

OTHER

AND

312,313

315

Molecular

Changes in Cooling
Safe Temperatures for Steel
of Heating
Methods
for Different

Furnaces

315
315
315

Fuels

315

Heating in Liquids
Baths for Heating
Gas

as

316
316
316

Fuel

Coolingthe
Baths

-315

Steel

for

Cooling and Hardening

Annealing
Hardening Bath
High Speed Steels
Case Hardening
Harveyizing
Carbonization

Case

or

316
317
317

Hardening

of Carbon
CarbonizingMaterials
Penetration

Action
Tests

of Wood

319
319

Charcoal

of Carbon

320

Penetration

319-321

Carbonizingwith Gas
Efifect of Composition on Strength
Effect of Hardening on Strength
Mechanical
Annealed
Properties,
Hardened
Mechanical
Properties,
Fahrenheit, and CentigradeThermometer

321
322

........

Converting

one

Thermometer

322
322
322
-.

to the Other

324
324

325
325
325

BearingMetals
Alloys,Fusible Metals

326
326

Alloys
Shrinkageof Castings
of
Aluminum, Properties
and Turning
Aluminum, Melting,Polishing
GENERAL
Common
Water

Weightsand
Conversion

3^3
323

of Metals
Properties
Alloysfor Coinage
Composition of Bronzes
Bismuth

318
318
318
318

REFERENCE
Measures

Factors

327
327
TABLES

328, 329
329

CONTE.NTTS

xxi
PAGE

Multipliers

Convenient

330

Metric

The

Metric
Metric

System
Weights and Measures
and EnglishConversion

330
330, 331

Tables

Conversion
Factors
Miscellaneous
o
f
Fractions
Decimal
Equivalents

331
333

of

Millimeters,
Advancing

of

Millimeters,Advancing

by T^iymm
Decimal

by ^

332

of
Equivalents

Fractions

mm.

333

Inches in Millimeters
Equivalentsof Fractions of

Equivalentsof
Decimal

"

an

334

Inch, Advancing by

64ths

335

Equivalentsof Fractions of an Inch, Advancing by

8ths,i6ths,32ds,and 64ths
335
of 6ths,yths,8ths,i2ths,i6ths,24ths,
Decimal
etc.
Equivalents
33^f 337
in
Inches
of
Decimals
of
Foot
a
Equivalents
338, 339
Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots of Fractions from

Decimal

....

^ to I inch
and Areas of Circles from ^ to i inch
Circumferences
Areas of Circles from I to 100
Circumferencesand
Squares, Cubes, Square and Cube Roots of Numbers

340, 341

340, 341

342-347

from

348-360

I to 520
Circumferences

and Circular Areas

Circumferences

and

Diameters

SHOP

of Numbers

of Circles from

from
i

to

200

to

520,
.

348-360
361
.

TRIGONOMETRY

of terms
Explanations
FindingDepth of V-Thread

362, 363

364

FindingDiagonal of Bar
FindingSquare for Taps
SpacingBolt Circles
Laying out Jigs
Trigonometry Formulas

364
364

365
365

366
366

of Formulas
Table of RegularPolygons
Practical Examples
FindingRadius without Center
Use

367

368
368

of RegularFigures:Circle,Triangle,
gon
Square,HexaProperties

and Octagon
Table of Tangents and Co-tangents
Table of Sines and Co-sines
Table of Secants and Co-secants

DICTIOKARY

OF

Definitionsand illustrationsof shop

SHOP
terms

369,370
371-382
382-393
394~405

TERMS

406-49

MACHINISTS'

AMERICAN

THE

HANDBOOK
SCREW

THREADS

CUTTING
all lathes

SCREW

THREADS

that if gears having the same

ber
numof teeth are placed on
both stud and lead screw, it will cut a thread
the same
This is called beinggeared "even."
pitchas the lead screw.
If the lathe will not do this,then find what
thread will be cut with
both
and
stud
lead
and
consider
that as the pitch
on
even
screw
gears
In speaking of the pitchof lead screw
of lead screw.
it will mean
the thread that will be cut with even
gears.
In cuttingthe same
thread with even
and the
gears, both the work
lead screw
To cut a faster thread, the
rate.
are
turningat the same
Nearly

lead

must

screw

the stud

on

the

or
(finer-pitch

thread

smaller on
Callingthe lead

and

the

cut

the
the
the
less lead),

work,

faster than
smaller on

tiun

and

geared so

are

lead

the

so

largergear
To

screw.

laigergear

cut

goes
slower

the

on

goes

screw

the stud.
6 to

screw

inch,what

the

shall

gears

to

use

we

8 thread?

an

the lead
number

Multiply both
number

(thesame

screw

for

in the set.

the thread

and

be

cut by
both) that will givetwo gears you
by 4 teeth,try 4 and get 24 and
to

some

have

If the gears vary

32 as
If by 5, you get 30 and 40 as the gears.
8 is
the gears.
Then
as
and the small
slower than '6,the largegear goes on
the lead screw
the stud.
one
on
and gears varying by
Cut an 18 thread with a 5-pitchlead screw
5 teeth.
gear,

5 X

but

you
That

instead.

can

5 x

use

to

18

compound

drive the

the

use

be

not

may

and

gear

the stud,

on

this and the 45 gear on

drive the largegear
must

The
25 gear
and the small gear

use

90

45 gear

a
2

any

to

bination
com-

screw.

of the

45-tooth gear, either

to

combination

or
directly
through

intermediate.

an

In

cutting fractional threads the same

with gears that change by

J threads

4 X

II

46, with

the

With

24

gear

5 this is not

neither of which
come

pretty

To

lead

near

find what
screw

the

and

stud.

It
is in the set.
will
but
it,
they

thread
the gear

Suppose

any

two

which
we

try

rule holds
4

teeth,use

the stud and

on

gears changing by
impossiblegear.
Multiplying
by 10
much
better. Multiplyby 6 and get

on

There

90.

is,put the 25 gear

between

II

25 and

so

6 X

cut

gears
on
on

40
s

6
as

seems

goes

easy,

would

1 2

as

good.
6

4 X

the 46

on

5 X

iij

give

60

6 X
36
though 35 and
thread
instead.
=

and

and

the

To

cut

24

and

screw.

57^,an

==

115,

ni

not

69,

70 would

will cut, multiply the pitch of

it and divide this by the gear
the
the stud and
75 on

SCREW

THREADS

GEARS

FOR

SCREW-CUTTING

Multiply75 by 6
450 and divide by 40 which givesiii
the thread that will be cut.
480;
Try 45 and 80. 6 X 80
that
and
divided by 45
the 40 and 75 are nearest
10}, showing
that to cut it exactlya special
gear will have to be added to the set.
In reality
the gears would not change by 5 teeth with a 6 pitchlead
screw.

as

"

"=

screw.

Rules for

screw

when
screw

be summed
always
up as follows,
is the thread that will be cut
both
of teeth are placedon
number

cuttingmay

the lead
gears having the same
and stud.

rememberingthat

GEARS

screw

FOR

SCREW-CUTTmG

Gear
trains for screw-cutting
are
to
usuallyarrangedsimilarly
If
the
E
has
the
lathe
the illustration,
the
on
i.
same
spindle
Fig.
gear
the stud S, the lathe is geared
on
number
of teeth as the gear H
teeth placedon both stud and lead
even, i.e.,
gears havingthe same
As shown, the gears
will cut a thread like the lead screw.
screw
F
and
G do not mesh with
the
because
tumbler
are
out of mesh
gears
E; but moving the handle / down throws F into mesh with E so the
it so
drive is throughE, F, G, H, S and intermediate to L, driving
if
is
is
it
a
screw
thread,as
as
to cut a right-hand
usually
right-hand
the direction
and reverses
the case.
Raisinghandle / cuts out F entirely
of the lead screw.

SCREW

follow the motion

THREADS

of

a train of gears, take a stick (or your

finger
and
from
trace the motion
the driver to
running)
they are
the end as shown
by the dotted lines in A, B^ C and D.
is
lathe
When
iary
a
compound geared the stud gear drives an auxilwhich
reduces the motion as the case
or
multiplies
gear as A,
if the stud drives A and B drives L,
be
It
will
be.
readily
seen,
may
the motion will be reduced one-half because A has one-half the number
of teeth in B,

To

if

not

ANGLE

SCREW-THREAD

TABLE

The
accompanjdngtable givesthe angleof helix of various pitches
and diameters with respect to a line perpendicular
to the axis. These
of
worked
with
idea
them
the
out
for grinding
were
using
angles
for
threads
of
various
different
thread tools
diameters
pitchesupon
This table will enable one
to set the protractor at the
of work.
angle of side clearance for the work in hand and grind the
proper
without guesswork.
thread tool correctly

Thread

Angle

threads

per

Table
inch

10

50''-S432--31 22"-S9i7*-39i4*-i8
10^-19 9-. a ^"3 7''-58
6"- 3
i5"-48I2'"-l6 9"-39 8"- 8 7"-i36"-37 5"-23 5''-2040.49
40"-23
4^-24
6"-37 5^-404"-33 "" 3 4"- I 3!-373"- 3
32"-30 i7*-4i
i4*-i8
7"-iS
4*-io 3"-S2
26
3!-i3
54
8?- 8
3"-S2
2''-43 "41
2"- 2
S I2"19
23^20"- 4 I0**-20
2"-l8
2''-S92"-37
19
50
2"2"-l7
i7*-39 9**-2 6""-2 4"-33
2'"-36
2
i""-48
is"'-49 8"- 4
2''-42 2"-I92"- 2 i*"-48 i''-47 ^37 I"-2I
"- 4
i4""-io 7"-I2
3''-39 2"-SS 2"-26 2"- 2 1^-50
i"-44 ""37
i**-i3
27
~6*-37 4"-2S 3*'-l9 2"*-40 2"-I3 i"-54i"-36 I"*-29 l*-28
6
19
2"- 26
2"- 2
I"-2I I"*-20
ii"-S9 6"- 4 "-3
i''-44
I
13
6
l'-2I
3"-44 2""-492"-IS
i*'-36
56
io""-26 5^-16
i*"-2
3".29 2"-37
i"-44 I"-29 i"-i8
S3
2""-26
9"-39
i*-37
4(
C'3
3o-^5
'o-57
i"- 8
9"- 4 4"-34 3o-3 2''-l8 i"-So
54
4"!

J""

"

"

8"- 8

"" 9

3^39

2"-

'o-3'

i;-37I"-2I

2*"-26 i*-49 I*-28

6''-373"-i9 2""-I3 i''-40I"-22

6""- 4 3**-3
i"'-3i

lO-

i"-i6
7
":"
1"I

55'
50'
52

46'

54'

53'

49

4"

43'
40'

J'

45^
41'

48'
44'
40'

36'

3"

3J

While
double

the table is worked

or

ANGLE

SCREW-THREAD

for

out

TABLE

it can be used for

singlethreads,
lead equal to the vance
ad-

the
.threadsby considering
triple

of the work

in

one

revolution instead of ",

givenin

as

table.

the

shopsto have several thread tools in stock

these various thread angles,each cutting
within a certain
of angles. This table will be useful in determining
the l)est
for each thread tool.

It is customary in many
to

cut

range
range

Pitch

"

Diameter

"-

"

Threads

"

of work

per inch. -5

Circumference

of Work

3. 141 6

="

-zr

"

in inches ^wD

P
_

Circumference
Find

75

of Work

Anglein

Table

Thread

Angle

threads

per

of

"

Tangents

Table

inch

"

Tangentof Angle
,

"

"

C
in inches,

Lead

Lead

"

SCREW

THREADS

Figs.2 and 3 show side and front elevations of the thread tool
and of the protractor as appliedto obtain the proper angle of side
thread.
The front edge of the
clearance to cut a right-handscrew
thread tool is used to determine the angle of side clearance. Fig.
4
It will be noticed
shows a section taken along the line a S,Fig. 2.
that line e f is shorter than G H
to give clearance to the
cutting
edgesof the thread tool,and also that G R is equal to H R and e S
is equal to / S.
The angle of the helix at half the depth of the
be used,if de^red,and can
be approximated to
can
thread, Fig. 5,
from the table,
or figured
exactlyby the method given at the top of
the table.

TIG.

FIG.

R
.

FIG.

FIG.

The

Use of the Protractor

MULTIPLE

THREAD

CUTTING

will be found useful when

tiple
cutting multhread is cut, the feed nut may be of)ened

accompanying table

The

When

threads.

along
being stopped)and the carriagemoved
distance given in the table;the nut is then closed on
method
This is a quick and sure
the next thread cut.

(the spindleof

by

hand

the

screw

the
and

one

course

startingthe second, third or fourth thread where the lead

of the lathe is of the pitchgiven in the table.
of

screw

MULTIt"LE

Table

Say we wish to
be geared the same
tool will of

the

course

for

THREAD

Multiple

CUTTING

Thread

Cutting

double-thread screw:
the lathe must
3i-pitch
for a single,
or
as
triple
quadruplethread. The
width and the depth of cut
have to be 3ie same

cut

After the firstthread is cut it

7 iper inch screw.
will appear
With the lathe spindleidle,
very shallow and wide.
the nut is opened and the carriagemoved
(in either direction)i
and the tool is in the
the
is
then
lead
closed
the
nut
inch;
screw
on
the second cut.
to make
proper position
If the carriage
moved
2 inches,the tool could follow exactly
were
the firstgroove cut.
of a triple-thread
In the case
riage
screw, if the carwould
follow
tool
moved
its
were
path
original
3 inches,the
and it would do the same
of a quadruplethread if mov
in the case
4 inches.
same

as

for

SCREW

THREADS

of course, be moved
the nut closed
i inch and
be
what the pitchof the lead screw
tional),
(unlessit is fracmay
in
close
the
after
the
but
order to
nut
screw
moving i inch,
number
have some
of threads per inch.
must
even
As will be seen
with any
to the table,a lead screw
by referring
of
in
of
number
inch
is
number
used
threads per
even
a
cases, while
in several other instances the screw
be of any pitch
either
may
odd or even.
In certain cases
8
lead
and
inch
are
screws
4
per
in
6
is
and
t
hreads
inch
a
screw
specified;
required.
cuttingtriple
per

The

no

carriagecan,

matter

"

Fig. 6.

Face-Plate for

"

FOR

FACE-PLATE
Fig.

shows

MultipleThread

CUTTING

THREAD

MULTIPLE

fixture
face-plate

used

on

Cutting

various

numbers

of

ordinarydrivingplateis fitted a platehaving,as

enablingone to get two, three,four or six leads
if required. This ring carries the drivingstud, and is clamped at
the back of the plateby two bolts as an extra safeguard. All that
is necessary in operationis to slack ofifthe bolts,withdraw
the index
the
the
of
and
number
holes
required,
re-tighten
pin, move
plate
the bolts. It is used on different lathes,as occasion requires,by
a hole for the index
pin.
making the drivingplatesalike and drilling
It is found that the index pin works best when
made taper, and a
threads.

shown,

On

lighttap

DIAMETRAL

accompanyingtable

worm-thread
to mesh

holes

is sufficient to loosen

CUTTING
The

an

twelve

into

or

PITCH

fix it.

WORMS

IN

THE

LATHE

where
fractional
is to be used in cases
for diametrical pitchworm
threads

cuttingis necessary

worm
diametral-pitch

gears.

DIAMETRAL

CUTTING

Table

of

T7""*,"u.
Formula.

Change

2*

7 x

Gears

WORMS

PITCH

for

Diametral

)
Lead Screw
Diametral Pitch f

Pitch

9
Worms

Ratio of Wheels.

In the
In the firstcolumn
is found the diametral pitchto be cut.
of
is found the corresponding
the
worm
singledepth

second column

is found the width of the tool at

Under the third column
he point, the tool beingthe regular29-degree
included angle. In
he fourth colunm is found the width at the
thread.
of the worm
top
The next headingin the chart is "Pitch of lead screw," and here
ire found different pitches
from 2 to 10.
of lead screws

bread.

SCREW

to

THREADS

thread
Example: Suppose itisdesired to cut a worm
lathe
on
a
a
pitch
single-geared
having 6-pitchlead
in the first column

opposite4

0.540 inch; and

under the next
right,

find the

continuingin

of 4 diametral

the

Now,
thread,

screw.

singledepth of

worm

direction from left to

of the worm-thread
too!
which
is
the
the
and
at
to
so on
next column
pointor end,
0.243 i^ch,
where
is found the width of the worm
thread at the top, which is
the lathe. Then
on
0.263 inch. Say there is a 6-pitchlead screw
in the same
follow righton
direction until coming to the square
under 6, and the gear, will be in the ratio of ^^. Of course
there is
or

7 gear

no

column

the lathe,so

on

denominations, say, V
or
stud, and the
spindle

21

convenient size to act

any
the gear

the

simply bring the fraction y

J

same

find the width

If

"=

"

on

gear
as

intermediate gear, and

an

higher

to

^^at is,put the 99 gear on

the
Then
the screw.
oj
a gear
use
thus

conned

spindlewith

the gear on
the screw.
Taking thd
and
and
denominator
fraction y
multiplyingthe numerator
by J
would giveV/ ^ the two gears to be used.
It will be seen
that th3
last fraction simplychangesthe number
of teeth in the gears, buJ
does not change the value of the fraction;
thus there is the same
ratiq
of gears.
j
Take
another case:
Suppose it is desired to cut a
\Vh3
thread in a lathe having a 4-pitchlead screw.
pitchworm
would be the necessary gears to cut the desired thread?
Next
t"|
is found the single
the
of
worm
20 in the firstcolumn
depth
thread}
which
is 0.108 inch.
Continuingon, readingfrom left to rightai
in the first case, and 0.048 inch is found as the width of the tool al
is found the width at the top of tU
the point. In the next column
which
in
this
is
Under column
worm
case
thread,
0.053 inch.
4, an(
found
for
the gears necessary
cuttinga 20-diamet]
opposite
20, are
thread in a lathe with a 4-pitchlead screw.
The
pitchworm
gei
on

20-diannetr

thus found, namely,

35

which

"

70

be in the regular
set of
^

se\
^

screw

furnished with the lathe.

it

not

may

"

is the

In that
same

case

double up

in value.

The

on

two

both and

mak

examples

thu

screw

lathes with lead screws

havin
of threads per inch, with the same
result. One
poir
any number
in cutting
these threads is that the tool must
be of exact dimensior
allover, for if it is not exactly29 degreesincluded angle,or the poii
is not as it should be for width, then there will be an
in tl:
error
thread all around.
worm
worked

out

could have

BROWN

THE

AND

been cut

SHARPE

"
THE

on

ACME
SCREW

STANDARD

THREAD

confusion among
the 29-degreeAcme
standard screw
thread and
thread.
worm
29-degree
There

The
tween

seems

to

be

some

sketches. Figs. 7
threads

of the

same

and

THREAI

WORM

29-DEGREE
29-DEGREE

8, show

pitchin

mechanics

regardir)

the Brown

"

Shar^

plainlythe difference

the two

systems.

The

section

MEASUREMENT

OF

V-TOOLS

II

of threads of one-inch linear pitchdrawn to scale to the

proportionsgiven by the thread formulas in connection with the
lowing.
complete tames of the two systems of threads as givenon pages fol-

views

are

Fig. 7.

"

Acme

29-DegreeScrew Thread

Fig. 8.

"

Brown

"

MEASUREMENT

Sharpe29-DegreeWorm

OF

Thread

V-TOOLS

of angle measurements
should prove of
make
tools for cuttinganglesor make
all who
the
tools.
these
for
gages
of the difficulty
here adopted is that, on
The
account
principle
of measuring the tool at its point,
the impossibility
and in some
cases
is taken on the angleof the tool at a given distance
the measurement
will be less than
the point. In this case
the true measurement
from
the actual measurement
by an amount
equal to twice the tangent of
the
of the line of measuredistance
ment
half of the anglemultiplied
by
The

accompanyingtable

convenience

from

to

the

point.

SCREW

12

For

THREADS

making

the Brown
the measurement
" Sharpe gear-tooth
this
tool
in
shows
be used.
for measuring.
Fig.9
position
The depth vernier A is set to a given depth h, and the measurement
is taken by means
of the vernier B.
The width of the tool

calipermay

pointX

isequalto the measurement

on

the line

b less 2A

ftan.

"

]
.

To

the table,h is alwaystaken to be t'jinch, which is found to be

If a greater depth is required,
a convenient
depth for most work.
all that is necessary is to multiply
the figures
givenby the ratio of
the required
if
For
inch.
instance, the depthis required
depth to ^
use

Fig. 9.

"

Measuring Thread

Tools

by 2. In the great
given are multiplied
J inch, the figures
value
for //,when
of
will
found
suitable
be
to
a
majority cases, ^
width
of
it
the
is merely necessary to deduct the
find the
pointa:

to

be

C
,
tan.

"

for the

value of

which
anglerequired,

can

be obtained

at

glancefrom

the table.

In the case
of the Sellersor United States standard threadythe point
of the pitchof the screw, while in
of the tool should be one-eighth
the Whitworth
standard, as shown, the pointof the tool would be
one-sixth of the pitchif it were
not rounded.
By using these figures
with the table,it can
in combination
be determined when
cient
suffihas been ground from the pointof the tool.
The table is called "Table for Angle Measurements," because if
that is,one
without, the pointground away, is measa sharp angle,
ured
this
reference
will
to
the
as
above,
table,
measurement,
by
give
the angle direct.

GRINDING

THE

Table

GRINDING

for

FLAT

V-Tool

THE

ON

Angle

FLAT

ON

TOOLS

THREAD

13

Measurements

THREAD

TOOLS

To facilitategrindingthe correct width of flat for the single-point

inserted tool to cut United States standard form of threads the accompanying
tance
distable on pag^s 14 and 15 has been prepared. The
with
from the pointof the tool to the back is firstmeasured
the micrometer, then the pointof the tool may
be ground off until
the micrometer
from the back is equal to the whole
measurement

depthminus

dimension

A,

when

we

may

be

sure,

without

taking
under-

that the flat B has

the difficultjob of measuringit directly,
the proper width.
The dimensions A and B for pitchesfrom i to
64 threads per inch are included in the table.

Table

THREADS

SCREW

14

for

Grinding

Flat

End

Form

of

of

Tool

for

CurriNG

U. S.

Thread

Depth

.^495
.3247

.2165
.1623
.1299
.1082
.0927
.0812
.0721

.0649
.0592
.0541
.0499

.0460
.0433

.0406
.0382

"0360
.0341
.0324
.0309

.0295
.0282
.0270

.0259
.0245
.0240

.0231
.0223
-.0216
.02oq
.0202

GRINDING

Table

for

THE

Grinding

FLAT

Flat

Form

ON

End
of

THREAD

of

Thread

Tool

TOOLS

for

Cutting

IS

U. S

l6

SCREW

Table

of

THREADS

U. S. Standard

Screw

Threads

fp^PitohNo.

formula

^d"

Depth

""

Threads

p x .64868

If-Flat-i

per

Inch

SHARP

Table

of

Sharp

"

THREADS

"

Screw

17
Threads

fp-Pitoh-Formal*

No. ThvMMia

Id-Depth-

px.8BaQB

per

Inch

SCREW

Table

of

Whitworth

THREADS

Standard

Threads

Screw

Pitch

No.

Formula

-"d

Depth

Threads

.64033

(r=Badiu8"p.1373
x

per

Inch

BRITISH

Table

of

ASSOCIATION

British

Association

THREADS

Screw

19

Threads

fp-Pitch

Formula

Jd"

Depth"

p X.6

[r-BadlM-i^

20

FRENCH

(METRIC)

STANDARD

SCREW
Tp-

S'"innula J d"

THREADS

Pitch

Depth,

px.

If-J-Ui-.IL
^

ft

INTERNATIONAL

Table

STANDARD

Screw

Standard

International*

of

THREADS

in

dimensions

Tp-

Pitch

"

If-Flat

Standard"

"International

noted, as

that

now

in

general

use

JNTERKATIONAL
At

held

Threads

milumeters

Depth"
Fonnala^d

The

21

is the

same,

.ft

-.4.

with

modifications

in France.

STAlfDARD

THREADS

the "CongressInternational pour L 'Unification des Filetages,"

resolutions were
in Zurich, October
24, 1898, the following

adopted:
The
Congresshas

the threads of
undertaken the task of unifying
It recommends
wish to adopt the
to all those who
machine screws.
of
the
metric system of threads to make
use
proposedsystem. This
system is the one which has been established by the "Societyfor the
fication
modiEncouragement of National Industries,"with the following

adoptedby

this

Congress.
of thread shall not

exceed ^ part
of
of
The
the bottom
shape
originaltriangle.
the thread resulting
from said clearance is left to the judgment of
the manufacturers.
rounded
However, the Congress recommends
I.

The

of the

clearance

hight of

for
profile

said

at

the bottom

the

bottom.

table for Standard Diameters

accepted is the one which
3. The
of Action.
has been proposedby the Swiss Committee
(This table
that 1.25 mm.
is given above.) It is to be noticed especially
pitch
for
is adopted for 8 mm.
mm.
and
12
diameter,
pitch
1.75 mm.
cated
indidiameters
standard
diameter. The
pitchesof sizes between
for the next smaller standard
in the table are to be the same
as

diameter.

SCREW

22

ACME

THREADS

29" SCREW

THREADS

S .saNo.

ommadi-perliMh.
.8707 P"

I""^="LliMuPltoh

.OOM

.6898 P

f .ooa

."8MP

The

standard

thread is an adaptation
of the most
monly
comof Worm
used style
Thread and is intended to take the place
of the square thread.
It is a little shallower than the worm
thread,but the same
depth
the
as
square thread and much
stronger than the latter.
The
various parts of the Acme
standard thread are obtained as
follows:
Acme

Width

of Tool

of Point

for Screw

Thread

"3707
.0052.

"

Width

of Screw

or

No.

of Threads

Nut

Thread

per inch

"3707
No.

Diameter

of Screw

Diameter

at Root

of Thread

inch*

of Screw
of Threads

of

No.

Acme

of Threads

per inch

29"

Thread

Screw

per inch

Table

per

\No.
Depth

of Threads

/
.010.

Parts

TAP

ACME

29"

ACME

29"" TAP

THREADS

23

THKBADS

W"
B

JT07P"

.OOM

.GfMP-|-"OOM

"

B-.im8P-t-.O0M

D"

.6Fi-.0S

F"

.8707 F -.0061

^^^;z

standard tap-thread
is cut with the same
width of tool
Acme
for tap and
the screw-thread and the diameter at the root is the same
as
of thread between
Clearance
and nut is
at bottom
screw
screw.
obtained by boring the nut blank .020 oversize.
The

The
to

outside

give

Width

diameter

clearance

between

of Point of Tool

of the tap is made

.020
largerthan
of
screw-thread
and
bottom
top

for

Tap-Thread

No.

of Thread

Width

Diameter

of

of

Tap

Diameter

Tap

.0052.

per Inch
"3707

.0052

No.
Diameter

screw

of nut.

"3707
^^*
of Threads

the

of Threads

Diameter

per Inch

of Screw

.0

at Root

of

Tap

-(

No.

+
of Threads

^40

per Inch

")

Depth

of Thread

+
2

Table

of

Acme

Standard

No.

of Threads

29"

per Inch

Tap-Thread

Parts

.020.

THREADS

SCREW

24

Brown

"

Sharpe

Screw

Thread

Micrometer

Caliper

Readings

READING

OF

For U. S. Threads

U.

S. Standard

CALIPER

"

-6495

Threads

umns
the colthere is no standard of diameter for the finer pitches,
for diameter and caliper
readingare left blank. The column
the right
on
givesthe number to be subtracted from the diameter to
obtain the caliper
reading.
As

For

of
explanation

page 26.

screw

thread micrometer

refer
caliper,

to

THREAD

Brown

"

MICROMETER

Sharfe

Screw

READINGS

Thread

25

Micrometer

Caliper

Readings

READING

OF

CALIPER

.866
For"V"

Threads

*V"

=P-

Threads

As there is no standard of diameter for the finer pitches,

umns
the colfor diameter and caliper
readingare left blank. The column

the rightgivesthe number

obtain the caliper
reading.
on

For

explanationof

page 26.

screw

to be subtracted from

thread micrpmeter

the diameter

to

caliper,refer

t"

THREADS

SCREW

26

Brown

"

Sharpe

Screw

Thread

Micrometer

Caliper

Readings

READING

For Whitworth

Whitworth

SCREW-THREAD

OF

CALIPER

Threads

Standard

MICROMETER

Z)

.640
-

Threads

CALIPER

Sharpe thread micrometer is fitted with pointed

the actual thread
spindleand "V" anvil as in Fig. 10, to measure
the cut surface. Enough of the pointis removed
on
and the bottom
of the "V"
is carried low enough so that the anvil and spindleclear
the top and bottom of the thread and rest directly
the sides of
on
The

Brown

thread.

"

MEASURING

27

measures

each

on

the

or
one

DIAMETERS

one-half of the depth of the thread from the top,

side,the diameter of the thread as indicated by the caliper,
pitchdiameter, is the full size of the thread less the depth of

it

As

SCREW-THREAD

thread.
This depth may

Depth
"
"

of
"
"

be found

as

threads

U. S. Std.

"

Whitworth

"

follows;
.866

"

-5-

number

.6495-^
.64 -*-

"

of threads to 1"

"
**

"

"

"

"

mz2
"
Fig.

10.

"

Spindleand

Anvil

of Thread

Micrometer

the U. S. thread is flattedJ of itsown

As

depthon top,itfollows that

is increased | on each side,equaling

pitchdiameter of the thread

depth and instead of the constant .866 we use the
which
is f of .866.
constant
.6495,
When
the point and anvil are in contact
the o represents a line
the

\ of the whole

drawn
and

throughthe planeA B, Fig.10,

if the

caliperis ojiened,say to .500, it represents the distance

planes.500* apart. The precedingtables are used in

of the two
connection

with

MEASURING

EXTERNAL
WITH

It is

the micrometer.

SCREW-THREAD

DIAMETERS

AND

MICROMETERS

WIRES

in making
frequently
necessary, especially

plug

gage, to measure
addition to measuringon

the thread

diameter

on

top of the thread and

tap

or

the thread

thread-

anglein

at the bottom

of the
f
or
work
such
are
expressly
the
is
with
thread
made
on
angle not
any
is omitted
or
degree of accuracy
entirely.The accompanying
sketches,Figs.11, 12 and 13, formulas, and tables,are worked out
for convenience in screw-thread inspection,
that by usingordinary
so
micrometer calipers
and wire of the diameter
called for in the
table the standard threads can
be compared with the figures
given.

thread groove, and unless

at hand, the measurement

made
calipers

Threads

of

SpecialDiameter

For

threads of specialdiameter the values of x, Xi or X2 can

be
of
to the method
readilycomputed from the formula corresponding
be
in
used.
The
is
liable
to
method
shown
at
iv
measuring
Fig. 11
to lead to

unless

that the diameter on top of

the thread is correct, and also that the flatted surface on the top of
The
the threads is concentric with the rest of the thread.
tricity
concenof the flattedsurface can
at
be tested by measuring,as
x, Fig.
at right?'
a plane through the axis and
II, at several pointson
diamet
to it. The wire Vfsed must
be round and of uniform
an

error

care

be taken

THREADS

SCREW

28

"""["
"^^"tFt'-B+f

"

Fig.
D

II.

S. Standard Threads

Measuring U.

"

outside diameter of thread.

in thread groove,
root diameter measured
of threads per inch of length.
number

depthof

thread.

threads.
distance from center to center of adjacent
thread.
width of flat on U. S. Standard

diameter of wire used.

B
distance from apex of thread angleat root, to center of wire.
""2= diameter of cylindertouched by apexes of thread angles.
side of tap or bolt,to
diameter from top of threads on one
X
side.
top of wire laid in thread groove on opposite
a

Thread

U. S. Standard
"

lead

for

-,

threads.
single

ft

"

"=

p X .6495

from

p,

sin

"

.6495
=

max;

to

30"=

a,

^ X

.505, min.

1-5155

D2=D

^=5

^^^.5+1.

22

aa

X2

"

a.

{D2

5)2

Dz +

-/

("".^
+

".

MEASURING

Table

for

Measxtring

DIAMETERS

SCREW-THREAD

U. S. Standard
AND

Wires

Threads

29
with

eters
Microm-

THREADS

SCREW

so

"*"

Fig.
D

Di

12.

a--"!f

Measuring6o-DegreeV-Threads

"

outside diameter of thread.

in thread groove.
root diameter measured
of length.
inch
of
threads
number
per
depthof thread.
threads.
distance from center to center of adjacent
"

diameter of wire used.

B
distance from apex of thread angleat root, to center of wire.
touched by apexes of thread angles.
Z"2= diameter of cylinder
side of tap or bolt,to
diameter from top of threads on one
X
top of wire laid in thread groove on oppositeside.
a

"

"

lead

Thread

60"

"

for

threads.
single

866,=-^.

d=px.

^.=v/(^-^'0'+(^"
"

"=

-g^, max;

to

sin

30"

5-

"

a.

1.732

D2^D

:5 + ""+B

X2

D2+

i.
2

22

Xi

.577" min.

p X

2B

-.J{D,+

a.

2BY-\-{^^y
+

a,

SCREW-THREAD

MEASURING

Table

Measuring

for

DIAMETERS

screw

anglefor screws
in steel. The
nieter

as

the

which
pitch,
I20, 140,
"ters

eters
Microm-

THREADS

SCREW

WATCH

with

Wires

AND

Watch

V-Threads

6o-Degree

31

threads are of sharp V-form and generally

45 -degree
used in nickel and brass; though 60 degreesfor use
Waltham

Watch

Company

and

with
unit for all measurements
is based on the inch; the Waltham

160, 170, 180, 200,

rangingfrom

0.120

220,

to 0.035

240,
cm.

others

the centiexceptionof the

use

the
threads
and
inch
254, per

being no,
the diar

THREADS

SCREW

32

t-e+5.
.'--"+!

r'R'

Fig. 13.

Threads

Measuring Whitworth

"

outside diameter of thread.

in thread groove.
Z)i= root diameter measured
of length.
inch
of
threads
number
n
per
of
d
thread.
depth
threads.
from
center to center of adjacent
distance
p
Whitworth
thread.
radius
on
r
diameter of wire used.
a
distance from apex of thread angleat root, to center of wire.
B
touched by apexes of thread angles.
diameter of cylinder
D2=
side of tap or bolt,to
of
from
threads on one
diameter
X
top
top of wire laid in thread groove on oppositeside.
D

Thread

Whitworth

p
d

lead

-,
n

threads.
single

for

"64033
=pX

.64033

==pX

.1373.

.84,max;

p X

27" 30'

sm

p X

to

"9235

1.600825

,=5

^^+5

"-.

22

Xi

min.

D2^

-454,

D2+

2B

a.

JiD,+2By

(^-^y
+

a.

MEASURING

Table

tor

Measuring

SCREW-THREAD

Whitworth
AND

Wires

DIAMETERS

Threads

with

33
Micrometers

SCREW

34
MEASURING

THREADS

FINE

PITCH

SCRBW-THREAD

DIAMETERS
The
accompanyingtable should be of service to those usingthe
the finer
the constants
three-wire system of measurement
cover
as
be
diameter.
of
threads
and may
easilyappliedto screw
pitches
any
The
so
plain
diagrams,Fig.14, make the method of application
that no
description
appears necessary.

For

V Thread

For
P=.M"

D=M-3W-"-1.732P.
M=D-1.732P.

Fig. 14.
Constants

for

Use

MeasuringFine
with

1.5156 P.

3W+

3W.

M=-D-1,5155P.+

+ 3W:
"

Sellers Thread

the

Screw

3- Wire
Threads

Pitch

Threads

System

of

Measuring

29-DEGREE

THREADS

29-DEGREE

THREADS

ACMK

MEASURING

ACME

MEASURING

35

diameter of a wire which will be flush with tops of thread

tap when laid in the Acme thread groove, Fig.15, will l)e found
The

on

as

follows:

Rad.

of wire section

side opp.

side

adj.X

tan.

37" 45'

-.

^-^i^^l"^525"x.
774.8.
Diam.

of wire

Wires

of the diameter

of tap threads

*-

and

(A X .6293+ .0252).77428.

givenin the table come

project.010 above the top

of

flush with the tops

threads.
screw

Tap Thread

Fig. 15.

Table

of

Wire

Sizes

MeasuringAcme

"

for
AND

Threads

per

Inch

Measuring
Tap

Pitch

Acme

Threads

Standard

29**Screw

Threads

Diam.

of Wire

THREADS

WORM

36

ll^ N"."r RifMdiilwrlte.

Y^-^-f=iff'\
J)

.68""P

A=i.n8SP

~~f^P"."tfP
pW=i.nP
1

Pitch

Depth of
Width

of

Width
Clearance

of

Top

at Bottom

B"q.666P

T=^.6P

B"-.MP

No. of Threads
.6866

per inch'

No. of Threads

per inch

"335
No. of Threads

per inch'

Thread

of Thread

Space at

C"-^-

Bottom

No. of Threads per inch'

Thickness at Pitch Line

of Thread

lO

Width

of

Space at Top

Thickness

at Root

of Thread

.665
=

No. of Threads

"69

of Thread
No.

Table

or

Brown

"

Sharpe

per inch

29"

of Threads

Worm

Thread

per inch'

Parts

WORM

29-DEGREE

MEASURING

MEASURING

BROWN

SHARPS

"

WORM

THREADS

37

29-DEGREE

THREADS

diameter of wire for Brown

" Sharpeworm
The
thread,Fig.16,
that will rest in the thread groove on the thread angle
for each pitch,
and be flush with the tops of the finished threads,is found as follows;
Rad.
of wire section (see table) side opp.
side adj.X tan.
=

37^46'
0.5149

^
=

"

"

"

"

0.77428

0.257448P ^and

diam.

of wire

-P-

H" -665-P

Fig. 16.

Table

"

="

of

Wire

"

J|

MeasuringBrown
Sizes

for

Measuring

"

Sharpe Worm
B. " S.

Threads.

29" Worm

Threads

""

38

WORM

THREADS

WORM
Hobs
with

are

the

the

make

pitch line

HOBS

larger in diameter

made

of two

the amount

by

is to

WHEEL

clearance

for

the

The
of

they are used

Sharpe method

worm

Brown

of the

one-tenth

.05 inch

than

clearances.

"

thickness

of the

tooth

If the

worm

from

the

on

pitch.
was
fair proportion for this
pitch,the outside diameter of the hob would be 3 + (2 X .05) =3.1
be .31 inch wide at the point and
inches.
The
thread lool would
would
cut
.7366 deep, leaving the top of the thread
.6360 + .1
3 inches

or

worm

would

diameter, which

outside

one

be

==

the

thickness

same

land

The

the

as

be made

should

which

bottom,
as

is different

the

near

proportionsgiven

D sDUm.

of Worm

worm.

as

sible.
pos-

+ SO

WI"".7386xFttA

Fig.

17.

The
of

"

Section

and

hob,

worm

"

and

of thread

Width

Clearance

Diameter

Width

D
E
F

5*

the

End

View

the thread

In

these

diagrams:

top of tooth.
at top.

at

between

at

the

bottom.

pitch line.

Hight

above

Width

of land

Depth

below

Width

at

Width

Whole

of space
at bottom.
depth of tooth.

or

tooth

at

pitch line.
pitch line.

of Hob

proportions for the depth

of hob.
of tooth

"

shape and proportionsof

diameter.

difference

or

18.

Fig.

shows

the outside

of space

the

Fig. 18

Width

Thread

shows

diagram Fig. 17

tooth,the lead

WD

of Hob

bottom.

hob

and

worm.

of

AND

PIPE

BRIGGS

of

pipe standards

read

STANDARD

in
particulars

The

are

1882, before

in

THREADS

PIPE

THREADS

PIPE

followingparagraph
regardingthis system
late
from
Robert
a
Brlggs, C.E.,
by the
paper
the Institution
of Civil Engineers of Great

the

Britain.

employed has an inclination to i in 32 to the axis. The

rounded
employed has an angle of 60 degrees;it is slightly
both at the top and at the bottom, so that the hight or depth of
oflF,
the thread, instead of being exactlyequal to the pitch X .Sbd
is
The

taper

thread

only four-fifths

of the

pitch,or equal to

U"

P"rr"r

PtaW^"dJ"ott""

ywtmA

Bottom

Flp" B"a -9i p*

of

of TbMwl

D.pth

BJMSiuinlMt

(E )

TbrMd

of

the number

Tq" tad

Ft-"f, p"

of Tbqnd*

!".

p^"

-"

"

per

la.

por la.

LongitudinalSection

"

be

"

J ^j
(o.flDI..^-4^8)"

Thil.

I.

if

-,

I ""!'i-"_^"Pj_B|"tt"n

T"p"

Fig.

0.8

of

Briggs Pipe

Thread

For
inch.
the length of tube-end
throughout which
per
is (0.8 D + 4.8)
the screw-thread
continues
t
he
formula
used
perfect,

threads

-,

its

where

is the actual

parallellength,and

is

external

diameter

expressed in

of the tube

inches.

Further

throughout
yond
back, be-

two
having the same
perfect threads, come
taper at the
The
the
at
remaining imperfectportion
imperfect
top.
from
the extremity of the tube,
screw-thread, furthest back
its imperfecessential in any way
to this system of joint;and
tion

the

bottom, but
of the
is not

is simply incidental
single
operation.

to

the

process

Thread
The

of

cuttingthe

thread

at

Section

pipe end in the Briggs system

are
representedclearlyin the longitudinalsection. Fig. i.
shown
are
Here the threads that are
perfect at top and bottom
of the perfect threads
Back
^X F, the depth being indicated
at E,
threads

as

produced

at

the

39

^^m

PIPE

40
the
represented

are

two

THREADS

threads with

perfectbottom

and

flat tops

behind

these are the imperfectthreads produced by the chamfer

mouth
bell
of the threading die. A table giving the general
or
of wrought iron tubes in the Briggssystem will be found
dimensions
and

page

on

complete data pertainingto the thread depths,

allowances for making the
imperfectportions,
screwing the pipe into the fitting,
gaging allowances,etc.,
40,

lengthsof
jointin

while

perfectand

contained in the tables on pages 43 and 44.

cuttingpipe threads with a lathe tool as

are

In

in general,the

work

of the

pieceand

Standard

not

tool should

By

the

Dimensions

action

set

at

in

threadingtaper

rightangles to tSe axis

square with the conical surface.

of

Briggs

be

Wrought-Iron

Tubes

Standard

of the manufacturers

boiler tubes, at a meeting held in New

of
in size of actual outside diameter
the latter 9.625 instead of 9.688

Briggs standard pipe diameters.

Welded

of

wrought-ironpipe and

York, May 9, 1889, a change

ing
9-inch pipe was
adopted,makof
in
the
table
as
inches, given

WHITWORTH

PIPE

THREADS

WHITWORTH

PH^E

THREADS

41

in Great Britain in regardto

below shows the practice
pipe and pipe threads. The Whitworth
pipe thread,which is the
and
is
both
cut
the
standard,
EngineeringStandards
taper,
straight
for
Committee
recommending,
t ^^^ P^^ ^oot as in the
taper threads,
Briggsstandard.
The

table

Whitworth

Tap

Drills

Pipe

for

Threads

Pipe

sizes of Twist Drills to be used in

with
with Pipe Reamers, and Threaded
The

Taps

boringholes,to
Pipe Taps,

are

be reamed
as

follows:

PIPE

42

THE

PIPE

JOINT

THREADS

IN

THE

BRIGGS

SYSTEM

The
illustrationsbelow and the tables on pages 43 and 44, represent
the relation of the reamer,
tap, die and testinggages in the
of the Briggspipe end and fitting
to making
preliminary
preparation
the
joint.
up

^=

\ Flash

Standard

Ring Gage

Plug for Testing

Fig.

2.

"

Reamer, Tap,

Die

and

and

Fittings.

Gages for BriggsPipe Standard

Fig. 2 show the relative distances

that the pipe reamer,
tap, testingplug and pipe end are run into
the die
shown
the fitting
in making the joint;while at the rightare
and ring gage on
the pipe end, and the relative diameters of the
standard
ring gage and the testingplug for the fittings.
The

illustrations to the left in

PIPE

JOINT

IN

THE

BRIGGS

SYSTEM

43

the end of the pipe should alwaysbe cut to fitthe

pipe fitting
standard
should be tapped small
pipe gage. The fitting
Briggs
in order to insure a tight
Theoreticallythe jointshould be
joint.
tance
a distightwhen the pipe end has been screwed into the fitting
H
in
the
and
t
ables.
at
2
diagrams,Fig.
represented
following
In

allow for

the thread on the pipe is actuallycut

should be tapped two
threads beyond H.
two
Similarlythe fitting
threads deeperthan distance H.
The
with the illustrations
followingtable used in conjunction
in Fig. 2, contains information as to lengthand number
of perfect
and imperfect
threads; distance and number of turns the pipescrews
into fitting
ber
by hand and with wrench, or the total lengthand numof threads of joint;ring and plug gage data for testing
tools;
besides generalpipedimensions,drill and reamer
sizes,etc.

However,

to

errors

(Table Continued

on

Page 44)

THREADS

PIPE

44

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w

cj

2n{j uoipads

q3noJiix

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t^

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spatojjSniti
aoTpddsaj
sSup

-}Tj Sapsax
40J 8nid

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loO

voOO

OVO

TfO

oq

"

00
O^
TfMOO
00
"^

t^

OvO

lO

'^

C^

"o

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Q^OvO^^OvOv
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'T' "^o^ 't'oo ** '^ "^ "^ "^^

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JO giQ

png

38^9 Surg
8nij iio

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P"TXJOMl3u37

OOOOOOQOvOtJ-

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puB 3njj uo
sp.qi P -ON

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vp O
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t^ t^ t^ t^ t^oo ooooa^ovoooM""s

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Tt

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CO
PO

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't

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't "oO

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u-iO

ppa

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pasn aq

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GAGE

GAGE
The

SETS

is known

into the

of the

AND

FITTINGS

of

users

standard, and
screws

PIPE

by the Pratt " Whitney Company for

include three distinct sets for
pipe and fittings
and
these
in Fig.3.
Set No. i conillustrated
are
pipe,
sists
and
in
ring
plug conforming all dimensions to the Briggs

and
each size of
of

BRIGGS

45

manufactured

gages

makers

FOR

SETS

the standard

as

ring with

faces flush

"

reference set. The plug

indicated by the position
the plug shows the depth to
as

The
flat milled on
gages.
which the latter should enter the fitting
to allow for screwingup with
the
to
make
a
on
to
steam-tight
joint; ring,of course, screws
tongs

the

two

pipe flush

with

the end.

^
Set No. 1

BriggsSundacd

Set No.

Working

Gages.

Allowance

Allowance
Inspection

Gages.

Fig. 3.

"

BriggsPipe Thread

Gages.

Gages

consists of the plug

the working allowance set
Set No.
2
alreadydescribed and a ringwhose thickness is equal to the standard
ring less the allowance for screwingup the joint. As the plug and
diameter
at the small end, the bottom
ring threads are of the same
members
flush when
the two
screwed together.
surfaces come
are
It will be noted that,as the plug enters the fitting
only to the bottom
of the flat at the side,and the ring screws
to the pipe only far
on
enough to bring the outer face flush with the pipe end, there are a
few threads on, or in,the work beyond the reach of the gages; hence
with this type of gage a reasonable amount
of wear
may be permitted
the
mouth
of
the die without causing the
at the end of the tap or
of the work.
rejection
The plug and ring in set No. 3 are inspection
allowance gages,
in all particulars
the standard
the ringbeing the same
as
gage in
while
is
Nos.
than
and
set No.
the
amount
i
2
an
by
plug
longer
I,
this
for
for
allowance
extra
the
a
to
equal
tightjoint,
screwingup
"

"

lengthbeing represented
by

the

portionat
cylindrical

the

rear

o'

PIPE

46

THREADS

the back of
the gages are screwed together
When
with
the
face
and
flush
the
threaded
section
comes
ring
cylindrical
the
a distance
end of the plug projects
ring,as indicated,
through
the
the
of
allowance.
the
o
r
to
cylinder,
screwing-up
length
equal
until the back of the threaded
This plug will enter a perfectfitting
thus testing
of
the
the full depth
section is flush with the end
fitting,
of the tapped thread in the same
way that the standard ring gage
time showing
the
the
thread
on
covers
pipe end, and at the same
allow
diameter
the
to
is tappedto right
that the fitting
jointto screw

the thread

cone.

the

up

properly.
STANDARD

NATIONAL

HOSE

COUPLING

tional
adopted by the Nacouplingswas
and
has
since
Association May 26, 1905
been
approvedand adoptedby various other organizations.

standard

This

for fire hose

Fire Protection

Fig. 4.

Dimensions

A
B

"

of

National

National

Standard

Standard

Inside Diameter of Hose Couplings.

Length of Blank End on Male Part
Outside Diameter of Thread, Finished
Diameter
at Root of Thread
Total Lenffth of Male End
of Threads per inch
Number
Length of Female Thread
Diameter of Top of Female Thread
.

C
D
E
F
G

Note:

Coupling
Hose

Couplings

4i

s\
S.3|70
4

S.80

above to be of the 60-deg. V-thread pattern with one-hundredth

top of thread and one-hundredth inch leftin the bottom of the 2i-inch,
and two hundredths inch in like manner
for the 4}3-inch,and 3j-incn couplings,
inch couplings,and with one-quarter inch blank end on male part of coupling in
each case; female ends to be cut |-inch shorter for endwise clearance. They sliouUl
also be bored out .03 inch larger in the a^-inch,3 and 3i-inch sizes,and
.05 inch
larger on the 4i-inch size in order to make
easily and without jamming
o
up
"

The

Hose

inch.cutoff the

sticking.

TWIST
twist-drill is

The

half is

althoughone
surface in
the

by

that

on

pressure
which
centers

of the

perhaps one

away
its cross-sectional

the

to force the

use

as,

very largecutting
This is made possible

area.

the

helps to support

work

the drill tends

efficient tools in

most

it has
flutes,

in the

cut

proportionto

fact

DRILLS

point into

drill and
a

the

feed

cone-shaped hole

it.

backing-offbehind the cutting

eter
edge, twist-drills have longitudinalclearance by decreasingthe diamthe point toward
from
the shank, varying from
to
.0015
.00025
per inch of length. This prevents bindingand is essential in accurate
addition

In

the radial relief

to

or

drilling.
To

strengththe

the

increase

is increased

web

gradually in thickness

point toward the shiank by drawing the cutters apart. This

decreases chip room
and to avoid this defect the spiralis increased in
to make
pitch and the flute widened
up the chip room.
from

the

FIG.

FIG.

Grooves

FIG.

of Twist

Drills

and the shape of the

shape of the groove affects the power
TwistDrill Company
the
Cleveland
are
experiments by
chip
interesting. The groove in Fig.i does not givea good cuttingedge,
the center, as it does not allow a full curl to the chip.
near
especially
the chipscurl up to the full size
Fig. 2 is a very free cutting-groove,
The

and

of the

Fig.3
so

is

that

from

and

groove

depth

same

angle of

as

power

it rolls

easier

requiredto bend the chips.

chip with each turn conical
makes

much

In

tests

the

angle makes
pitch equal
a

constant

blank.

same

the
to

theorythe

it should

be

finer the
cut

to

firm

27 J

adopted
spiralgroove of

six diameters

function

chip

degreesaccordingto

18 to 35

and

pitch or

curl the

of the

degrees for

all drills start

of the

angular

This

blank,
movement

the

at

the

the greater the

chip. But this

to
gives a weak cutting edge and reduces the ability
heat,and it does not clear itselfof chipsso well. After

of

shorter

of hole.

spiralsvaries from

ideas of the maker.

angle, the

form

lays inside the other and

one

the

The

even

an

the

this reduces
better

the
the

increase

carry

off the

long series
spiral. This
point with a
a

in twist

of rotation

being

of the drill

angle is based on holes from one to three diameters

deep. For deeper holes a smaller angle might be advisable and
ence
differis practically
no
greater angle for holes of less depth. There
in torsional stress with the angle between
25 and 30 degre
47

48

TWIST

DRILLS

Sharpening

Drills

Drills should be sharpenedso as to cut the rightsize and

size both lipsmust
littlepower as possible.To cut the right
same

lengthand

the

same

angle.

gage
help both to get the angleand to grindthem
usual lipedge of 59 degrees.Fig. 5 shows

as

shown

central.

in

with

as

be the

Fig. 4 will
gives the

This

how you can

if both
see
the
does
is
not give
a
lipsare
angle. Fig. 6
gestion
sugthe drill back of the cutting
by Professor Sweet of relieving
edge,making it similar to a flat drill in this respect.
For drilling
brass or for any thin stock where the drill goes clear
with the axis of
through,it is best to grindthe cutting
edge parallel

ground alike,but

FIG.

Grinding Twist

Drills

the drill. This does away with the tendencyto draw into the work.
Fig. 7 shows how this is done.
It is sometimes necessary to thin the pointof the drill to get best
be done as shown
results. This requirescare
in grindingbut can
in

Fig.8.

The
best all-around clearance angle is 12 degrees,though for
The
be used.
metals
softer
12
degreesis the angle
15 degreescan
at the cutting
edge,but this should increase back of the cuttingedge
with the cutting
the web should be 45 degrees,
the
line
that
across
so

edges. This

is

important,as

in hard
splitting
or
Fig. 8.
Fig. 7

anglesfor

service.

The

Fig.9 shows

the drill point.

but prevents
power
drill should look
like
the
the clearance angleand
right

only saves
point of the

it not

AND

SPEEDS

Speed

of

FEEDS

49

Drills

the most
work
drillsat their proper speed to secure
Learn
to run
is to use a
and breakages. The best practise
with fewest grindings
speed that will give 30 feet a minute cuttingspeedfor steel,
35 feet
that the cuttingedge
This means
for cast iron and 60 feet for brass.
these speeds. For drilling
steel with
fast enough to make
must
run
revolutions
while
for brass
a minute,
a 1^-inchdrill this means
1834
table givesthe speeds without
be 3668 revolutions. The
it would
figuringfor all drills up to 3 inches. These speeds require
any
plentyof lubricant. This is for carbon steel drills.
These
but
speedsmay have to be reduced with very hard material,
steel
be exceeded in ordinarycases.
should
drills
not
High-speed
the
will stand about double these speeds. It is easy to memorize
in
of
the
drills
most
use.
speeds
Table

op

Drill

Feeds

TWIST

50

Feed

DRILLS

of

Drills

feed of drillsis usually

givenin parts of an inch per revolution,
O.OQ4 to 0.007 "^ch for drillsof J inch and smaller and 0.007 to 0.015
This has been worked
inch for larger
drills being recommended.
into the table for the standard speedsto show inches of feed per
out
minute for the three speedsgiven,which is more
convenient.
This
is not an
iron-clad rule but should be used with judgment. For
be justabout doubled.
steel these figures
can
high-speed
The

Drill

Troubles

to their size and

Twist-drills will stand more
strain in proportion
drill
when
and
than
almost
other
a
tool,
givestrouble
good
weight
any
of the conditions are wrong.
it is pretty safe to say some
If it chipson the edge,the lipclearance is too great and fails to
edge or the feed is too heavy. Ease off on the
support the cutting
feed firstand then watch the grinding.
If it splits
in the web it is either ground wrong, i.e.,
does not have
the
is
the
feed
of
the center lipat
too
angle 45 degreesor
altogether

heavy.
it shows
that the
If the outer comer
wears,
This is particularly
noticeable on cast iron.
Drill

speed is

too

great.

Pointers

it is better to use
cases
high speedsalmost to the point
with a light
feed than to
to wear
the drill comers
commence
feed.
slower
and
use
heavy
speed
in automatic machines where
This is specially
true of drilling
the
than twice as deep as the diameter where drills
holes are not more
flooded with lard oil. With deeper holes the chips
are
harder to
are
and
heavier
it
is better to use slower speeds
feeds as
get rid of and
In most

where

the drilled hole gets deeper.

in a
out
Watch the drillchipand try to grindso that it will come
small compact roll. It is better to have this continuous
clear to
bottom of hole if possible.
In drilling
brass use
automatic maon
a heavier feed especially
chines,
it helpsto work
out the chips. If you lubricate at all,
as
flood the work.
Twist-drills ground as for steel often catch
and
of
the
at the bottom
hole,where it
"hog in" on brass,especially
the
breaks through. To avoid this,grind the lead or rake from

cuttingedge.
In drilling
hard material use turpentine
as
a lubricant.
Drills feed easier by thinning
the extreme
pointif this is carefully

done.

in hand
This is important

Special

Drills

feeding.
and

their

Uses

Ratchet-drills have a square taper shank, are used in hand-ratchet

braces and in air-driven drills. Used in bridgebuilding,
structural
and repairwork.
The shell drill,
Fig.10, is used after a two-groove drill in chucking
with
holes that have been made
out cored holes or for enlarging
a
of
has
number
drill.
and
It
hole
sizes
be
a
a
can
two-groove
taper
used

on

the

same

arbor.

KINDS
Wire

OF

DRILLS

51

drillsand

machinists drillsboth have round shanks

or
jobbers
in
differ
size.
Wire
drillsare made to a twist-drillgage and
only
the others to a jobbers
fractional
or
gage.
Blacksmith
drillsall have a J-inchshank 2) inches long,so as to
all fit the same
holder. There is a flat on the shank for set-screw.
The
Farmers
drill has the same
clearance as a
or
straightway
It is used mostlyin drilling
twist-drillbut the flutes are straight.
brass and soft metals or in drilling
holes or castings
where blow
cross
be foimd,as it is less likely
holes may
than the twist-drill.
to run
Oil drillshave the advantageof the cutting
edge beingkept cool
and of the chipsbeingforced back throughthe grooves which reduces
friction to a minimum.
They are used for all kinds of drilling,
hole
In
cast-iron drilling
work.
air is sometimes us^
mostlydeep
the chipsand keep the drill cool. They are generally
out
to blow
used in a screw
or
chuckingmachine or a lathe fittedfor this work.
the
drill
the oil
is held stationary
and the work revolves,
Where
is pumped to the connection and flows throughthe holes in the drill
and

in

as

Fig.11.

the drillrevolves
in a drill press, the oil
as
is pumped into a collar
which remains
stationary
while
the drillsocket revolves,
Where

as

in

Fig.12.

An

the
around
groove
socket and holes through
with
to the drill connects
self.
the holes in the drill itOther
types are
Shell Drill
in Figs.13 and 14.
Fig. 10.
shown
latter is used mostly
The
in screw
or
chuckingmachine turrets where the oil is pumped into
the center of the turret and into the largehole in the shank of the drill.
The
in Fig.15 is used for deep drilling
hollow drillshown
or
long
holes and is used in a lathe or some
similar machine fittedfor the
It has a hole lengthwise
through the shank connecting
purpose.
be threaded and fitted
with the grooves of the drill. The shank can
tube
The
outside of the drill
metal
of
such
desired.
to a
lengthas
has a groove the whole lengthof the body. The lubricant is conveyed
the outside throughthese grooves,
to the pointof the drill on
while the hollow tube admits of the passage of oil and chipsfrom
the point. In usingthis drill the hole is first started with a short
drillthe size of the hole desired and drilled to a depthequalto the
lengthof the body of the hollow drill to be used. The body of the
the oil to follow the grooves
hollow drillacts as a packing,compelling
and the chipsto flow out throughthe hollow shank.
Three and four groove drillsare used for chuckingout cored holes
holes that are first drilled with a two-groove drill. They
or enlarged
in cored holes or to
better than a two-groove drill for use
much
are
follow another drill. The ends of the drills,
Fig.16 and 17, indicate
that they are not made to drill from solid stock but for enlargingr
hole alreadymade.
oil

"

TWIST

52

DRILLS

FIG.

II

FIG.

IZ

FIG.

13

FIG.

14

CEZS

FIG.

15

FIG.

16

FIG.

ei3II^^
7

SIZES

The

OF

DRILLS

followingtables give standard

beingvery

convenient

for certain

53

drill sizes in various

classes

of work:

ways,

each

SIZES

Decimal

Equivalents

of

Letter

OF

DRILLS

Sizes

Nominal

Sizes

of

Drills

55
or

Drills, CorUinued

TWIST

56
Decimal

Equivalents

of

DRILLS

Drill

Sizes

from

i'

to

No.

8o

TAP

TAP

sizes

to

to

.010

These

for

give

"V"

inch.

In

called

for

very

Subtract

be

cannot

to

tap,

-j%%

or

nicely.
little

or

With

laige

but

a
a

little

i-inch
leaves

as

size

bottom

threads,

at

of

bottom

pitch for U. S. S.
by the number

the

to

use

larger

drill

thread

of

for

"V"

on

threads,
to

005

inch.

027

the
thread, J
and
Whitworth,
of

divided

better

simple rule, which

the pitch of one

0.65,

the
follows:

of

threads

if the

exact

cases,

is:

of

tap.

per
size

had.

|-inch tap i6-thread

be
ten-thread, would

inch

it is

practice

J of

and

threads,

THREADS

Whitworth
the

to

57

REGULAR

above

S. S. and

by adding

pitch being equal

the

FOR

respectively

inch; for U.
found

SIZES

allowance

an

varying

2;

055
are

pitch

SIZES

DRILL

These
sizes

DRILL

is

would

tap

from
be

minus

{ of

over
we

enough

enough

good

thread

have
thread

minus

"

for

many

A
tV
^jj or
=*

^^

inch,

an

in

diameter

the

"

so
=

most

the

^"11;
0.75

a
"

}-inch
o.io

f-inch drill will do

is a
J-inch drill, which
a

cases.

TWIST

58

TAP

For

Machine

DRILLS

DRILLS
Screw

Taps

drillswillgivea thread full enough for all practical

purposes,
thread as this is very seldom requiredin practical
but not 2ifull
work,
Further data along this line will be found in the tables which follo^v.
These

Tap

Drills

TAP

Dimensions
FOR

boring

holes

TO
TAPS

BE

DRILLS

for

Twist

THREADED

to

iJ

59
Drilis

WITH
INCH

DIAMETER

U.

S. FORM

OF

THREAD

TWIST

6o

Depth

Double

This

gives the depth

piece of work
A

Standard
bored

specialnut
would

in it.

have

for
a

for
a

2
2

hole

to 90

-inch
2.

Threads

of

for

allow

to

for threads

DRILLS

"

full thread

per

inch,
'"*

nut

similar

or

regardlessof the

threads

bolt, 20

.06495

in

^.93505

per

eter.
diam-

inch, U.

inches

S.

in diameter

TAP

Sizes

op

Tap

Drills

6l

DRILLS

for

Taps

This table givessimilar infoimation

convenient in some
cases.
more

with

but in

"V"

way

Thread

that would

be

TAPS

62

i)I".
of V"cTk^'EootDla.

Dimensions

These
that have

of

for the American

for many
been in use

are

Machine

Screw
years.

Screw

Taps

Company's

Standard

screws

SCREW

MACHINE

Dia.

of

TAPS

v"ck

63

sTfioot
Di".

v^

^^.

Dimensions

This

table

Mechanical
Standard

covers

of

the

Machine

sizes

adopted by

Engineers in June, 1907, and

for machine

screw

Screw

sizes.

now

Taps

the

American

known

as

Society of
the A.S.M.E.

64

TAPS

TAPPER

Eefolar

Length

Dimensions

Note.
on

machines,
full

the

Tapper

"

the
the

tap

end
nuts

of

of the

being

shank.

run

and

lot of nuts.

over

over

15

all

Incbei.

Taps

Tapper

taps differ from

is removed

for another

11, 12, 14 and

are

square

65

TAPS

machine

They
the

the nuts

tap

taps in
used

are
on

to

slid off.

not

in

the shank
The

nut

having

tapping
and

when

tap is then

placed
re-

66

TAPS

Taper per Poot

c=Ji Inch.

"

?
1
"

Briggs

Standard

Stove

Note.

have
like
an
usuallysomething
"

These

no

Bolt

Taper per Inch

=i"fcliich.

Taps

Taps

standard
form
of thread, being
thread in generalappearance.

fixed

Acme

Pipe

"

TAPER.

DIE

TAPS

67

mi

Dlam.

Dimensions

of

Bhmuk

op

Boot

Taper

leis

Dlam.

Die

0.016

Taps

TAPS

68

Dimensions

Note.

work,

The

"

such

along by

the

as

Sellers hob
hand

lathe

of

is

Sellers

designed to
or
chasers, being
carriage.
die

Hobs

be
held

centers,
against it and

run

on

the

fed

THREAD

SQUARE

t-G-^-

TAPS

H-"

Taps

Square-Thread

Standard

69

Size

Diameter

i'.Ai)

II

(2)
Pitch

(3)

Diameter

f*. .(i)

(3)

a
a
a

p. .(i)

(2)

Pitch

Diameter

(2)
Pitch

3i
3i
3i

3J

(4)

4}
4}

if

4i
It

.(0

While

"

half the

in

theory

the

thread

the character
the

tap

the sides.

hole.

of the
so

work

that

the

The

amount

and

varies

screw

will

i
i
i

ii

4t

and

in

threaded

i
i
i

i
I

to
pitch
practice it is necessary
half in order
than
clearance
to allow

into the

4l

5i
Si
5i
5i

LeadD'BLi^(4)

ft

4f
4l
4f
4i

4f

It

4i
4i
4i

4t

(3)

and

4i
4i

(2)

make

3l
3i
3l

(3)

more

3i
3i
3i

1*'. .(i)

(2)

Note.

3J

ij. .(1)

Diameter

3f

LeadD'BLJ^(3)

Pitch

3l
3i

(2)

Diameter

3t

(3)

4i

Diameter

3l

both one
are
space
the thread
little
a

the
make
for

of this
from

.001

only

bear

the

inch
on

that

screw

clearance

goes

depends

up.
the top

Some
or

on

also
bottom

FILES
Files

shape

of steel

cross-section

or

their

always referring
cutting to the end

to

the

includes

by the spacing of their

designatedboth

are

The

of

back

file is the

other

and

files

fileis the

A Blunt

convex

file is

Float

size

of

half-round,

shape.

looks

blunt

but which

has

slight

I
made

singlecut

coarse

never

largein the center.

its whole
lengthinstead of being tapered.

Equalling file is one which

from jointto tang.
bellyor curve
A

measurement

or

An

for

use

soft

on

metals

or

frequentlyused

and

wood

the

cut; the size

from
the point

rounding side

or

similar

it is full

same

are

and

Used

having a

file is Bellied when

teeth

is measured

the

Terms

cabinet

the

length which

file proper
but the
fits into the handle.

of
which

tang

which

on

teeth

by plumbers.
blank
that the file will
or
so
Safe-edge is an edge left smooth
cut if it strikes against the side of a slot or similar work.
The
into
Tang is the small pointedend forgeddown for fitting
A

|
not

the I

handle.

Three

taper

edge

well

as

edge

very
A

files

square

while

the

the

as

about
A

makes

the

while

taper

the

only on

have

the sides,

teeth

the

on

files broad

saw

tiiree square

on

files have

second

the

is at

file has
from

The

quite an

first

cut

is

angle,

acute

first cut.

the

similar

very

are

"

to

these

except that the

degrees instead of being square

15
lock

teeth
and

for brass work.

file is made

while
file,

the

files

across

way

This

sharp corners,

degreesfrom

Doctor

cut

have

corners.

across

60

and

usually single cut

are

sides.

without

or

sharp

are

files

saw

double

specialangle tooth

square
about

safe

edge

each

side

and

the teeth

leavingthe

only go

about

blank.

center

cut

is

file.

the

across

first

third the

one

The

teeth

are

singlecut.
HiGHT

work

The
from

40

This

means

to

should

be

at

OF

convenient

acid.
For

of two

made

soften
or

and

three

usuallyvary
of. 42

inches.

Bath

loosen

parts of

castingsfor a short
castingsuse a pickleof

Immerse
brass

will

inches

good pickle to

filingis

hightwhich

with an
for most
men
average
the hight of the work, not the bench.

44

Pickling
A

Work

acid.
70

the scale
water

to

on

one

cast

'ron

part of

before

sulphuric

time.
five parts water

to

one

part

nitric

TOOTH

SECOND

SPACING

71

SMOOTH

CUT

Actual Tooth

Spacing of SingleCut

Files

DEAD

SMOOTH
Actual Tooth

Spacingof

Double

Cut

SMOOTH

Files

FILES

72
The
The

of

cut

file or

Teeth

the number

of the file itself and

length

of teeth per inch vary

with ths
of a file,
and is a little confusing,
be as fine as a second
cut of a

the kind

a
rough cut in a small
largersize. The cuts used

file may

as

Files

of

in the
on
regular1 2-inch filesare shown
illustration and represents the practiceof Henry Disston
" Sons^
also supplythe table of cuts per inch used
makers
their
The same
on
machines,which are as follows:
Regular

Length,inches.
per inch

Teeth
Slim

Taper

Files

2J,3, 3^, 4, 4J, 5, Sh 6, 6i, 7, 8, 9, 10,

64, 56, 52, 50, 48, 46, 44, 42, 42, 40, 38, 36,3464, 64, 60, 58, 56, 52, 50, 50, 46, 46, 44, 40, 38.|

"

"

Tapers"

Mill

Length

6, 7, 8,

4, 5,

"

Teeth
per inch.

File,

9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,

56, 50, 48, 46, 44,

"

Cut

Bastard

42, 40,

38,36, 34,

16, 17, 18,

32, 30,

22
1

Flat

File,

Cut

Bastard

'

30, 26, 24, 22, 20, 20, 18, 18,

filesusuallyhave teeth at about 25 degreesand

48, 42, 38,36, 32,

Singlecut

files the

cut

2oin.

28, 26, 24,

other

machinists filesare

is

cut

made

usually from

in ten

numbers

in double
,
50 degrees. Fine 1
to 8.
I

to

45
from

16, 16, 14.

00

The

the

In
The

names

1.
2.

Metal

Shapes

the

followingpages
are

as

saw

"

Files

of

shapes of standard files are

shown-

follows:
6. Round

blunt.

Three-squareor
angular.

tri-

Slitting.
5. Square.

7.

Pippin.

Knife.

9.

rat-tail.

12.

Warding.

13. Extra

Crossing.

14.

10.

Half-round.

15

11.

Crochet.

16

3. Barrette.
4.

or

narrow-

pillar.
Narrow
pillar.
Pillar.
Hand.

The firsthas but a

cut in two
are
ways, singleand double
the
line
at
of
cuts
across
surface, an anglewith the file body
single
The double-cut file has two lines of cuts,
but parallel
to each other.
Files

at

each other,and

anglewith

an

the second

cut

being usuallyfiner

in the lathe.
singlecut, for filing
Rasps have singleteeth forced up with a punch.
of designating
the cuts were
old method
The
tard,
rough, coarse, basSome
makers
second cut, smooth
and dead smooth.
are
now

than

the

first. Some

preferthe

instead of
series of numbers
a
usuallyeight to ten
The
of the
the six designations
uses
name
formerlyemployed.
by
and
be
the
in
must
learned
from
various cuts depend on
shop question
in each case.
observation and experience
to No. 8, and while
The gradesof cut used by them run from No
00

using

it is hard to
will be found
second
smooth

"

"

that No.

cut, No.
file.

them

exactlycompare
2

or

00

is about

3 with

with
the

smooth,

the

same

and

it
old-style
designations,
as

Nos.

bastard.No.
6 to 8 with

i
a

as

dea.cl

SHAPES

OF

FILES

73

"

0
a

The

Standard

Shapes of

Files

PILES

E
18

14

The

Standard

When

Shapes of

File

Cuts

Files

Best

careful attention,
matter
and has built
G.
Edward
machines,
Herbert, of Manchester, England,
file-testing
has come
it is
to the conlcusion that a file does not
cut best when
but after it has been used for some
littletime,say 2500 strokes
new
of
the
cubic
inch of metal.
curious
Another
or
one
filing
away
feature is that its usefulness seems
to come
to a sudden instead of a
gradualend.
A bastard filehaving 25 teeth to the inch,operating
on
a surface
inch square with a pressure of 30 pounds,which is about equal
one
to heavy hand
gives 25 cuttingedges about one inch long,
filing,
which
likens it somewhat
to a broad
tool in a planer.
cutting
In cutting
is forced up in a sort of a bur, and occaa filethe metal
sionally
the top of the tooth slopesover
backward
which is the reason
that a fileoften cuts better after these are broken or worn
oflF. Then,
when
fileis new
all the teeth are not of the same
a
too,
hightand

who

One

only
contact

has

given the

few

pointscut.

and

do

more

As

work.

they

wear

down

more

teeth

come

into

SMALL

FILES

75

l^SK-

sgr

Needle

Files for Fine

Work

dm

Die

Sinkers Files

or

Riffles

76

The

duties of

WORK

BENCHES

WORK

BENCHES

bench

vary

with

the

shop in

which

it is located
it is simply

that is to be done on it or at it. If

to the work
according
the
main
a filing
requirementis that it support a
bench,

vise

firmly
an
hight.
assemblingbench, these are not the
and justwhat it does need depends on the kind
importantfeatures,
of work being handled.
For the average shop work we
that is rigid;
want
a bench
that will
and

If

at the proper

stand chippingand
surface plateor in

that
filing;

can

be used

in

work
testing

handlingjigsand

that will not

fixtures;
it happen to drop on
it.

on

splinter

tool should
For the
toolmaker the cast-iron bench top has many
advantages,but both
the bench and the tool are very liable to be marred by dropping the
in the days of
tool on it,so that for generaluse we relyon wood
as
old,except that a bench with solid 2- or 3-inchplankingthe whole
width
is now
the
too
expensiveto consider. We no longer want
the side of the shop but set it out
bench braced up against
from

badly nor

FIG.

yet

1.

injurea

Good

for

OrdinaryWork.

FIG.

2.

Another

Method.

the wall to allow the heat to rise and the air to circulate,
as well as
the
fire
chance
to
at
a
the
floor
a
on
the
sprinklers
get
near
giving
walls.
The use of a lighter
board at the back has become so common
that
Britain Machine
for
the New
is
bench
a
Company's design
leg made
for this construction as shown
in Fig.i.
This also shows the backboard
B rabbeted to the plank A, which supports it all along the
front edge,and it is also supportedby the stringer
D, which runs the
of
These
the
in
bench.
whole length
addition to the cross
supports,
bearingof the legsevery 6 or 8 feet,give the backboard a stiffness
where they are simply laid flush and not rabbeted
unknown
that was
and the stringer
is absent.
Benches made without these supports are open to the serious objection
that the backboard
springsdown when a heavyweight,such as
the bench and throws them out of
is put on
surface plate,
a jigor
level.
less of a nuisance in bench
work, but in
be
taken
case
up by wedging against the
any shrinkagecan
the
board
C and
edge of the backboard B,
support of the

All cracks
this
"on

are

more

or

WORK

BENCHES

77

Another style
bench with this same
legis shown in Fig.2. Here
the front plank A and the backboard C are the same
as
before,but
instead of having one
this
of
the
bench
is
made
backboard,
part
up
of narrow
into rabbet in plank A and supported
stripsas B, fitting
D as before.
These
boards can
be either
narrow
by the stringer
be
and
hardwood
or
can
tongued
grooved
flooring,
square edges,as
in either case
be
taken
can
preferred;
shrinkage
any
up by forcing
the boards together.
A cheaper form of bench is shown
in Fig.3, where the heavy
plankingis entirely
dispensedwith and the boards B run the full
width of the bench as shown.
Running alongthe front,underneath
the main
boards is a soft plank A which supp"ortsthe edge of the
bench where the most
and under the back is the 2X6work comes,
inch stringer
be either notched
before. Here, too, the boards can
as
each
its
or
advocates;the objectionraised
edge,
having
square
againstthe tongue and groove beingthat the edges are apt to split
off from
heavy articles droppingon them. An advantageclaimed
for the boards runningthis way is that work going on or off the

3. A Cheaper Way.

FIG.

FIG.

4. A good bat

expensiveConstruction.
bench

is

fewer

always in the direction of the grainof the wood

are
splinters

local

any

Some

one.

new

that account.

on

be remedied

objectto

In either

the
by replacing

the end of the

material used in any

The
for

can

wear

formed

of these

grainat

worn

and

Figs.2
board

that
or

with

3
a

the front of a bench.

vidual
to suit the indi-

be varied

can

requirements. Maple is generallyconsidered the best wood

bench, while others preferash. For the backboards hard pine

is often

used
it

and

even

probablypays

it.
Stillanother

designedto

be

styleof

if necessary, although
cheaperwoods will answer
to use
maple all throughif you can afford
bench

is shown

serviceable and

have

Fig.4 and one

long life without

in
a

which
so

was

much

regard to firstcost as the others. The bench leg was flat on top,
boards
the firstlayerof maple planksA and D and on top, narrower
fastened with longwood
material. These were
screws,
holes being countered and pluggedas shown.
The
theory of this construction is that the boards are sure to be
more
thoroughlyseasoned than the. planks,consequentlythe plank
of the

same

78

SOLDERING

will shrink the most

It certainly
makes

and tend to draw

the top boards closer together.

the firstcost is rather high.
a
Benches are also occasionally
built up from small blocks so as to
One
as butchers' blocks.
present an end grainon the top, the same
when
know
of
surfaces
these
them
we
worn
shop
by putting
on
a
circular saw
for the swinging
Daniels' planer and substituting
a
the top very smooth and leaves a good surface.
knives. This saws
Others glueup strips
surface
on
edge and plane down to a smooth
with
Zinc
all cracks.
to do away
even
or
so as
heavy paper covers
often used where fine work is being assembled to prevent its
are
its way into cracks and crevices.
finding
The usual work bench is from 33 to 35 inches from the floor to the
top,about 29 or 30 inches wide,and has the front plank 3 inches with
backboards i inch thick. A cast-iron legof this type weighs about
solid

bench, but

pounds.

50

SOLDERING
thinks he can
solder,
yet if we examine the
work
will find that only about 10 per cent of the work
we
carefully
is reallydone as it should be.
is frequently
Thorough soldering
referred to as sweating,
and it is remarkable the difference in strength
well-fitted and
"sweated"
between
a
junctionof the metals and
soldered.
as
one
ordinarily
A point frequently
overlooked is the importantone
of properly
cleaningthe surfaces to be joined. This is too often left for the
flux to correct.
Another
pointis the selection of the flux
neglected
Almost

to be

one

every

used, althoughnearlyall of

of the sairie flux.

The

the metals

after effects

after

be

joinedby the use

from improper cleaning
resulting
than the good effects of the
can

solderingare frequentlyworse
noticeable in electrical work.
soldering.This is particularly
fit
the
For strength,
the parts accurately.The
more
accurate
the stronger the result. Use a solder with as high a melting
fitting
point as possible.Apply the proper heat as it should be. The
the temperature of work
to be joinedis brought to the fusing
nearer
pointof the solder the better will be the union,since the solder will
flow

more

readily.
for Different Metals

Fluxes

of fluxes or soldering
salts
giving good satisfaction. A form that is non-corrosive
and
stick in
very popular with electrical workers is the soldering
into
stick
form
about
eter
molded
which the ingredients
are
i inch diamand 6 inches long.

There
that are

The
and

are

on

market

the

action and
the formation

of

use

of

an

number

flux in

to remove

and

vent
pre-

operationof

oxide during the

to flow readilyand

allow the solder

the surfaces to be joined.
For sheet tin^ on
the best work
to

are
soldering

to

soldering,
unite more
firmly

with

owing

to

the

ease

of

applyingand

rosin

or

colophony is used; but

working,zinc chloride

of
rapidity

SOLDERING

79

Beeswax
used.
also be used, as also
can
generally
fats
of
the
or
liquidsprepared for the purpose.
pastes,
any
and
rosin
in equal parts works
flux
of
oil
For leadya
very well.
is also a good flux. Rosin or colophony is much
Tallow
used,and
zinc chloride will keep the surfaces in good condition.

or

acid is

more

almost

Lead

burning

is

differentoperationfrom

present time almost a lost art.

free from oxide;solder is not used
rosin

or

as

and at the
soldering,
be brightand
must
flux,but a pieceof lead and

surfaces
a

oil.

brass,zinc chloride

For

The

almost
be taken

or

any

of the

solderingpreparations

to remove
Care must
any scale or oxide
On new
metal this is not much
if a good jointis wanted.
trouble,
difficult. This
but on old or repairwork it is sometimes
exceedingly
noticeable on metal patterns that have been in use
is particularly
it.
for some
time. The scraper must be broughtinto use to remove
such
is
with
acid
considerable
success
an
as
monly
comdip
Many use
for removing the oxide.
used by electro platers,
Oily or
be cleaned by the use of potash or lye,but care
can
greasy work
exercised
that the brass is not left too long in the solution,
be
must
if it contains any
jointspreviouslysoldered,since the
especially
or
action
set up will dissolve the solder entirely
roughen up the
to
extent
such
as
an
requirerefinishing.
jointto
On
fluxes as for brass are used.
old work
For copper, the same
it is almost
always necessary to scraf"e the parts to be joinedto get
difficultpieceof work to solder
the solder to hold. A particularly
and
The
tub.
is an old bath
vious
grease
soap form a layerthat is imperand it must be carefully
removed entirely
to any of the fluxes,
if good work is wanted.
For
zinc, use muriatic acid almost full strengthor chloride of
zinc solution. Zinc is the metal that has a "critical temperature"
than any other metal except the softer alloys. If the iron is
more
and a hole burned in the metal;
overheated, the zinc is melted
if this does not occur, the surface of the metal is roughened
even
and there is formed on the soldering
alloythat will not
copper an
At the correct heat the solder
flow but simply makes
a pasty mass.
will flow readilyand unite firmlywith the metal.
Especiallyif
is to be painted,
should be taken to neutralize and
the work
care
off any excess
of acid or soldering
wash
solution,as it is impossible
this
unless
is done.
to cause
paintto adhere properly
For
galvanizediron, use muriatic acid, chloride of zinc solution
or
rosin,and be sure to see that the acid is neutralized if the work

is used.

is to be
and are

painted. Many

cornices

and

fronts

are

made

of this metal

unsightlyin a short time after being painted,

particularly
the
of
in
flux.
lack
to
excess
care
joints,
owing
removing
in
the
that
taken
into
consideration
is
not
action
joining
usually
very

at the

An
of

iron
galvanized

or

zinc with

copper,

as

is sometimes

done, is

the

is present.
electrical action set up by the metals if any moisture
This is very noticeable in cities where
the acid from the atmosphere
assists in the action. It will nearlyalways be found that the zine
or

galvanizediron has been greatlyinjuredat the placesjoined.

wrought iron or steel,zinc chloride is best. The iron or steel,
make
good work, should be previouslyfreed from scale or oxide

For
to

8o

SOLDERING

and

tinned

the iron
with

can

before

the oxide is not

joining. Where
with
muriatic acid
by brushing

be cleaned

very
and

heavy,
rubbing

pieceof zinc.

The
The

above

Fluxes

Themselves

paragraphs give the fluxes adapted to the

metals; the fluxes

themselves

various

follows:
muriatic
acid.
The
or
Hydrochloric
acid
ordinary commercial
is much
used in full strengthor slightly
diluted to solder zinc,particularly
where
the zinc is old or covered with an oxide.
Rosin

are

as

colophony powdered,is commonly used for copper, tin

by canneries and packing houses on
very generally
of its non-poisonousqualities.It is also used mixed
account
with
olive oil. Turpentinecan
also be used as a flux. Beeswax
common
is a good but expensiveflux. Tallow
is also used for lead pipe,
but is more
frequentlymixed with rosin.
Palm
oil will work
or
cocoa
well, but is more
generallyused in
of tin plate. The
the manufacture
common
green olive oil works
and

or

lead,and

fusible solders.
very well with the more
I have used a pieceof common
As expedients
stearine candle or
brown
rosin
of
common
or
a
piece
cheap furniture varnish,
soap
which

is

largelycomposed

recommended

are

for

use

of rosin.

Paraffin,vaseline

with

of the

some

and

stearine

aluminum.
alloysfor soldering

Chloride

is the most
of zinc,acid,or soldering
liquid,
commonly
used of all the fluxes;as usuallyprepared,simply dissolve as much
muriatic acid as it will take
scrap zinc in the ordinarycommercial
with
But
if
it
is
diluted
an
equalquantityof water and a small
up.
is added it works
much better and is less
quantityof sal ammoniac
If
the
articles
of iron or steel,
soldered.
t
o
rust
are
about
likely
they
of
is
the
solution
about
to
the
of
2 ounces
pint
proper quantity
dered
powIn

sal ammoniac
to add.
this
a
solution,
preparing
to the

corrosive

Never

pour the

glassor porcelainvessel should

it should

be

fumes,
used;owing
tilated
venplace. Use a vessel of ample
siderable
confoaming or boilingof the mixture.
Solderingliquid,non-corrosive,is also, prepared by dissolving
the zinc in the acicias above and adding one
fourth of the quantity
of aqua ammonia
to neutralize the acid,then diluting
with an equal
of
water.
quantity
Solderingliquid,neither corrosive nor
poisonous. Dissolve i\
12
parts glycerin,
parts water, and add i J parts lacticacid.
a solution of chloride is mix!ed with starch
Solderingpaste. When
formed
flux for soldering.
is
which makes
a
paste, a syrupy liquid
Soldering
fat or paste. Melt i pound of tallow and add I pound
of common
olive oil. Stir in 8 ounces
of powdered rosin;let this
boil up and when
with
add
constant
cool,
partially
stirring,
\ pint
of water
that has been
saturated
with powdered sal ammoniac.
Stir constantly
until cool.
rosin to make it harder,
By adding more
this can
be formed
into sticks. A very good acid mixture for cleaning
work
is equal parts of nitric and sulphuricacid
to be soldered
and

water.

be done

in a wellcapacity,since there is

water

into the acid.

SOLDERING

CAST

Cleaningand

IRON

8l

Holding Work

acid is best. Articles of lead

copper work a dilute sulphuric
and zinc can
be cleaned with a potashsolution,but care
be
must
For zinc, a dilute
exercised as the alkalies attack these metals.
solution of sulphuric
muriatic acid will clean the surface.
or
For
cleaningor removing the oxide or other foreignmaterial,
used. An old filebent at the ends
scrapers and files are frequently
and
m
akes
with the comers
a
flaring
handy tool. Grind the edge
sharp and make as hard as possible.
To
enable difficultpointsto be "filled,"
sometimes a small piece
form
into
of moist
to
the
desired shape can
be
clay pressed
shape
the
solder. Another use
used to advantage as a guide for
of the
for soldering.
clay is to embed the parts in,to hold them in position
Plaster of parisis also used for this purpose,
but is sometimes
diffiicult to remove,
in hollow pieces.A dilute solution
especially
of muriatic acid will help to get this out, however.
are
always harder to solder than
Castings containingaluminum
For

alloys. In some
is high, it is necessary
a satisfactory
jointcan
other

instances

the percentage of aluminum

the parts to be joinedbefore
to copperplate
In nearlyevery instance the work
be made.

but
together,

where

actuallysoldered.
In metal-pattern
making too littleattention is given to both the
of the parts and the selection of the solder to jointthe work.
fitting
be bome in mind
A good gradeshould always be used,and it must
of
solder
the
the
the
the
that
meltingpoint
higher
stronger the joint.
be done on work that will permit
A very good job of soldering
can
the parts,layinga pieceof tin foil,
of it by carefully
covered
fitting
both
the
be
sides
b
etween
with
to
a flux,
on
parts
joinedand pressing
them
together. Heat until the foil is melted. This is very
tightly
good in joiningbroken parts of brass and bronze work. If they
fit well together,
they can frequentlybe joinedin this manner
so
can

be "stuck"

that the

jointis very strong

not

and

almost

SolderingCast
For

imperceptible.
Iron

iron,the flux is usuallyregardedas

A number
a secret.
of the oldest and least satisfactory
in use; one
is to
with
the
brush
surfaces thoroughly
brass scratch brush.
a
Brush
until the surface is coated with brass,then tin this surface and solder
facilitiesare to be had, copperplatethe parts
usual. If plating
as
and solder together. This method has been used very successfully
of years.
for a number
A fair substitute for the above is to clean the surfaces thoroughly
them with a solution of sulphateof copper: about
and copperplate
cast

of methods

sulphateof

ounce

Brush

are

this solution

well before

acid.
J pint water, J ounce
sulphuric
off
into
the
and
rinse
solution,
dip
dry it

copper,

on

or

soldering.

method is to tin the cast iron. To do this,first remove

to
all scale until the surface is clean and bright. The
easiest way
do this is with the emery
in
wheel.
to
remove
a
lye
Dip
any grease,
and rinse the lyeoff;then dip into muriatic acid of the usual strength
Another

SOLDERING

82

Then

be

may

tinned.

of

method

Another

surplus;
works

if

repeat
well

as

using

by

the

Precipitate

wood

of

to

until
when

To

cool.

to

It
is

the
lead

needed

be

the

ward.
after-

by

of

acid

when

iron

an

well

and

adheres

surfaces

wedge-

sulphuric

acid

in

well

putting

or

mercury

and

used

but

of

excess

it

poxmd

dered
sol-

etc.

porcelain

of

parts

remove

action

sulphate

parts

the

then

can

the

30

be

never

rosin.

in

to

70

and

it

of

20

add

Then

flux

No

until

half

Porcelain,

powder

from

water

plastic.

zinc

remove

and

corrosive

of

Glass,

copper

with

it, heat

use

it becomes
cold.

it

the

to

solution

the

with

well

wash

from

mix

as

of
heat

and
tin

should

solution

Metals,

for

Baumd.

degrees

1.85

mixed,
it

and

owing

alcoholic

an

Place

Half

connections

solution,

is

copper

zinc.

mortar

of

flux

Soldering

Cold

strips

electrical

acid

an

good

in

and

wires

surface

this.

for

sold"r

Commidator

the

chloride

tin

tinned.

piece

it; then

on

melted

into

Dip

piece

tinning.

with

over

It

the

with

clean

to

solder.

get

iron

the

ammoniac

thoroughly

not

is

to

the

facilitate
iron

half

times

of

brush

sal

powdered
smokes.

ammoniac

sal

the

will

then

and

several

cast

and

operation

half

surface

it

on

soldering

sprinkle

and

solution

the

still

is

of

previous

the

in

acid

and

acid

the

Rubbing

the

while

zinc

rosin

into

dip

to

necessary

thoroughly

with

surface

the

over

go

allow
mortal

firmly

very
be

must

clean.

This

glass
A

used

is

add.

to

"lay

to

water

of
will

useful

Take

seen.

heat

be

cannot

used,

or

join

to

metal

to

parts

porcelain.

or

solution

soldering
also

where

to

work

the

out"

gallons.

or

of

sulphate
Dissolve

work

the
3

dies

J
the

and
so

ounces,

copper

tools

that

the

sulphuric
in

the

iron

cast

or

work

the

immersing

surface

scribe

steel

copperplating

simply

by

copper

copper
2

for

copper

in

it.

This

enable

to

lines

the

be

can

acid
water

before

3
and

is
chanic
me-

readily
ounces,

add

the

GEARING
GEAR.

TEETH

SHAPES

"

OF

or
Cycloidal
Epicycloidal. A curved tooth generatedby the point
from
of a circle rolling
the gear wheel or rack.
away
Involute.
A
curved
tooth
generated by unwinding a tape or
stringfrom a cylinder. The rack tooth has straightsides.
Involute Standard.
standard
The
gear tooth has a 14^ degree
that the teeth of a standard
rack have
angle which means
pressure
the
sides
vertical.
from
straight
14^ degrees
"

"

"

Involute

Stubbed.

"

usuallywith

20-degreepressure

angle.

TEETH

AKD

GEARS

"

Fig.

Addendum.

I.

Length

"

Pitch.

Chordal

shorter

tooth

"

"

"

from

Part of Gear

pitchline

than

the

standard

and

PARTS

Teeth

to outside.

Distance

froni

center

Distance

from

center

to

of

center

teeth

in

line.
straight
Pitch.

Circular

the

on

Clearance.

Dedendum.
Diametral
or

depth of space between

Length from pitchline to base

Extra

"

"

Pitch.

Flank.

"

Number

"

of teeth

center

ured
meas-

of teeth

divided

inch of diameter.
surface of tooth outside of
surface of tooth below

Working

Outside Diameter,
Pitch Diameter.
"

Total

"

Diameter

diameter

the

eter
pitch diam-

over

pitchline.

pitch line.
teeth.

pitchline.
which
two
cylinders

"

"

by

at the

Pitch Line.
of
Line of contact
the same
speed ratios as the gears.
Linear Pitch.
used in rack
Sometimes

circularpitch of

teeth.
of tooth.

each

to

Working

"

to

pitch circle.

the teeth

Face.

"

gear.

83

measurement.

would
Same

have
as

84

PITCH

CIRCULAR

To

Having

The

Pitch

Circular

The

Diametral
The
Pitch

The

Circular
Pitch

and
Diameter
Number
the

of Teeth

The

Circular
Pitch

Number
The
of Teeth and
Outside
the
.

The
continued product of
the Number
of Teeth, the D'^NF'.
Circular Pitch and .3183

Pitch Diameter

Divide the product of Niunber of Teeth and Outside

Diameter
of
by Number
Teeth plus a

Pitch Diameter

Pitch Diameter

...J

Number"
The
of Teeth and
the
Circular
Pitch

Outade

Diameter

ameter
Diand

the
Circular
Pitch

The

N+3

Outside

product of ly^D-

Diameter
the
the
Circular

Pitch

and

of

Number

Multiply the

ly^Ns

by the Addendum

Teeth

The
continued product of
of Teeth plus
the Number
a, the Circular Pitch and

Add

Outside

Diameter

to

the

the Pitch Diameter

the Circular

product of
Pitch and

p* .3183

.6366

(i".6366)

Number

of Teeth
and
dum
Addenthe

The

3iBi

"3183

......

Pitch

.6366

and]

Number
the
of Teeth

the

from

Subtract

Outside
Diameter and
Circular
the
Pitch

The

Divide Outside Diameter by

the product of .3183 and i"'-.3183iV+
of Teeth plus 2
Number

Pitch Diameter

The

Addendum

Divide Pitch Diameter

by
the productof .3183 and i"'=
.31"3N
of Teeth
Number

Number
The
of Teeth and
Circular
the
Pitch

Diameter

ametral
Di3-1416
i*'-

3.1416 by the

Outside

The

Formuk

Pitch

ameter
Di-

Number

of Teeth

Divide

Pitch

and
the

Rule

Get

Pitch

the

Outside

ameter
Diand

Circular

Diameter

Multiply
Number

Addendum
by i?-*(iV+2)
of Teeth plus a

Divide the product of Pitch

Number

of Teeth

and
3.1416 by N
the Circular Pitch'

1X3.1416

Diameter

Pitch
The

Thickness

Circular

of

Tooth

Pitch

One

half the Circular Pitch

Multiply the Circular Pitch

The
Circular
Pitch

Addendum

The
Circular
Pitch

Root

The

Circular 1
!

Pitch
The

Circular

Whole

Pitch
The

Circular

Pitch
Thidcness
Tooth

of

Working

by .3183 or

J=i"'.3i83
*

"

Multiply the Circular Pitch

by .3683

Depth
Depth

Clearance
Clearance

Multiply the

Circular

Multiply the Circular Pitch

by .6866

One

tenth

Tooth

Pitch

the Thickness

at Pitch

Line

+/=-?'. 3683

Pitch !?"=
7^.6366

by .6366

Mutiiply the Circular

by .OS

of
,

DIAMETRAL

To

Having
Circular
The
Pitch
ameter
DiPitch
The

The

and
Number
the
of Teeth
The
Outside
and
Diameter
Number
the
of Teeth
of
Number
The
and
Teeth
the Diametral
Pitch
of
Number
The
Teeth and the
ameter
DiOutside

The

85

PITCH

Formula

Rule

Get

the

cular
Cir-

Diametral
Pitch

Divide

Diametral

of Teeth
Divide Number
Pitch Diameter

Pitch

by

3.14 16

Pitch

by

N
P

The

Diametral
Pitch

I^us

Teeth

of

Number

Divide

by Outside

Di

N+2
P

ameter

....

Outside
The
and
Diameter
tral
Diamethe
.

of Teeth
Divide Number
the Diametral Pitch

by

the Product of Out

and Num
side Diameter
ber of Teeth by Number

Divide

Pitch Diameter

Pitch Diameter

Pitch
and
Addendum
the Number
of Teeth
of
Number
The
Teeth and the
Diametral
Pitch
ThePitchDiamand the
eter
Diametral
.

Pitch Diameter

of Teeth plus 2
from
the Outside
Subtract
the quotient of
Diameter
2 divided by the Diametral
Pitch

Pitch Diameter

by

Multiply Addendum

the

of Teeth

Number

ly^sN

...j

Pitch
The
Pitch

Diameter

Outside

Diameter

Add to the Pitch Diameter

the Quotient of 2 divided
Pitch
by the Diametral

N+7
D

Outside

Diameter

...

of
The Number
and
Outside Diameter
Teeth
Addendum
ameter
Pitch DiThe
of
Number
and
Teeth
the Diametral
Pitch
,

The
Outside]
Diameter
and
the Diametral

of

Number
.

Teeth

Number
the Pitch Diameter
Multiply the Number

Teeth
dum

plus

of

Diameter

by

D=(N+2)s

N^irp

Pitch

the Diametral

Multiply Outside Diameter

by the Diametral Pitch
subtract

jy

by Adden

MultiplyPitch

and

N+2

by the quotient of D
of Teeth and by

plus

Numba:
the
of Teeth

D^ry+i

of Teeth

Divide the Number

ameter
Di-

Diametral

plus 2 by the
Pitch

and

Teeth

of

Number

Divide
Outside

N^DP^2

Pitch
Thickness

The
Diametral
Pitch

of

Tooth

Divide
Divide

The
Diametral
Pitch

The

1
:

Diametral

Pitch

i
:

The

Diametral

'

The Diametral
Pitch

Thickness
Tooth

Pitch
by the
ly

Pitch

or

708

Di

Diametral
1

s=~

The Diametral
Pitch
Pitch

Addendum

the

1.5708 by

ametral

Root

Divide

Working Depth
Whole

Depth

Clearance

of j

Clearance

by the Diam
p

by the Diametral

Pitch

Divide 2.157
by
metral Pitch
Divide

1
1
1

Divide
1.157
etral Pitch

.1

57

the

Dia

by the Diametral

Pitch
Divide
at

ir+f=-

Thickness

pitchline by

of Tooth
10

L.IS7
P

GEARING

86

Table

of

No.

circular
No.

table shows
table

over

many

Circular

Pitches

the diametral

pitches with

the

corresponding

circular

pitches with

the

corresponding

the

shows

pitches.

of gears in circular or linear pitch and

the size of any
pitch,as 12, as being a little
get to know
the diametral
But
inch from
to center.
center
system has

It is most
soon

and

pitches.
2

diametral

we

Diametral

Corresponding

natui'al

to

think

i
advantages in figuring
gear blanks,center

distances,etc.

DETERMINING
OF
SPUR
RADIUS

FOR

CONSTANTS

N
C

^,

CHORDAL

FOR

CONSTANTS

PITCH

CHORDAL
GEARS

87
PITCH

AND

Chordal Pitch of Teeth.

Radius of Pitch Circle.
of Teeth.
Number
Constant.
(See table below.)
Radius of pitch circle
J

Chordal

Radius

.,

pitch

of

Constant

Constant

pitchcircle
for any

number

for number

Constant
of teeth

r.

of teeth

chordal pitch.
Radius of pitch circle

Chordal pitchof teeth*

circleof
What
a gear having
i
pitch
45 teeth,
if inch pitch? Follow 40 in table to column
5 (making 45 teeth),
and find 7.163. Multiplyby pitch,if inch,and get 12.53 inches
radius or 25.06pitchdiameter.
is the chordal pitchof a gear 32 inches pitchdiameter,
What
2.
60 in table to column
Follow
teeth?
7 and find 10.665. Divide
67
16 -j- 10.665
16
of
constant.
radius (i
inches)by
1.5 inch
32
Examples:

is radius of

pitch.
nilmber of teeth has a gear of 1.5 inch chordal pitchand
3. What
diameter
Divide by 2 to get radius. Divide this
pitch
32 inches?
16 h- 1.5
10.665.Look
by chordal pitchwhich will giveconstant.
=

in table for this constant

which
Table

will be found

of

Constants

to

represent 67 teeth.

88

GEARING

Gear
of

table

tooth

parts

"

Wheels

diametral

pitch

in

first

column

obtain the size of any part of a diametral pitchnot given in the

table,divide the corresponding
part of i diametral pitchby the pitch
To

required.
As

it is natural

to

think of gear

pitchesas

the distance between

threads,it is well to fix in the mind the approximate

distances of the pitchesmost
in use.
Or it is easy to
center
that if the diametral pitchbe divided by 3^ we
remember
have the
teeth per inch on the pitchUne.
this
method
that
we
see
easily
By
in a 10 diametral
there
teeth
inch
are
pitchgear
approximately3
per
while in a 22 diametral pitchthere will be just7 teeth to the inch.
teeth the

same

as

PARTS

Table
DIAMETRAL

of

OF

Tooth
PITCH

TEETH

Parts
IN

89
"

FIRST

Continued
COLUMN

obtain the size of any part of a diametral pitchnot given in the

table,divide the corresponding
part of i diametral pitchby the pitch
To

required.
As it is natural to think of gear pitchesas the distance between
teeth the same
as
threads,it is well to fix in the mind the approximate
distances of the pitchesmost
in use.
Or it is easy to
center
that if the diametral pitchbe divided by 3^ we have the
remember
that
teeth per inch on the pitchline. By this method we easily
see
in a 10 diametral pitchgear there are approximately
inch
teeth
3
per
while in a 22 diametral pitchthere will be just7 teeth to the inch.

GEARING

90

Wheels

Gear
table

To

op

tooth

parts

circular

pitch

in

first

column

circular pitchnot givenin the

quired.
recorresponding
part of i^ pitchby the pitch

obtain the size of any

table,multiplythe

"

part of

the

example take a gear having 21 diametral pitchto find

tooth parts. Take
^^
i diametral
pitch and divide 3.141^
^^^
to find the correspondingcircular pitch,which
21
is .14951
=
tooth thickness is 1.5708 -^ 21
21
.748; the addendum
is i.-r
'^^'761;the working depth is 2,-j- 21.
belo^'
.09522; the
As

an

various

"

depth

Table

of
pitch

circular

TEETH

OF

PARTS

Tooth
in

91

Parts
first

column

To

obtain the size of any part of a circular pitchnot givenin the

table,
multiplythe corresponding
part of 1" pitchby the pitchre-

quirwi.
pitchline in 1.1571
21

"

same

421
.0551 and the whole depth is 2.1571 -^
also have been obtained by splitThese
could
inches.
ting
.1027
the difference between
the figuresfor 20 and 22 pitch. T*be done for circular pitchexcept that we multiplyinst
can

of divide.

"

GEARING

92

DIAGRAM
The

FOR

CAST-GEAR

TEETH

accompanying diagram (Fig.2) for layingout teeth for cast

useful by the machinist,patternmakerand draftsman.

gears will be found

The diagram for circular pitchgears is similar to the one

given by Professor Willis,while the one for diametral pitch was
obtained by usingthe relation of diametral to circular pitch.

QrE^ular Titch

0"

DUmfllr^l

1"

8"

2"

Pitdi

4"

Scale

Figs.

and

3.

mined.
diagram the relative size of a tooth may be easilydeterif
diametral
of
we
a
2
contemplateusing
example,
gear
to line H
K, which shows the comparativedistance
pitch,by referring
between centers of teeth,on the pitchline,it will be observed that

By

the

For

OUT

LAYING

SPUR

GEAR

BLANKS

93

pitchis but littlegreater than 1} inches circular pitch,

exactly 1.57 inches circular pitch. This result is obtained by
dividing3.1416 by the diametral pitch(3.1416divided by 2 equals
if the circular pitchis known, the diametral
1.57). In similar manner,
pitchwhich correspondsto it is found by dividing
3.1416 by the
circular pitch;for example, the diametral pitch which
corresponds
to 3 inches
circular pitchis by the line H K a. littlegreater than i
diametral pitch,or exactly1.047 (3-i4i6divided by 3 equals1.047).
2

diametral

or

of a tooth may
be determined for either diametral
proportions
circular pitchby using the corresponding
diagram.

The
or

the 2 diametral pitch. We

have found,
Continue, for illustration,
the
of
teeth
the
between
distance
centers
on
above,
pitchline to be
than li inches (1.57inches). The
littlemore
hightof tooth above
will
found
the
line
B'
C
horizontal
line corresponding
be
on
pitch
A'
to 2 pitch. The
distance between
lines
B'
and A' C on this
th^
line may
be taken in the dividers and transferred to the scale below.
find the hight of the tooth to be Jl inch.
Thus
In the same
we
width
of
the
thickness
tooth
5'
5'
of
manner
""',
"',working
space
depth B^ F' and whole depthof tooth B' G* may be determined.
The
backlash or space between the idle surfaces of the teeth of
is givenby the distance D' E'.
The
two
gear wheels when in mesh
clearance
distance between the pointof one tooth and the bottom
or
it meshes
is given by the distance F' G'.
into which
The
of space
for
backlash and clearance will vary according
to the class of work
of the molded prothe gears are to be used and the accuracy
which
duct.
in enclosed cases,
For machine molded gears which are to run
where
the backlash
or
they may be kept well oiled and free from dirt,
while for
and clearance may
be reduced to a very small amount,
dirt
is
where
to
into
the
where
or
teeth,
likely
get
gears running
and
like
due
to
shrinkage,
causes, enter
irregularities molding,uneven
be a greater allowance.
The
into the construction,there must
have
Those
who
able
favorfor
the
latter
is
laid
out
more
case.
diagram
conditions for which to designgears should vary the diagram
hJedone by increasing
B D and
This can
to suit their conditions.
B G, or both,
5 C or decreasing
decreasingB E, and by increasing
the required
conditions. The
to get the clearance that will best meet
kind of diagram could be laid out for cut gears, but as tables
same
of the parts of such
are
usuallyat hand which givethe dimensions
it
thousandths
of*
would
be as well to consult
t
o
an
inch,
gears, figured
of these.
one
a

LAYING
Decide

upon

and

the

OUT

GEAR

SPUR

size wanted,

remembering that i2-pitchteeth

drawing
} deep,etc. Should

in the

8-pitch as
^^ deep
in the cut, draw
it be 8 pitch,as shown
in
there
of
inch
diameter
as
an
eighths
are

"

BLANKS

"

are

circle measuring as many

to be teeth in the gear.

Then
with a radius J of an inch
circle is called the Pitch Line.
will give
draw
another
circle from the same
center, which
larger,
the outside diameter of the gear, or | largerthan the pitch circle.
Thus
have for the diameter of an
8-pitchgear of 24 teeth,^
we
Should there be 16 teeth,as in the small spur gear in the cut, th

This

GEARING

94
diameter

outside

V"
eighths

would

there

less than

two

be

are

the

of teeth

number
U

when

"

is S

being always
in the outside

pitch

"

diameter.
The
same

as

to

pitch line to the bottom

top, excepting the clearance,which

the

the

^xsof ^^e

pitchto

the

from

distance

latter is used

by

Brown

being provided for

"

5-pitchgear

teeth
cut

the

varies

pitch

is the

from

\ of

line.

This

others, but the clearance

many

the two

at

teeth

gears

would

be laid

out

to

These
a

tooth

Sharpe and

in the cutters

togetherjust f
rules apply

mesh

of the

thickness

of the

with

it would

be

pitch,it

should

to

24

^^.

Fig.

always

pitch is when

pitches,so
would

Again,

if

contain

4.

Actual
It is not

all
teeth

easy
measured

"

23

La3dng
Size
to

of

judge

be

that

y;

blank

be

the

outside

diameter

of

if

a
3-pitch gear with 40
4i (V) in diameter, and

teeth.

out

Pair

Diametral
or

of Gears

Pitches

imagine just how

the diametral

large a given

make
it easy
by
system.
ametral
just what any pitch looks like the actual sizes of twelve dithe
from
20
pitches are given on
following page, ranging
the pitch line,so that a good idea
to 4 teeth per inch of diameter
on
be had at a glance.
of the size of any of thes^ teeth can
to

see

To

ACTUAL

of

gear

A/Vl,

/W\^
20

Sizes

teeth

^A/V^

18 P.

P.

/\pj\
14 P,

95

16 P.

yvv\jPd\/\
12

10 ".

P*

[^
9 P.

8 P.

7.P.,

5 P.

6P*

4 P.

GEARING

96
OUT

LAYING

SINGLE

CURVE

TOOTH

simple method of layingout a standard tooth is showr

and
is known
the single
method.
as
curve
Fig.5,
Having calcu
of the tooth by rules alreadygiven,
lated the various proportions
draw the pitch,
outside,
working depthand clearance or whole depth
With a radius one half the pitchradius draw the
circlesas shown.
semicircle from the center to the pitchcircle. Take
one
quarter
A

VERY

in

and with one

leg at top of pitchcircle strike arc
This
the center for the firsttooth cune
the
is
semicircle.
cutting
for
all
the tooth arcs.
the
base
circle
and locates
Lay ofiFthe tooth
thickness and space distances around the pitchcircle and draw the
tooth curves
throughthese pointswith the tooth curve radius already
The fillets
in the tooth corners
found.
seventh
may be taken as one
of the space between the tops of the teeth.
the

pitchradius

One

B or

quarter of PltohH

Outifai*I

Fig. 5.

"

Curve
Single

PRESSURE

Tooth

ANGLES

iH
which means
pressure anglesof gear teeth,
I
best
other
the
and
tooth
can
"presses against
angleat which one
shown
by the pinionand rack,Figs.6 and 7.
The
standard tooth has a 14^ degreepressure angle,probabl
he cou
to lay it out
as
because it was
so
easy for the millwright
sho^
obtain the anglewithout a protractor by usingthe method
We

next

come

to

for laying
out a thread tool (seeFig.14). As the sides of an invoh
and at the pressure anglefrom the perpt
rack tooth are straight,
Hi
from the pitch
of
d
raw
the
line
dicular,
pressure at 14^ degrees
be found by drawing a 1
The
base circle of the tooth arcs
can
from the center of the gear to the line of pressure and at right
anj
and workingfrom this the t(
to it as shown , or by the firstmethod
,

STUB-TOOTH

GEARS

97

be drawn

by either the single-curvemethod or, as is more

from
two
or
more
usual,by stoppingthe curve
points on this same
can

curve

circle.
The
can

be

difference

J- and
by comparing Figs. 6 and

seen

shorter,but
is found
This

form

the

14

is broader.

base

the

in the

between

same

The

way
is largely
used

base

"

Standard

STUB-TOOTH
tooth

only

angles

is the

circle for the tooth

in automobile

William
similar work.
Sellers "
Co.
with
tooth
of
standard
a
angle
length.

Fig. 6.

Not

7.

tooth
arcs

before.

as

of tooth

20-degreepressure

use

20

transmission

degree

and

pressure

Tooth

GEARS

shorter

than the regular standard

length is called a
like the bastard thread there have been many
In
kinds.
1899 the Fellows Gear
Shaper Company introduced a
Bhort tooth with a 20-degree
angle instead of the usual 14Jpressure
T
his
broader
flank
to the tooth and
makes
jdegree.
givesa
a stronger

\ Any
"stub"

tooth, but

for small pinions where

tear, especially

While
strengthis needed.
tooth is shorter than the standard tooth there is no fixed
delation between
of the tootlf depth graduations
them, as, on account
the gear shaper, it was
best
to give the new
tooth depth
thought
scale
the
which
in the following
In
is shown
same
table. This means
if the pitch b 4 it has the depth of a 5-pitch standard
*at
tooth

the Fellows

ilividedas
j|edendum.

shown.

The

clearance

is one-quarter

the

addendum

or

GEARING

98
Table

Tooth

of

Dimensions

Fig. 7.

The
fixed

Nuttall

length or

of

"

the

Stubbed

Fellows

Stub-Tooth

Gear

Tooth

Company also use a 20-degreestub tooth,but have

depth in the followingproportions.

Addendum

Dedendum

Working depth

Clearance

Whole

="

depth

circular

.50 X
.05 X

circular
circular

pitch instead of .3683.

pitch instead of .3683.
pitch instead of .6366.
standard.
as
pitch same

.55 X

circular

pitchinstead

.25 X
.30

circular

of .6866.

SIZES

Table

OF

Turning

for

FOR

standard

GEAR

and

BLANKS

Cutting
length

Gear
TOOTH

99
Blanks

GEARING

lOO

Table

Turning

for

FOR

standard

and

Cutting
length

Gear
TOOTH

Blanks

TOOTH

GEAR
"

Brown
in sets of

Sharpe and

eightcutters

wheels

No.

No.

3 will cut
4 will cut

wheels

from
wheels from
from

wheels from
will
wheels
from
cut
5
6 will cut wheels from
7 will cut wheels from
8 will cut wheels from

No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
Table

Showing
Spur

BLOCK
Block

Depth

Wheels,

INDEXING

lOi

CUTTERS

of standard cutters are made

and
to be used as follows;
are
pitch
rack.
135 teeth to a
55 teeth to 134 teeth.
35 teeth to 54 teeth.

other makes

for each

will cut
will cut

No.

CUTTING

AND

CUTTERS

GEAR

of

26 teeth to 34 teeth.

teeth to 25 teeth.
teeth
to 20 teeth.
17
14 teeth to 16 teeth.
12 teeth to 13 teeth.
21

Space

when

cut

IN

Thickness

and
with

these

of

GEAR

CUTTING

Tooth

in

Cutters.

TEETH

intermittent

indexingis a method to increase the output

by allowingthe feed and cuttingspeed to be increased
This is done by jumping from
unduly heating the work.
or

of gear cutters

without
the tooth

just cut to a tooth far enough away to escape the local

the following
rounds
and
on
to cut the intermediate teeth.
heating
While the indexingtakes a trifle more
time, the heat is distributed
be done without heatingand dulling
the
so that faster cuttingcan
cutter.

The

followingtable gives the indexingof

teeth and

is worked
out for the Brown
be modified to suit other machines.

"

gears

from

Sharpe gear

25

cutter

to

200

but

car

GEARING

94
diameter

outside

less than

two

would

there

be

V"

eighths

are

"

the

of teeth

number

when

is S

being always
in the

pitch

"

outside

diameter.
distance

The
same

the

the

from

pitch line

the

to

of the

bottom

as
top, exceptingthe clearance, which
pitchto ^j^of the thickness of the tooth at the

to

the

Brown

and

"

teeth

varies

from

pitch line.

others, but

is the

| of
This

the clearance
be laid out to

Sharpe
by
many
being provided for in the cutters the two gears would
mesh
togetherjust f
of
rules apply to all pitches,so that the outside diameter
These
if
with
teeth
would
be
with
a
^;
-pitch
a
24
40
5-pitchgear
3
gear
be ^/. Again, if a blank be 4^ (V) in diameter, and
teeth it would
latter is used

cut

pitch,it should

Fig.

contain

4.

Actual
It is

La)dng
Size

of

teeth.

out

Pair

Diametral

of Gears

Pitches

judge or imagine just how large a givq

To
make
it ea
by the diametral system.
what
looks
the
like
to see
dfl
actual
sizes of twelve
just
any pitch
ametral
pitches are given on the following page, ranging from 2a
of diameter
the pitch line,so that a good idea ^T
to 4 teeth per inch
on
not

pitchis when

always

"

23

easy

to

measured

of the size of any

of thescf teeth

can

be

had

at

glance.

ACTUAL

SIZES

OF

GEAR

pjuy^

/wj\

TEETH

^A/v^

18 P.

20 P.

^WA,
14 P,

$$

16 P.

^TWA,^TW^
12

10 E.

P*

,9P.

8 P.

7 Pe,

6P/

5 P.

4 P.

96

GEARING

LAYING
A
in

OUT

SINGLE

simple method

VERY

Fig. 5, and
the

is known

CURVE

of

layingout a
the single
curve

as

TOOTH

standard
method.

various

tooth

is shown

lated
Having calcualreadygiven,

proportionsof the tooth by rules

outside,
working depthand clearance or whole depth
pitch,
circles as shown.
With
half the pitchradius draw the
a radius
one
semicircle from
the center
to the pitch circle. Take
one
quarter
the pitch radius and with one
leg at top of pitch circle strike arc
cuttingthe semicircle. This is the center for the first tooth cu^^e
and locates the base circle for all the tooth arcs.
Lay ofiF the tooth
thickness and space distances around
the pitchcircle and draw the
tooth curves
through these pointswith the tooth curve radius already
draw

the

found.

The

filletsin the tooth corners

may
the tops of the teeth.

of the space

be taken

as

seventh

one

between

One qumrter of Pltoh H

Addmdmn

or

Outsida I

Fig. 5.

SingleCurve

"

PRESSURE
We

next

because

obtain
for

it

was

tooth
so

has

tooth

are

from

i4i degreepressure

volil
thread tool (seeFig.14). As the sides of an invol
from
the
the
and at
straight,
perpi
pressure angle

erpJ

the line of pressure at 14^ degreesfrom

be found
base circle of the tooth arcs
can
by
the center of the gear to the line of pressure and

to it as

can

best

angle,probah
he cou
to lay it out
as
millwright
sho\
shoM
protractor by usingthe method
a

dicular,draw
The

tJ

means

for the

easy
the angle without

layingout

rack

anglesof gear teeth,which

tooth
one
"presses againstthe other and
pinionand rack. Figs.6 and 7.

standard

The

ANGLES

to pressure

come

angle at which
shown
by the

Tooth

shown, or by

the firstmethod, and

the

h liJ
pitch

drawing a

anr
rightar
working from this the tc^
at

STUB-TOOTH

be drawn

can

curve

97

by either the single-curvemethod

stoppingthe

usual,by

GEARS

from

curve

two

or,

points

more

or

on

is

as

this

more
same

circle.
The
be

can

difference

but the
shorter,
This

J- and

14

in the
form

is broader.

base

of tooth is

largelyused

Fig. 6.

base

kinds.

tooth

shorter

tooth, but
In

Standard

"

This

Fellows

tooth

"elation between
"f the gear
in the same

bat

if the

Hvided

as

(edendum.

small

Gear
flank

is shorter than

them,

shaper,it

as,

was

scale which

pitch is

shown.

The

the

degree

20

and

pressure

length is

there

have

called

been

to

the tooth

and

makes

many

stronger

strength is needed.

the standard

tooth

of the tootlf
to

give

there is

While
no

new

tooth

This
table.
following
depth of a 5-pitch standard

is one-quarter

fixed

depth graduations

the

in the

clearance

Shaper Company introduced a

angle instead of the usual 14J-

thought best

it has

transmission

Tooth

thread

account

is shown

use

regular standard

bastard

pinionswhere
on

arcs

GEARS

20-degreepressure

givesa broader

for
tear,
especially
uie

the

like the

1899 the Fellows

bhort tooth with

pegree.

than

circle for the tooth

in automobile

STUB-TOOTH
Any

7.

before.

as

way

same

The

William
similar work.
Sellers "
Co.
tooth
with
of
standard
a
angle
length.

"stub"

20-degreepressure angles
Not
only is the tooth

by comparing Figs. 6 and

seen

is found

the

between

the addendum

depth
means

tooth
or

GEARING

xoO

Fig.

II.

Bevel

"

Gears

They
parallel.

are

used
be

can

to

in

gears.
the outer

end.

power

when

shafts

for any

any other.
The
teeth are

at

transmit

angle,but are
Right anglebevel gears

made

rightanglesthan
miter
lower

Parts

GEAHS

BEVEL
Bevel

Gear

or

The

should

names

be

radial

of the various

are

not

often at
often
called
are
that they are
more

so

parts

are

shown

Fig.II.
LAYING
In

layingout

OUT

BEVEL

GEAR

bevel gears, first decide upon

BLANKS
the

pitch,and

draw

the center lines B B and C C, intersecting

at right
anglesat A as shov^n
distance each
in Fig.1 2.
Then
draw the lines D D to E E the same

-K

:^^^-^i^-

Fig.

12.

"

Laying

out

Bevel

Gears

GEARS

BEVEL

side

oi B

many
teeth in

as

107

to it;the distance from D D to E E being

parallel
if it be 8 pitch
of
inch
there are to be
an
as
eighths
the gear.
In the example the number
teeth
of
is 24; therefore

and

"

"

from D D to E E will be ^, or i J inches each side

and L L are similarly
drawn, but there being only
16 teeth in the small gear, the distance from K K to L L will be -V,
Then throughthe intersections oi D D
inch each side of C C.
I
or
F A,
L L, E E and L L, and " E and K K, draw the diagonals
and
the pitchlines. Through the same
These
are
pointdraw lines as
G G 2X rightangles
to the pitchlines,
forming the backs of the teeth.
and
these lines lay off | of an inch each side of the pitchlines,
On
M
A and N
draw
-4,formingthe faces and bottoms of the teeth.
them
to G G, the distance between
The
lines H H are drawn parallel
width
the
face.
of
the
being
face of the larger
The
gear should be turned to the lines M A, and
A.
For other pitchesthe same
rules apply. If
the small gear to N
if
and
of
instead
so
on.
8ths; 3 pitch,3ds,
4 pitch,use 4ths
Bevel gears should always be turned to the exact diameters and
angles of the drawingsand the teeth cut at the correct angle.
the distance

oi

B.

NG"

No. of Teeth

in Oear

NP="

No. of Teeth

in Pinion

Fig. 13.
CUTTERS

"

Findingthe

Oentex

Ancle of dear

Cutter to Use

-BEVEL

FOR

"=*

GEARS

the bevel gears and draw lines A and B at rightangles

lines and measthis to the center
to the center angleline. Extend
ure
The
the radius of a spur gear of the
A and B.
distance A
the number
of teeth in such a gear we have
same
pitch,and finding
the rightcutter for the bevel gear in question. Callingthe gears
Then
the distance A
8 pitch and
64
2 X
4 X 8
4 inches.
if
the
is
For
to use.
the one
pinion, ^
teeth,so that a No. 2 cutter
is the on
is 2 inches,then 2X2X8
32 or a No. 4 cutter
Lay

out

use.

io8

GEARING

USING
Take
Divide

BEVEL

THE

GEAR
and

pairof bevel gears 24

the pinion by the gear
a

24

"

tangent of

the

angles.

center

in the center

the nearest

72

in the

This
columns

.3333.

="

seven

pitch.
is the
under

The

is .3346
to this.
nearest
decimals to four places. Follow
this out to the leftand find 18 in 'the center angle column.
As
in
of
is
the
the
marked
column
the
center angle
the .3346
pinion
.50
is 18.50degrees. Looking to the rightunder center anglesfor gears
find 71 and add the .50 making the gear angle 71.50 degrees. This
center

anglesfor

Look

teeth,8 diametral

72
-r-

TABLE

number

column, as all these

are

gives
Center angleof pinion18.5degrees.
Center angleof gear 71.5 degrees.
In the firstcolunm
opposite18 is 36. Divide this by the number
of teeth in the pinion,24, and get 1.5 degrees. This is the angle
to be added
increase for this pairof gears, and is the amount
to the
be
and
deducted
face
the
to
to
cut
center angleto get the
angle
get

angles.This gives
Pinion center angle18.5+
angle 18.5

Pinion center
Gear

center

Gear

center

"

angle71.5
angle71.5

1.5
1.5
1.5
=

1.5

"

degreesface angle.
cut angle.
17 degrees
73 degreesface angle.
cut angle.
70 degrees
20

of diameter increase
For the outside diameter go to the column
and in line with 18 find 1.90. Divide this by the pitch,
8, and get
for
the
Follow
the
which
is
increase
diameter
the
pinion.
,237,
this
for
the
increase.
and
find
Divide
line
to the right
same
.65
gear
by the pitch,.8,and get .081 for gear increase. This gives
8 pitch 3 inches + .237
Pinion,24 teeth,
3.237 inches outside
diameter.
9.081inches outside
Gear, 72 teeth,8 pitch 9 inches + .081
diameter.
of
the cutter is to divide the number
of selecting
Another way
teeth in the gear by the cosine of the center angleC and the answer
of teeth in a spur gear from which to select the cutter.
is the number
of teeth
For the pinionthe process is the same
except the number
in the pinionis divided by the sine of the center angle. Formula
=

NG

Tangent of

"

"

NG
Number

of teeth to

Number

of teeth to

in

use

for gear

cutter
selecting

"

"

-^

p;.

NP

Any pairof

gears

use

can

in
be

cutter
selecting
out
figured

for

in the

pinion

same

="

way,

^.

^.

bearingin

the center anglefor the gear, to read the parts

that when finding
decimals
at the bottom, and that for the pinion
from
the
a degree
In
the
example worked out the tangent came
they are at the top.
that it made
difference. If, however,
no
in the center column
so
the tangent had been .3476we read the pinionangleat the top, 19.17
degreesand the gear angle at the bottom, 70.83. By noting that
is 90 degrees,
be sure we are right
the sum
of the two angles
we
can
mind

of

USING

GEAR

BEVEL

THE

Bevel
shaft

Table

Gear
angles

Right Hand

TABLE

Column

90**

read here

109

GEARING

I TO

A
The

TABLE

of miter

FOR

gears

of teeth from

arrangement and
o

"

00

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"

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in

u^o

0^0

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f^ooq

covers

of

pitches

explanation.

no

V*("\i.oo *N *"

V""V*b
"^ %f) %r) O

ber
num-

most

and
60, inclusive,

"

"

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use

*^1S^2
^ V V^M V^
"^O2.ya^
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''J'WO
Ki rfi
'^twiO
J" _^

determiningthe principal

The

12
possiblenumbers
2 to
inclusive,
omitting
9.
10,

from
The

GEARS

the
(centerangle45 degrees),

pitchbeingknown.

the

MTTER

in

is of service

accompanyingtable

dimensions
of teeth and
the

DIMENSIONS

FOR

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SPIRAL

GEARS

SPIRAL

GEARS

The
tenn
spiral
gear is usuallyappliedto gears havingangular
teeth and which do not have their shafts or axis in parallel
lines,
of
and
take
the
at
bevel
usually
rightangles. Spiralgears
place
and give a smoother action as well as allowinggreater speed
gears
When
ratios in a given space.
teeth
gears with angularor skew
s
hafts
called
helical
run
on
parallel
they are usually
gears.

consideringspeed ratios
as a worm
having as

In
be

taken

the driven

for

the

spiralgears

many

threads

as

drivinggear

there

are

can

teeth and

of teeth,so that one

the worm
wheel with its number
revolution of the driver will turn a point on the pitchcircle of the
driven
inches as the productof the lead of the driver
gear as many
of its teeth.
and
the number
Divide this by the circumference of
the pitch circleof the driven gear to get the revolutions of the driven.
When
the spiralangles are
the speed ratio depends
45 degrees,
of
teeth
in
number
the
bevel
as
entirelyon
gears, but for other angles
the following
formula
will be useful:
of spiral
Revs, of Driver.
Let Ri
Revs, of Driven.
R2
Pitch diameter of Driver.
Di
Pitch diameter of Driven.
D2
of teeth in Driver.
Number
iVi
Number
of teeth in Driven.
N2
with shafts at 90 degreeswe
have
Then
as

"

7?

"

-7

R\

cotangent of helix angle of driver with its axis.

U2

Rz
Dx

"

-^

D2
Di
R2X

cotangent of helix angle of driver with

D2

Rx

"

"

cotangent of helix
Or

in the form

of rules

we

have:

cotangent of helix.

its axis.

GEARING

II2

Speed ratio of
olutions

Gears

of

or

Rev

Diameter

and

Driver

Divide

speed of driven by
tiply
speed of driver and muldiameter
of
ven.
driby
Divide
gent
by cotanof tooth
angle of

of Driver

Driven

Cotangent of Tooth
driver
Diameter

Angle of

of Driven

driver with axis.

ratio or Revolution of Diameter

of Driven
Driver and Driven
of
of
Tooth
Angle
Cotangent

Speed

Divide

speed of driver by

speedof
by

of tooth

Driver

formulas
Lead

Other

and by diameter
of driver with axis.

for

Angle

angleof

driver

of Driver

Diameter

tiply
driven and muldiameter and cotangent

spiral
gears

are:

spiraladvances in one turn.

angle formed on the pitchsurface by

Distance

The

the

of teeth and

line

with
parallel

sides

the axis of

the gear.

45" Angle Spiral

=

spiralsare

Two

and
Formulae

Diametral

Pitch

(Number

Pitch

Normal
Teeth
Number

same

the pitch diameters

ratio.

pitchdiameter.

-^

teeth -f

1.414)-i- outside diameter.

Diametral pitch
Pitch diameter X
Outside diameter
Pitch diameter X
Select spur gear

.707.
diametral pitch.
X diametral pitch
1.4 14.
3. 141 6.
cutter to nearest
standard normal
for
three
times
in
teeth
as
pitch
as
many
-r-

"=

Lead
Cutter

when

in the

45" Spirals

for

teeth

Number

45"

cut

teeth- are

spiral.Cut

to

"

from
get the tooth parts figured

the correct normal pitch.

Figurenormal tooth parts the

same

for

as

spur

gear.
Formula
Diametral

Pitch

for
"

any

Angle

Number

Axis

"

of teeth
of teeth -f
-7-

Number

Number

Diametral

teeth

at

Right

Angles

pitchdiameter.
2 cosine angle-^

(pitchdiameter

-r-

ameter.
outside di-

cosine

of

angle.)
Number

of teeth

pitch-f-

Pitch diameter
X
Outside
diameter

cosine of angle.
diametral pitch.
X diametral pitch

"

cosine

spiralangle.
Lead

Pitch

diameter

3. 141 6

-i-

tangent of angle.

SPIRAL

Cutter

GEAR

Divide

"=

TABLE

the number

the cube

of teeth

of the

for the

GEAR

it is better in every
before using a table as

While

to

case

in the

of the

cosine

spur gear cutter

is nearest
which

SPIRAL

113

angle.

standard
Then

this.

spiralgear by
normal
cut

as

Select

pitch
before.

TABLE
understand

to

this tends

results

to

the

prevent

involved
principles

errors,

followingdirections

they can
carefully.

by simply
good
more
complicated than other
subject of spiralgears is so much
will
that
to
depend
prefer
entirelyon the tables.
many
gears
the diametral
table gives the circular pitch and addendum
This
or
for
lead
and
with
diametral
of
and
teeth having
one
pitch
sjMrals
pitch
and
of
from
For
other
i to
89 degrees to 45
angles
45 degrees.
given and the spiralnumber
pitches divide the addendum
by the
the
and
the
results
number
of
multiply
by
required
required pitch
This will give the pitch diameter
and lead of spiralfor each
teeth.
with

used

be

The

For

wheel.
spur

diameter

outside

the

add

two

diametral

with

10

pitches as

in

gearing.
pairof spiralgears

and

degreeangles,
pitchcutter, with 16 teeth in the small gear, having 10degree angle and 10 teeth in the largegear with its 8o-degree angle.
Find
the lo-degree angle of spiraland in the third column
find
Divide
and
this
1. 01
ber
by pitch,8,
get .1269. Multiply
by num54.
Suppose

want

we

80

diametral

Add
.1269 X 16
pitch diameter.
2
2.030
and
inches
2.28
outside
diameter.
J
i
pitches
2.030 + .25
lead of spiralfor 10 degreesfor small wheel is 18.092. Divide
The
of teeth,
18.092 -h 8
2.2615. Multiply by number
by pitch
t^iatit makes
36.18, the lead of spiral,which means
2.2615 X 16
in
inches.
turn
one
36.18
the other gear
with its 8o-degreeangle,find the addendum,
For
Divide
of
by pitch, 8,
.7198. Multiply by number
5.7587.
two
7.198. Add
pitches,or .25, gives 7.448 as outside
teeth, 10

of

teeth
two

"

"

"

"

diameter.
The

lead of

by
When

spiralis 3.1901.
of teeth

number
racks

=*

mesh

Dividing by pitch,8
3.988
with

the

lead of

plying
.3988. Multi-

spiral.

spiralgears, divide the number

in the circular pitch columns
for the given angle by the required
diametral
pitch to get the correspondingcircular pitch.
rack
with
If we
to make
want
to mesh
a
a
40-degreespiralgear
of 8 pitch: Look
for circular pitch opposite 40
and
find 4.1 01.
8
circular
for
the
as
this
by
Dividing
gives .512
pitch
angle. The
the
be
angle the greater the circular or linear pitch,as can
greater
seen
by tryingan 8o-degreeangle. Here the circular pitch is 2.261
inches.

are

to

SPIRAL
SHAFT

ANGLES

GEAR

QO" FOR

TABLE
ONE

DIAMETRAL

PITCH

Worms

the

cut

to

the

Acme

Acme,

but

is not

It

to

OF

WORMS

threads

Some

thread.

in

from

is wanted

the Brown

center

will

the

use

can

we

which

to

of

in the Acme.

worm

lead of

be 40

teeth

or

inches

3.18 inches.
but

gear

or

distance

If
cut

10

ative
rel-

double

between

{ inch.

in the

worm

in circumference

reduction

of teeth

No.

i, the

to

must

or

same

40

teeth

center

same

give the

of

thread

per

worm

worm.

pitch

to

20

of

teeth,but the

inches

in

of

diam.

Pitch

for

as

Sharpe,

follows:

as

there

as

revolution
of the
teeth every
will be moved
two
gear
used
of the commonly
Some
proportions are:
_.,,,.

"

pitch as

reduction

to

pitch line

the

on

inch,

of 40

the reduction
inch

gear,

as

for the

of 4 to the inch

thread

as

such

degrees,

29

proportions

one-inch

the

on
Having determined
considered
be
can
proportions

Then

same

fractional

odd

cut

to

distances.

Assume

the

use

instead of .51 for

angle of

total

thread

deeper

use

having

115

lathes,so regular
pitches in most
is allowed
of
the
wheel
and the circular pitch
worm
cut
for pitch diameters
and
center
fractional measurements

are

come

THREADS

deep

easy

pitches

WORMS

most

is .6866

which

OF

with

are

similar

THREADS

worm

gear
*

=
,

3.1416

'

pitch

Diametral

'

r-r.

=
.

.-

Linear

pitch
2

of

diam.

Throat

diam.

Outside

Pitch

"

diam.

Pitch

-"

gear

worm

diam.
of

tooth

of

depth

pTT*

jy

L'

"

ii

:Fr:

Pitch

Diam.

Whole

worm

worm

or

gear

.6866

linear

pitch.
at

of bottt"m

Outside

diam.

Outside

diam.

of

worm

of

of
of

worm

worm

gear

} outside

to

of

Width
A
of

worm

and

worm

is shown

wheels

lay off

face, the sides

Others

the

make

diameter

the

60

=*

Fig. 15.

equal
worm

is

shown

more

5 X

linear

pitch.

linear

pitch.

width

f the outside

to

pitch.
pitch.

linear

6 X
of

worm.

common.

of face
the

Draw

made

as

Face

; this
straightfrom

being

of the

in

degrees

face

diameter

practicefor determining the

COMMON

"=

thread

pitch.

linear

.31 X

triplethread

"

linear

.335 X
=

double

"

worm

worm

single thread

"

worm

of

diam.

Outside
Face

of

of tooth

top of tooth

Width
Width

thickness
of

width

of working

gives the
the

or

diameter

bottom

diameter

the

of the

teeth.

of worm,

but

ti6

GEARING

THREADS

Table

Proportions

of

WORMS

OF

Worm

of

"7

Threads

Run

to

Worm

in

Wheels

I-.
0"O

woo

"o

"
.

"

i"

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AND

MILLING

MACHINE

MILLING
The
was

MILLING

CUTTERS

FEEDS

AND

SPEEDS

determining of the proper feeds of millingcutters in the past

of guesswork, or experience,
as
a
usually a matter
good many

would

rule of any

absolute

it,no

term

kind

having ever

been

estal"-

lished.

hand, the speeds of millingcutters

the other

On

established.

well

good

average
used in

tool-steel cutter, when

tool-steel cutter, the surface speed may

The
surface speed of an
per cent.

75

in

used

when

and

fact

have

been

speed of

fairly
nary
ordi-

an

be

increased

ordinary

cutting machine,

gear

is

from

tool-steel

50

to

cutter,

generally 40,

60

for steel,cast iron, and brass.

This increase
respectively
is due
the regular tool-steel millingcutter
to
the
conditions
of
standard
the
that
gear -cuttingmachine

feet

8d

in surface
the

standard

have

surface

a
millingmachine, is 20, 40, 60
For the air-hardening
iron, and brass.

for steel,cast
respectively

feet

for the

speed*over

provided

been

of

overhang
the

parts

proper
of the

thickness

it for

adapt

to

is reduced

feed

of

chip

to

for

example,

an

of work

where

the

for determining

guide
in ascertainingthe

of the cutter.

tooth

of

Thickness

Taking,

is found

millingcutters

per

kind

just one

minimum.

Chip

size

average

millingcutter

working

in

diameter, 3 inches long,with eighteen teeth,

that the thickness
which
is quite commonly used, and it will be found
in .0018 inch, with a table
of the chip per tooth is quitesmall, resulting
This
is entirelytoo slow.
feed of 2 inches per minute.
Now, comparing
2i inches

iron, say

cast

this cut
such

chip

the

inch

of .0018

in

milling

with

than

lathe

is much

cutter

tool cut, it will be

and is far

smaller

seen

thai
jurious
in-

more

since the

heavier

a
feed,
cutting edge of a
instead
the
metal
of scraping
in
into
longer
cutting
up
iron
cast
at
the rate of
it. A standard
6-pitch gear cutter, cutting
5J inches per minute, averages a chip per tooth of only .0067 inch.
the possibilis here mentioned
The
only to demonstrate
ities
gear cutter
of other classes of millingcutters.
is very seldom
A cutter
ruined
by the feed, but is generallyruined
by overspeeding it. For instance,with a cutter of thirtyteeth with a

to

cutter

tool will hold

table

of

feed

only

be

.300

^"^r;;
=

inch

per

revolution, the chip per tooth

.010

inch

thick

lathe

tool

chip.

"

still quite a

lightcut

will

then

when

compar-

of

milling,if

30i

ing

it with

the feeds

are

guided by

in

Hence

the thickness

feed

of

many

chip

would
be used, since it is evident
that
thin
tooth.
r)aratively,
a
give only
chip per
118

cases

per tooth, a
the heaviest

much

faster

feeds,com-

FINE

COARSE

AND

The

PITCH

Question of

CUTTERS

119

Power

questionof power in millingis to-day quite an important

subject,and a great deal depends on the form and shape of cutter
used.
Roughing cutters should invariablybe coarse-toothed,and,
have more
if possible,
than two or three teeth in contact
with
never
The

the metal.
Below
are

tabulated the resultsof a test of power consumed

by
identical roughingcutters, Figs,i and 2, with the exceptionthat
contained thirty
teeth and the other fifteen teeth:

Fig.

I.

5 Teeth

"

in Contact

OF

COMPARISON

FINE

Fig.

AND

Test

in

with

metal

2.

3 Teeth

"

COARSE
Cast

PITCH

in

two
one

Contact

CUTTERS

Iron

Diameter of cutter
of teeth in cutter
Width of cutter

No.

Depth of

cut

No. of teeth in
Volts

contact

Amperes
Feed of table
Rev. of cutter p. m
Thickness of chip per tooth

The

machine

on

which

this test

was

miller
motor-driven,positive-feed

ammeter,
the two

so

that very

cutters

could

connected

was

with

No.
a

3 Cincinnati
volt
Weston
requiredir

readingsof the power

cut'
that the 30-tooth
taken.
Observe

accurate

be

made

AND

MILLING

I20

CUTTERS

MILLING

the 15- tooth cutter requiredonly 10.5

of about
22
This is
saving
per cent.
amperes
the
had
since
cutter
30-tooth
obvious,
constantly5 teeth in
plainly
with the iron,while the 15-toothcutter had only 3 teeth in
contact

required13.5

contact,
power
took

amperes,

the

on

same

while

cut,

bites a cutter must

take
the
provingthat the more
the
fact
that
the
of
15-tooth
irrespective
required,

is

more

cutter

largerchip per tooth than did the 30-toothcutter.

This clearly
demonstrates
the advantage of a coarse
tooth
cutter
its
economic
for heavy milling,
of
not
use
but
only through
power,
also because of its greater durability.A cutter of this kind will also
on
deep cuts, since ample space
permit of a heavier feed,especially
a

the teeth for the escape

impossiblewith a fine tooth cutter.
exists between

of the

chips,which

would

be

will
a finer tooth
cutter should be used, which
marks
for
smooth
the
feed
milled
lessen
surface.
This
a
greatly
since these cutters have no great amount
is quitereadily
permissible,
the teeth is ample for the
and the space between
of metal to remove,
of
the
chips.
escape
The pointsenumerated
above need not be absolutely
adhered to
but if the very best results are aimed at with a
for ordinarymilling,
view of increased production,
it would
be well to bear them in mind,
when constructing
roughingand finishing
especially
gangs.
For

cuts
finishing

Clearance
Great

care

should

etc.
Angle, Lubrication,

be exercised when

sharpeningcutters

to

give

angle for clearances,the life of the cutter being

proper
thereby materiallylengthened.A 5-degreeclearance for finishing
and 7-degreeclearance for roughing producesvery good results.
Whenever
small a cutter
as
as
feasible,
possibleshould be used.
less
less
but
when
not
are
They
costly, require
only
power for driving
milling.
When
millingsteel,a heavy flow of oil on a millingcutter, forced
of an oil pump,
is justas essential as the great volume
of
means
by
them

the

machine
automatic screw
tools,which would
hold up one-half hour if not so flushed.
The
life of a milling
not
cutter amply lubricated will be materially
prolongedand it will be
of
much
heavier
feed.
capable
standinga
The foregoing
remarks apply to practicein general,
but on jobs
where conditions are favorable stillbetter results can
be obtained.
For example,work has been milled with an end mill 3 inches diameter,
20
teeth,2i-inchface,at a table feed of 15 inches per minute.
This mill was mounted
of a horizontal spindle
the nose
miller where
on
there is no overhang,and ran at a surface speedof 40 feet per minute.
The millingmachine
table in this case
advanced .300 inch per turn
of the cutter,which gave a chip per tooth of .015 inch.
This same
then
of
with
feed
table
finished
inches
a
piece was
per minute
25
oil which

with

is used

on

the cutter
rotatingat a surface speed of 65 feet per minute,
producing a surface so smooth that the cutter marks could be easily
of emery
cloth. After millingthirtypieces,
polishedoff by means
inches
inches
't
wide, 12
long,the cutter was stillin good condition.

MILLING

HEART-SHAPED

CAMS

MILLING

HEART-SHAPED

CAMS

121

follows:
move
cam
curve
roughly,as
Fig.3. Drill and reLay out
to leave sufficientstock to overcome
the outside stock,being sure
in laying
Put the cam
the nut arbor and tighten
out.
on
errors
is J radius,select a millingcutter
securely. If the roll of the cam
of
must
to the lowest
come
radius,as the roll the cam
having the same
point,which it would not be able to do if a cutter of a smaller radius
It would
used.
also make
that of the roll were
than
a difference to
of
is
the cam,
which
the curve
not
the other points on
quiteso
One

method

of

the

apparent

Fig. 3.

"

at

cams
producingheart-shaped

Ls

as

in

of the

first glance.

Method
Out Cam

of

Laying

and
Position of Cam
Fig. 4.
Cutter when Commencing
to Mill

Selectingan

"

Index

between
the
centers
on
operationis to placethe cam
with
radius
in
the
vertical
the
line
cutter
millingmachine, having
choose an index circle which
of the cam,
at its lowest point. Next
such that the rise of each division will
will give a division of the cam
take a circle
be in thousandths of an inch,if possible.For this cam
divisions on
divisions.
this
will
make
As
which will give 200
100

The

next

side,the

rise of each

division will be

o.oi

of

an

inch.

the table to the requiredhight,starting

at the lowest
cam, and mill across, as in Fig.4.

Now

raise

pointof the

Moving
For
the

cam

one

division

then raise the table

When

the

cam

time,and revolve
is reax:hed,
highestpoint of the cam

until the

o.oi

comes

Table

the

lower the table

the other cuts

CUTTERS

MILLING

AND

MILLING

122

division of the

for each

from

the

eax:h

con

cam.

millingmachine

there will be found

the cuts.
left between
These
be easily
be small grooves
may
removed by smoothingoflFwith a filewithout impairingthe accuracy
of the cam.
be made in this manner,
Most
screw-machine
and they
can
cams
than if laid out and filed to the
will be found
accurate
to be more
line,and also much easier to make after one has become accustomed
to the method.
to

MILLING

GEARING

BY

CAMS

of any

here shown, cams

By the method
furnished with
the gears regularly

\Angle

the

Fig. 5.

"

With
as

the

be ^milled with

milling-machine.

Head

Milling Machine

Diagram

rise may

of Klevatlon

of Index
-Lead for Mrhlch

THE

HEAD

DIVIDING

u,

UP

for

ie Geared

"

Angle of Index Head

the head set vertically

would be the same
the lead of the cam
is geared,while with the head
lead for which the machine

horizontal and the milling

spindlealso,a concentric arc, or rest,would
the machine
be milled on the cam,
of how
was
geared.
regardless
the
and
we
can
millingspindle,
produceany lead
By inclining head
the cam
less than that for which the machine is geared.
on
The method of findingthe inclination at which to set the index
head is shown in Fig.5, and is simplythe solution of a plainrightin which the hypothenuserepresents the lead of the
angledtriangle,
and
of the other sides represents the lead we wish to
one
machine,
the latter by the former we get
By dividing
produceon the cam.
the sine of the angleof inclination.
Take
for illustrationa platecam
havingJ-inchrise in 300 degrees.

which isthe lead we want

the B " S, machine can

on

the cam,

be

while the slowest lead for which

gearedis

0.67

0.15
"

Q.67

0.224.
^

MILLING

CAMS

123

find 0.224 approximates

table of sines,
the
we
closely
sine of 13 degrees,
which is the angleat which to set the head, and
if the milling
is also set at the same
spindle
angle,the edge of the
with the shaft on which it is to run.
will be parallel
cam
Fig.6
shows a milling-machine
this
for
set
job.
When
has several lobes of different leads,we gear the
a
cam
machine up for a lead somewhat
called
one
longerthan the longest
for in that cam, and then all the different lobes can
be milled with
the one
of gears, by simplyaltering
the inclination of head
setting
and milling
spindlefor each different lead on the cam.
If the diameter of the cam
and the inclination of the head will
it
is
better
mill
the
under side of the cam, as that brings
to
on
admit,
the mill and the table nearer
and thus increases rigidity,
together
besides enabling
be laid out on
to easily
us
see
any lines that may
the flat face of the cam.
Also the chipsdo not accumulate on the
work.
a
Consulting

Fig. 6.

"

DividingHead

Set for Cam

Milling

The work is fed against

the cutter by turningthe index crank,
and on coming back for another cut we turn the handle of the millingtable. As a result the work
will recede from
the cutter
machine
before the cam
back
blank commences
to turn, owing to
lash in the
the cutter from dragging
the work while
over
gears, thus preventing
running back.
In this way we use to advantagewhat is ordinarily
considered a
defect in machine construction.
The milling-machine,
when used as shown in Fig.6, will be found
to be more
rigidthan when the head is set in the vertical position,
will work
and the cams
more
smoothly on account of the shearing
action of the cutter.
One possible
here advocated is the necesto the method
sity
objection
of

using,in some cases, an end mill of

end mill J-inchdiameter and
an
practise,

extra

with

is not unusual; but the results in both

be found entirely
satisfactory.
tooth

lengthof
a

tooth.

In

3 J-inch lengthof

w'
speedand quality

124

(3

5*

gTi

'J

"
"

"a

CUTTERS

MILLING

AND

MILLING

ti

ts
fc

.2

mnj,

auo

oj

pnjs

saqonx

no

pnjs

ui

ji?aQ

uo

nuo^

vpxi^

puoDss

JB30

uo

;sjij

j^ao

TABLE

OF

PITCHES

AND

ANGLES

125

126

MILLING

AND

"=3

MILLING

CUTTERS

rt

'."It
"^1t

*^
t
b

at

=!

rS

""'

=""1

.^
"-'

4,-^-2

4)

"S

(O

"

.9

2'

Of

"

"

"^

4)

I
a

.2
Q

ujnx

auo

o)

S3i{3ni

M9J3S

pnjs

no

pnjs

ui

q3)ij

no

J'DSQ

aB3Q

no

paoodg

jBao

nuoy^

uo

jsjij

jcaQ

TABLE

AND

PITCHES

OF

"^

t-^t^tO-^fOM

00000

-^fOfOM

*^0

On"0

OOioio-^mmmOn

c"

'"^Tf-"tro"OPO"r"POfO"OrO"OPON

"o

u-"

pO

00000

ANGLES

000000

"

CnOO

OnOO

QnOO

""tM

"^0

O^00

O^

cs

127

rj- fO

fOrOeOPOfOPO"0""""C"""""MMMMMMMMMM

10

"r)

"r)

"

On

OnOO

t^O

ro

"^

t"*0

10

00000

r".io'"!*-'^N

t^xnxn

On

On

r*

t"" "-"vO

LOPCfOfCM

"

"

000

r^t^iOTtrtroN

"^0

loxoPOPON

CO

00

ONOO

00

"^

*""

00

H^

"^

t^vO

""" "^

vO^O

00

O^OO

OnOnOv

C^OO

cjmmmOOOnOn

"*"H*

c"5N""N"He"r4*H*

OnOO

"

iOii-"""tPOPOPO"

OvOm^rj-NOO

CnOO

0000000

t".u-"iorOM

-^

TtTfTj-fOfOW

OOOOvO

lO^fOfON

00

"^0

00

Hw
"^

"

""00

00

*^

t^v"

mN"

"^"0

vOvOv"

o^

00

OvOO

O^OO

ovoo

OoOXr*.

00

00

tx" "^vO

v"

"^vO

"^

"0

votOiO""tTffOfOCOP"

e**

vOvO

\n

"^vO

i^

Hn

HNf^-w

to

rj-

"

ro

fO

Hc"iH"

lOtOtO^rtrOfOPONW

iOiOtOTj--"1-rJ-fOrO"0"0"S"7w

iOiOvniOiOiO'!j"""t'^cOPOfON

H""w(^iHc"Hr""N'MHiHNH'*-""'W"."HNHNHesH^
"OvO
"Oio"OiOiO^TfTf'"t^'"t"^"^fOc"orO'0"
t^vO

r^v"

lO^^

00

r^vO

t^vO

vO

lo

t""

HnHnh"

"

Hn^*

"s

nNiHNWH"
w

n|4i" (p*' (M' It*'lf*" ^*" ^*' "*""*

"

"^t-"

^O

pp r^

CI

cl

CO

ro

PO

lO

iot".'"tiOONO^ONroO
lo
to

"".oq "^ "^

lovd """odOn

"OiOt".0O

vnvq '^^'ON^s
cI roO
On 0\ M

qoq
O

00

loq

TfO
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AND
SHARPE

PLAIN
FOR
"
BROWN

TABLE
ON

CUTTERS

MILLING

AND

MILLING

128

DIFFERENTIAL

INDEXING,

MILLING-MACHINBS

is simplerthan the compound method

indexing
It differs from the
that
d
ivisions
are
prime numbers.
obtaining
of
the
head
spiral
spindle
compound method in that the movement
made
in relation to the index crank is positively
by gearing. The
ential
in Fig.7, thus givinga differas
index plateis gearedto the spindle,
of
circle
with
made
the
be
motion
that allows
one
indexingto
the same
as
holes and the index crank to be turned in one direction,
be
that cannot
in plainindexing.This enables spacingsto be made
obtained with an index platelocked with a stop pinin the usual way.
Differential

for

Fig. 7.

Example:

If

use

we

100

the

to

for

index

8 holes per

division,

in
40 turns, which
the
with
107 moves,

requiredto rotate

spindleonce.

divisions

107

holes and move

the worm
If we
made

platehaving 20

the

rotates

turn

Arrangedfor

"

required

will be

moves

SharpeDividingHead
Differential Indexing

Brown

"

index

would

platefixed,we

obtain

107 X

42.8 revolutions of

"

20

the worm,
the index
while the

of what is required. Therefore

is 2.8 in excess
be geared so that it will move
back 2.8 turns,
spindleis revolvingonce; that is,the ratio of the gearing
which

platemust

be 2.8 to

must

i.

":?X
"

Then^

"

2^

-X

"

20

2^

40

32

and the gears will be 64 and

"

32

56 for the spindle

and
on

first^ear

on

stud,as shown

stud,and
in

and 32 for the

worm

and second

gear

Fig.7.

As compound gears
the index plateto move

For this purpose

40

are

in

used, but
a

one

idler is

requiredto

cause

direction oppositeto that of the crank.

idler having 24 teeth is employed.

an
table on
the followingpages gives the B. " S. spiralhead
of all numbers
gears for plainand differentialindexing
up to .^70.
The

PLAIN

AND

DIFFERENTIAL

INDEXING

129

130

MILLING

AND

MILLING

CUTTERS

PLAIN

AND

DIFFERENTIAL

INDEXING

131

132

MILLING

AND

MILLING

CUTTERS

PLAIN

AND

DIFFERENTIAL

INDEXING

^33

134

MILLING

AND

MILLING

CUTTERS

PLAIN

AND

DIFFERENTIAL

INDEXING

135

136

MILLING

AND

MILLING

CUTTERS

PLAIN

AND

DIFFERENTIAL

INDEXING

137

138

MILLING

MILLING

AND

CUTTER,

MILLING

REAMER

CUTTERS

AND

TAP

FLUTES

The
followingtables give the number of teeth or flutes suitable
for millingin various types of cutters,reamers, taps, etc., and also
used.
cutters
show the forms of fluting

End

Mills

PLAIN

MILLING

CUTTERS

139

with
made
f-inch face and over are generally
The
of
side
teeth.
cutter
on
12-degreeangle
spiral
fluting
gives
face
ample clearance for cuttingspiralgrooves with the 12-degree
the center line of the work.
set on
Plain

For

cutters

of

of straddle mills use

teeth on periphery
angularcutter
milling
with
60 degreeangle at A; for millingteeth on sides of cutters
use
of teeth in cutter
to be
7o"" 75" or 80** cutter accordingto number

milled.

I40

AND

MILLING

Cutters

for

Dia. of Cutters

Spiral

Mills

MILLING

CUTTERS

Cutter for

MillingTeeth

in
Angular Cutters, Double
ters
Angle Cutters and Cutfor Spiral
Mills.
To
Teeth
cut
side A of
on

2i
2i

To

Cutter.

this Cutter

use

cut side B

60" Cutter.
use

7o"-75"

SCREW

TAPS

Taps

Hand

Dia. of

MACHINE

Tap

Flutiho

Cuttir

Tap

Atoi}
I J to 2i

r\

to 4

3 to 4

mm.

5 to

44

mm.

50

mm.

46

141

to

Machine

Dia. of

Screw

Taps

Tap

No.

No.

8 to 30

to

Tapper

Taps

Dia. of Tap

With

Itoif
1} to 2

Machine

or

Nut

Flutes in

Flutes

in

Flutes

6
Taps

Tap,

"

Dia.

Dia.

in

Tap,
Tap,

B
B

Flutes

in

Tap,

"

Flutes

in

Tap,

Flutes

in

Tap,

Tap

Tap
Tap
JJ
Dia.
Tap
JJ
^jDia. Tap
J Dia. Tap
Dia.

With

Screw

Machine

Taps

Flutes

in

Flutes

in

Tap, E
Tap, E

Flutes

in

Tap,

Flutes

in

Tap,

Flutes

in

Tap,

Flutes

in

Tap, E

/^

Dia.

Dia.

Jf
Ji
/^

Dia.
Dia.
Dia.

Dia.
^:r

Tap
Tap
Tap
Tap
Tap
Tap

Dia. of Tap

In

1 toii
lA to 2

milling taps with

cutter

the cutter

the tap.

must

the

convex

be central with

142

MILLING

AND

MILLING

CUTTERS

FOR

CUTTERS

FLUTING

Shell

Cutters

The

type of

cutter

shown

for

REAMERS

M3

Reamers

Fluting

may

except rose

be used
reamers.

Reamers

for all classes of

reamers

144

MILLING

MILLING

AND

Rose

Chucking

CUTTERS

Reamers

'

Use 75 Angalar
Gatter for End.

Use

80

Angular

for
/Cutter

"M
Depth of OrooTe"M

to

Taper

H DU.

Reamers

Flatei

KEYWAY

HALF-ROUND

Center
of

diameter

Reamers

Keyway

Square

Width

Key, W

Depth,
Radius,

A
A

.030

03s

.040

D
R

2A-"i

lA-if

Hole,

(3 flutes)

fluting

KEYWAYS

CUTTER

Dia.

for

mill

straddle

I4S

i
1

A
A

i
A

.050

.060

.060

.060

5" ^H

Halp-Round

Dia. Hole, A.

Width, W....

Depth, B...

i-iA
\

i
i

Keyway

2A-2A

li-iA
A

i
A

2i-3

i
1

146

STANDARD

made
cutters
are
^
than
the
in
thickness
greater
These

T-SLOT

inch

CUTTERS

largerin diameter

given,to
figures

allow for

and

inch

sharpening.

DISTANCE

'able

op

Divisions

ON

CIRCUMFERENCE

Corresponding

Given

to

147
Circumferential

Distances
This

part
t is

table
on

gives approximatenumber

circumference,corresponding

of divisions and distances

known
diameter of work.

to a

useful in

work
milling-machine

in

cuttingmills,saws, ratchets,

tc.

For

straddle mill,say, 5 inches in diameter, is to be

^ apart. Without a table of this kind the workman
will have to
the diameter by 3. 14 16
go to the trouble of multiplying
and then divide by ^ to find the number
of teeth to set up for. In
the table,
find at once
the number
he
under ^ and opposite
can
5
of divisions,
of teeth,
number
odd
as
36. Where the table shows an
one more
less can, of course, be taken if it is importantto have
or
even number
of teeth.

example:

cut with

teeth

GRINDING

AND

GRINDING

LAPPING

WHEELS

AND

Commercial

The

GRINDING

Abrasives

the ordinary
corundum, carborundum, and alundum
are
abrasive materials.
commercial
They vary in hardness, though it
does not follow that the hardest gritis the best for cutting purposes;

Emery,

the

of fracture

form

and

shape

We

consideration.
the hardest

into

sphericalform;

of

were

may

substance

littleservice

as

cutting agent;

also

must
particles

imagine

wheel

be taken
monds,
diafrom

made

up
in nature, and whose
individual
nels
kerit is quite obvious
that it would
be of

conchoidal
or
crystalline

were

of the

the

on

other

hand,

it would

in form

if these

probably be

kernels
the ideal

grinding wheel.
found with a variable percentage of
Emery is a form of corundum
impurity; it is of a tough consistencyand breaks with a conchoidal
fracture.

Corundum

according

is

neighborhood
generally crystalline.
silicideof carbon

is a

it breaks

with

sharp

and

variable

mined;

purity

its fracture

productof

is

the electric

fracture.
crystalline

artificialproduct,being a fused oxide of aluminum.

is an

Alundum

somewhat

it is

is

Carborundum

furnace;

of

in which

and

conchoidal

oxide of aluminum

an

the

to

qualitywith about 98 per cent, of purity. It breaks

fracture and has all the ness
sharp, conchoidal crystalline
tough-

It is of uniform
with

of emery.

Grading of

or

are

which

have

of

grinding wheels

similar method
The

of

Norton

grading

Company,

the letter method, which

for their meto be the simplest. That

is,they take M
dium-hard
wheel and the letters before M
denote in regularalphabetical

be said

may

softer wheels.
Moreover
progressionthe progressively
they use
for denoting wheels which vary in temper from the standards.

-f mark

Thus
be

not

wheel

hard

so

as

wheel

the

grades.
of grading to some
degree of hardness
which

there

are

discard
with

harder

the standard

than
in this

L;

K,

and

it is known

case

numbers

denote

the

progressivelyharde

American
companies use the letter method
individual
ideas as to what
extent, but all have
should
M
constitute an
or
medium-grade wheel.

other

firms
the

still

K-f
method

as

similar
adopts a somewhat
being that althoughM denotes its medium-

letters before

Various

Then

be

Company

difference

grading,the

hard

may

the standard

Carborundum

The

so

in the manufacture

of their wheels.
is probablythe oldest in the field,
uses

which

of

engaged

probably no two
designatingthe hardness

there

firms

the many

Of

Wheels

both

in America

letter method
or

fractions

and

of

grading

of

numbers

on.

148

the continent

on
or

else
such

use
as

of

it in

2H,

Europe

tion
conjunciJM

and

AND

WHEELS

GRINDING

GRINDING

be said
the
of the
texture
points,namely,
following
governedby
with work
material to be ground,the arc of wheel contact
and the
qualityof finish required.The firstand last of these pointscan for
convenience* sake be taken in conjunction.The qualityof surface
finish is dependenton the condition of the wheel face and depth of
A wheel
the fineness of the gritin the wheel.
cut rather than
on
of so fine a gritas 100 will givean indifferentfinish if it is not turned
true and smooth.
be assumed
that for all generalpurposes the aim in view
It may
is to procure a wheel which will fulfiltwo conditions,that is,that it
time give a decent
stock rapidly
and at the same
shall first remove
from a combination
of gritof different sizes
finish. Wheels made
be seen
from the following
the best for this purpose, as may
are
of gritwill remove
Coarse
of
wheels
number
an
even
explanation.
stock faster than will fine wheels of an even
number, because their
is
of
cut
however,failin giving
or
They,
penetration greater.
depth
b^ause
in
hard
finish
surface
a high
material,
grindingvery
except
The

selection of suitable wheels for machine

149

they are

grindingmay

the

be

to

not

compact enough.
The

Combination

Grit Wheel

wheel the conditions are different and it

better at removing stock than does the coarse, even
seems
gritwheel.
from this that somethingof a grindstone
It may
be safe to assume
of gritbecome
action takes place,that is,that the finer particles
detached from the bond and both roll and cut in their imprisoned
condition between the largerparticles.For finishing
purposes this
smooth
the
and
face
of a wheel which
wheel has all
compactness
of grit;and for roughing,
made
was
solelyfrom its finest number
is within the capacityof
it enables a depth of cut to be got which
With

its

the combination

largestkernels.

With regardto the texture or hardness of material ground it may

be^taken as a generalrule that the harder the material is,the softer
the bond of wheel should be, and that cast iron and hardened
steel
relation to each other as far as grinding
bear some
wheels are concerned,
wheel is usuallysuitable for both materials.
for the same
of wheels is likelyto lead to confusion
Too
largean assortment
take the Norton
and we
plaincylindrical
grindingmachine as
may
in
of
limited
of
assortment
whfeels;at the same
point a
being a case
time it will be a starting
pointto illustratechoice of wheels under
In this machine
various grindingconditions.
four different grade
of
all
combination
found
sufficientfor all classes
wheels,
grit,are
24
of material that it is ordinarily
requiredto grind. These include
and
low-carbon
cast
steels,
iron,chilled iron,and bronze or
jiighm
etals.
These
wheels
are
composition
graded J, K, L, and M.
Hard

Wheels

of the greatest advantages

accruingfrom grindingis that it
ignoresthe non-homogeneityof material and that it machines work
with the lightest
known
of tool pressure, thus avoidingall
method
deflectionsand distortions of material which are a natural resul
One

150

GRINDING

AND

LAPPING

the more
severe
machining processes. Yet these objects are too
often defeated bythe desire for hard and long-lived
A wheel
wheels.
that is too hard or whose bond will not crumble sufficiently
under
the pressure of cut will displacethe work
and give rise to many
of vibration which
unforeseen troubles. It is also a prolific
cause
work.
is antagonistic
The advantage claimed
to good and accurate
is a deceptive
for it,that it givesa better surface finish,
for it
one,
mostlyobtains this finish at the expense of accuracy.
Quality of
that is,accurate
finish,is merely a questionof arranging of
finish,
work
chine
speed,condition of wheel face and depth of cut. In the mamentioned the suitability
of wheels to materials and conditions
is found to be as follows,
the wheels beingin each case
of a combination
of alundum
grit:
For hard chilled iron and laigediameters of cast iron and
hardened steel
24 J
chilled iron and medium
For medium
diameters of cast iron
and hardened steel and bronze
24 K
For allgradesof steel which are not hardened and for bronze
24 L
For very low carbon machine
steels
24 M
be what would
The table givenmay, speakinggenerally,
be choseQ
in the way of wheels for the materials given,and in actual
practice
they soon give evidence as to whether they are suitable. It may be
gatheredfrom the table that diameter of work is a factor in the choice
of a wheel.
This refers to area
of wheel contact
and is governed
in
is
when
what
shown
the
table
broad
dififerences
of diameter
by
for
it
be
the
K
instance, might
wheel for a
occur;
necessary to use
too
largediameter of high carbon steel if the L wheel was evidently
hard.

Speed

and

Efficient

Cutting

The efficientcuttingof a wheel dependsvery much on the speed

of the work, and an absence of knowledgein this respect may
often
lead to a suitable wheel's rejection.
Revolvingthe wheel at the
and
if it is
by the maker is the firstnecessity,
speed recommended
found unsuitable after experimentingwith various speeds it should
the conditions indicate.
be changed for a softer or harder one
as
Startingfrom the pointthat a wheel is desired that shall remove
of stock with the minimum
the maximum
amount
amount
of wear
the wheel, the indications and method of proceduremay
on
be as
follows;only it must be understood that this refers to cases
where
an
ample supplyof water is beingdelivered at the grindingpoint.
all reasonable work speeds,
If,after trying
a wheel should bum
the
work, or refuse to cut without excessive pressure, or persistently
work
glazethe surface of the work, it is too hard for that particular
and material and may be safelyrejected.If,after trying
all reasonably
reduced work speeds,a wheel should lose its size quicklyand
show all signsof rapidwear, it is too soft for that particular
work and
material and may
be rejected.These
indications refer to all ordinary
and it may
be gatheredthat the most
cases
economical
wheel
is that which acts in such a manner
to be a medium
as
between
the
two cases.
There is stillanother point to bear in mind with
regard
to the size of the gritin the wheel, but which refers more
especially

GRINDING

WHEELS

GRINDING

AND

151

hard materials such as chilled iron. Either a coarse

bination'
or comin roughingcuts because
wheel may go on cuttingefficiently
b^in to glaze when this pressure is
pressure is exerted,but may
much
relieved as in finishing
A careful microscopic
cuts.
scrutiny
lowing
this tendency would seem
of a wheel that displays
to lead to the folto

very

assumption:
When
The

wheel

is necessary

face when
to

obtain

an

Wheel

is

newly trued

Sharp
the diamond

with

finish,shows
of which
present

accurate

tool,which
rangement
promiscuous ar-

of particles,
some
pointsand others
with
broader
face
and
surface. When
a
a
rough
granular
present
the wheel is presented
the highpoints
to the hard surface of the work
this
the
of
kernels will go on
granularface and the sharpcontour of
cuttinguntil they are dulled and worn down, after which their face

FIG.

Grinding

FIG.
Internal

Grinding.

Flat Surface.

Contact

of Wheel

is too great to enter the surface without undue pressure. When

these
wheel has reached this condition the microscope shows
w
hich
bears
metallic
out
kernels
to
broader-faced
luster,
polished a
tendered and also makes the remedy quite apparthe explanation
ent.
This is to use a wheel of very fine gritfor finishing
purposes
wheel in condition by repeated
in these cases
or else keep the coarser
dressingswith the diamond tool.

area

the

Wheel
Reference
in the choice

to

Figs,i

Contact
actual practice
requires
is
the questionof wheel contact

to 4 will show

what

of a wheel so far as
eties
in contact
with four difiFerent variwheel is shown
of work, all of which we will suppose to be of the same
rial,
matein each case.
the depth of cut, much
exaggerated,
beingthe same
In the first case it is a shaft of small diameter,and the wheel contact
comparatively
being the smallest the harder gradeof wheel would be suitable,
be
found
to
this
wheel was
speaking.Assuming that
next
case,
suitable it would probablyrequirea softer wheel for the
tionately
which is a shaft of largerdiameter,and the wheel contact proporfurther,the thir-*
greater. To continue the comparisonstill

concerned.

AND

GRINDING

152

grindinginternally.In

fourth is a wheel
that the wheel

Contact

Area

of

and

is

Wheel

this may
be that as the contact
is requiredfrom each individual kernel of

of
probableexplanation

most

increases

area

flat surface,and the

practicedemands

case

softer in bond or grade

progressively
in the action of grinding
wheels.
consistency
The

The

each

shall be

proofof

some

engaged in grindinga

the wheel

shows

case

LAPPING

work

more

becomes
dulled; this requiresthat the bond
both
allow
it to escape easily
and to minimize
friable
must
to
more
the pressure
requiredto make the wheel cut as the cutting area
becomes
greater. Followingon this reasoningwe are able to choose
be suitable for almost all purposes, and
listof
wheels
which would
a
which would be as follows if of Norton
grade:

gritand

it the

sooner

be

For

gifinding
plaincylindrical
LM

J K

For

grindingplanesurfaces
IJ

For internal
F

This

grinding

IJ

would

collection of wheels

be suitable for almost any type

the wheels are exceptionally
row
nar-

grindingmachines, though when

of

grade or

grade higher might be possible;it would,

one-half

for a littletrialand experiment. The wheels

a matter
be combination
work
wheels,
cylindrical
preferably
may
better made
of
but for plane surface and internal work ^they
are
The
of
about 36 or 46.
wheel in these
great contact area
singlegrit,

of course, be
for external

is liable to generate much

classes of work

two

and porous

wheel

is

the wheel

minute

is

so

that

an

open

preferable.

Wheel
As

heat

Pressure

disk

cuttingtools which

Wear

and

built up from
held in
are

assortment

numerous

positionby

bringit to

bear

more

or

of
less

the work
with
that shall not be so great as to tear these minute
tools
a pressure
is exhausted,for if we
until their cuttingefl5ciency
from their setting
To
the
exact
do so we
of the
amount
are
wastingthe wheel.
gage
is
and
of
matter
a
experience,
judgment
though
pressure required
the rightamount
feeds are providedon a machine
where automatic
It will also be readily
determined.
of pressure or feed is soon
imderreliable for the purpose
stood that a regular
automatic feed is more
The automatic feed may
than a possiblyerratic hand
be set
one.
of
the wheel,and its amount
to givea certain depth of cut at each pass
be found excessive the depth of cut may
of wear
noted; if this wear

friable

bond,

in

using it we

must

on

be here forgottenthat work

It must
reduced.
not
speed also
that
and
work
consideration
a
enters into this
high
speed will tend
reduced
work
the wheel excessively;
to wear
a
inversely
speed will
of wear.
reduce the amount
Having these points in mind the right
be

and work speed is soon

attained
for the future.
approximatejudgment

combination
an

of

depth of

cut

arrived

at, and

GRINDING

WHEELS

AND

GRINDING

153

Grinding Allowances
of stock left for removal by the grinding
wheel and
work
the
have
both
much
bearingon the
preparing
of grindingwheels, and heavy and unnoticed losses
use
The
through want of a few precautionarymeasures.
stock
leave
of
work
to
of
amount
on
a
a
as
piece
necessary
grinding
allowance
the type of machine employed,the class
on
dependsfirstly
of labor engaged in preparingit,and whether it has to be hardened
The

amount

method
economic
often
occur
the

of

otherwise.

or

In

powerfulmachines,which

will

remove

stock

the grinding
rapidly,

allowance

There are many

may be anythingfrom ^ to ^ inch.
of an especialcharacter when
the grindingallowance stated
be exceeded to advantageso long as discretion is used.
Straight
may
shaits may often be ground direct from the black bar of raw
material
"^ inch above finished size,or when shafts of this character must
have
largereduction on the ends they can be roughlyreduced in the
lathe while in their black state and finished outrightmore
turret
of steels
economically in the grindingmachine.
Very hard qualities
where
it is often more
economical
chilled rolls are other cases
to
or
without
machine
the
use
grinding
any previousmachining process,
be sometimes
and though there may
an
alarming waste of abrasive
that are
material its cost is as nothingcompared with other savings
made.
Grinding allowances for hardened work are usuallylargerthan
for soft work, to allow for possible
distortion;so that individual
alone
the
determine
amount
to be left. It is sufl5can
experience
that
cient to say
the allowances on case-hardened or carbonized work
be excessive; otherwise
surface may
be
should
the hardened
not

cases

ground

away.

Work
Grinding Hardened
work
of hardened
As far as the actual grinding
pensable
goes, it is indisthat the whole portionof a piecethat is to be ground should
if it is at all possible
be roughed over
previousto the final finishing;
littletime to elapsebetween the two operationsso
allow some
if it has bent in hardening
and been
the better,
much
more
especially
this will allow of the development of any
afterward straightened;
and standard work in
strain that may
be present. Both for special
table
be
of grinding
allowances can
a factorya
compiledas a result
of experience
and posted in a conspicuousposition.If this be done
and trouble taken to see that it is adhered to, it will save
much trouble
and be a means
of avoidingmuch
unnecessary
expense.
of shoulders so
It is necessary
undercut the comers
to slightly
wheel intact. A pieceof
of the grinder's
as to preserve the comer
be preparedin such a manner
work should never
to form a radius
as
of the wheel, for to get the wheel face flatagain means
the comer
on
of diamond.
radii
fillets
of wheel and wear
Where
or
much
waste
with
if
better
for
out
a
even
are
they
tool,
are
got
they
necessary
wheel
allow
to
be
the
turned
to
are to be ground they must
good
for grindinga
conform to their shape. The only excusable reason
is when
the work is hardened or in some
case
round comer
special
incurred
is
warranted.
where the expense
to

LAPPING

AND

GRINDING

152

the
the wheel engaged in grindinga flat surface, and
is a wheel grinding
internally.In each case practicedemands
softer in bond or grade and is
that the wheel shall be progressively
in the action of grinding
wheels.
some
proofof a consistency

shows

case

fourth

The

of

Wheel

this may
be that as the contact
is requiredfrom each individual kernel of

of
probableexplanation

most

increases

area

Area

Contact

The

work

more

becomes
dulled; this requiresthat the bond
and to minimize
allow
it to escape easily
both
friable
to
must
more
the
the wheel cut as
the pressure requiredto make
cutting area
this
becomes
able
we
are
to choose
on
reasoning
Following
greater.
for
almost
all
be
listof
suitable
would
wheels
which
a
purposes, and
of
Norton
which would be as follows if
grade:
it the

gritand

sooner

be

gi^inding
plaincylindrical

For

LM

J K

For

grindingplanesurfaces

For

internal

IJ

H
F

grinding
I J

suitable for almost any type

of grinding
row
narmachines, though when the wheels are exceptionally
-'
mJ"'Ht
be
.'"-"
JDO"v=i^Wone-half
or
1
"
a grade
grade higher
"III
\
V'
^^-^-v^'r- *i
Icollection of wheels

This

would

be

'

III

'

FIG.

FIG.

Methods

The

FIG.

of

Use

7
Diamonds
Setting

FIG.

of Diamonds

Here
itis perhapswell to givethe questionof diamonds some
little
consideration as they are sometimes
a very
mond
expensiveitem. A diais a very essential part of a grinding
machine's equipment,for
in its absence a good and highlyfinished grade of work
is an

impK"-

It is perhapsunnecessary to state that they should be the

sibility.
hardest rough stones procurable,and that the largerthey are
the
cheaper they are in the end. With regardto their size: This is a
known
element in their priceper carat, but a laige
proportionate
of
stone allows
hold in its setting
a more
secure
and so the danger
of losing
it is reduced.
As a further precautionagainstthis
danger
the diamond
tool should always be held by mechanical means
when
usingit except in cases which are unavoidable; this may be in cases

where

profile
shapeshave

be turned on the wheel face. An attempt

flatface on a wheel, which is necesby
perfectly
sary
for finishing,
of a necessity
must
end in failure.
As a means
of preservation
of the diamond
of water
a full stream
should be run on it when
in use and many
light
chipsare preferable
to turn

hand

to

few

heavy ones.
get unduly heated,for
to

The
main
thing is to watch that it does not
this is disastrous to it. Where
large quantities
of material have to be removed
from a wheel the ordinarywheel

dresser may

diamond

be employed to reduce the bulk of the stock, and

to shape.
only used for finishing

the

GRINDING

WHEELS

AND

GRINDING

^53

Grinding Allowances
wheel and
of stock left for removal by the grinding
The
amount
the work have both much
of preparing
the method
bearingon the
and
unnoticed
losses
of
economic
use
heavy and
grindingwheels,
The
often occur
through want of a few precautionarymeasures.
stock
work
of
of
leave
to
a
as
a
amount
on
piece
grinding
necessary
the type of machine employed,the class
on
allowance dependsfirstly
of labor engagedin preparing
it,and whether it has to be hardened
otherwise.
or
the grindIn powerfulmachines, which will remove
stock rapidly,
ing
allowance
be anythingfrom ^^ to ^ inch. There are many
may
the grindingallowance stated
of an
character when
cases
especial
be
exceeded
to
so
advantage long as discretion is used. Straight
may
be
shaits may
often
ground direct from the black bar of raw material
^ inch above finished size,or when shafts of this character must
have largereduction on the ends they can be roughlyreduced in the
state and finished outright
more
turret lathe while in their black
of steels
Very hard qualities
economicallyin the grindingmachine.
economical
it is often more
where
to
chilled rolls are other cases
or
without
machine
the grinding
use
machiningprocess,
any previous
be sometimes
an
and though there may
alarming waste of abrasive
material its cost is as nothingcompared with other savingsthat are
made.
xJc
llti^-^^l-iwancps for hardened
work are
usuallylargerthan
various diameters of emery
i6 cause?'* Jlia '16 run^at tfie
wheel's,
rates of 4000, 5000 and 6000 feet
peripheral
per minute.
Ordinarily
a speed of 5000
feet is employed, though sometimes
the speed is
somewhat
lower or higher for certain cases.
*

GRINDING

156

GRADING

AND

LAPPING

ABRASIVE

WHEELS

Company uses 26 grade marks, the Carborundum

the SafetyEmery Wheel
Company uses 40. The
between
the
of the
comparison
gradedesignations
Norton
Company and the Carborundum
Company. Intermediate
the grade designations
indicate relative d^rees of
letters between
hardness between
them; the Norton
Company manufacturingfour
while the Carborundum
ufactures
degreesof each designation,
Company manThe

Norton

Company 19, while

followingtable is a

three.

The SafetyEmery Wheel Company's grade list is an

the followingdesignations:

one
arbitrary

with

C.

Extra

A.

Soft

Soft

P. Medium
O. Hard

E. Extra Hard

H.

Very Soft

M.

Medium

Soft

I. Medium
Hard
N. Very Hard
D. Special
Extra

Hard

GRINDING

AND

WHEELS

GRINDING

157

Intermediate
figuresbetween those designatedas soft,medium
oft, etc., indicate so many degreesharder or softer,e.g.y A\ is one
harder than soft. A} is three degreesharder than soft or
egree
soft.
ne
degree softer than medium

Numbers

and

Grades

Abrasive

of

Wheels

followingtable for the selection of grades will be found a

Company, and that
omparison of the gradingused by the Norton
"f the Carborundum
Company:
In

the

Norton

Co.

Carborundum

Grade

Number

Co.

Class of Work
Number

Large

Cast

Usually

Usually

Furnished

Furnished

Iron and Steel Castings16 to

Iron and Steel Castings20 to

16 to
Iron Castings
Malleable
Large
Small
Malleable Iron Castings
20 to
16 to
Chilled Iron Castings
Small

Cast

Wrought
Brass
Bronze

Castings
Castings

in General
Work
General Machine
Shop Use
Lathe and Planer Tools
Small Tools
Wood- working Tools
Twist Drills (Hand Grinding)
Twist Drills (SpecialMachines)

Rough

QtoR

30

PtoQ
QtoR

20

Furnished

30

PtoQ

to 30
16 to 24
16 to 24
20

30
30

OtoP

20

to

16

30

PtoQ

20

to 30

16 to

30

PtoQ

20

to 30

30 to

46 OtoP

24 to

30 to

46 NtoO

30 to

NtoP

50 to

36 to
36 to
36 to
46

to

Reamers, Taps, MillingCutters,

etc. (Hand Grind)
46 to
Reamers, Taps, MillingCutters,
etc. (Spec.Mach.)
46 to

100

Furnished

GtoH
GtoH
20 to 30
16 to 24 GtoH

16 to
to

Usually

16 to 24

QtoR
PtoQ

16 to

Iron

20

Grade

Usually

36

Htol
H
FtoH
Htol
I
H

36 GtoJ
36 I to J
80
I to J

60 MtoN

40 to 60

60 MtoN

60

I to

50

LtoO

60

KtoM

LtoM

NtoP

50

to 80

KtoN

6o

HtoK

50 to 6d

LtoM

30

QtoR
PtoQ

to 24
to 24

Gtol

100

Edgingand

Jointing
Agricultural
16 to
Implements
Plow
Points
16 to
Grinding
Plow
Surfacing

Bodies

Stove Mounting

20

to

20

to

Finishing
Edges
30 to
20 to
DropForgings
Saws
and
Sharpening
Gumming
36 to
Mill and Paper Cutting
Planing
of Stoves

Knives

Car Wheel

30 to

Grinding

20

to

30

NtoO

36 PtoQ
46 OtoP
30 PtoQ
60 MtoN

141
2D

16 to

24 to 30

30

OtoP

G
G
G
Gtol

36
403-603 JtoL
24 to

202

46 JtoK

20

24 to 30

"

60

to 80

16 to 24

MtoR
H

GRINDING

158

AND

LAPPING

LAPPING
Lappikg

may

be defined

of work by means
a piece
the surface of which
is

ol
the surface
finishing
of another pieceof material,
called a lap.
as

the process

of

chargedwith an abrasive.
divided
into three generalclasses. First,
those
Laps are roughly
where
the form of the lap makes a line contact with the work, anc
the work
fora.
revolved to developthe cylindrical
is,if cylindrical,
if
in
is
straight, one direction, moved back and forth under lis
or,
surfaces with a fn'i
lap. Second, those which are used for straight
the lap,and third,those which
contact
on
used for male ar.ii
are
surfaces with a full contact
female cylindrical
the lap. In a.!
on
the
which
material
from
the lap is made
cases
be softerthan
must
the work.
If this is not so, the abrasive will chargethe work a"i
cut the lap,instead of the lapcutting
the work.

Fig. 9.

"

Lapping Plate

for Flat Work

The firstclass is used in the placeof emery wheels, either whert

the work is too small to use an ordinarywheel or where a form ^
to be ground on the work
and an emery wheel will not keep itsshapfof
made
They are usually
machinery steel and the abrasive used
crushed diamond
in the diamoiwi
rolled into the surface. In rolling
dust the sharp comers
of the particles
them to bed secur"f
cause
into the surface of the lap,and if a good quality
is used,
of diamond
will
a lap
grindall day without recharging. Oil is used to lubricate
the work and carry away the dust from the grinding.If a diamond
in ^^^
of diamond
tear and raise "burs"
lap is run dry the particles

ij

be about
wheel of the same
two- thirds that for an
size;for if itis^^
emery
smooth
and glazeinstead of cutting.Ths
the lap will wear
cessive,
md of lap is used mainly in watch and clock shops,and shopsma^
dies,and similar work.
tools,sub-press
J watch

work, which stripthe lap very quickly. The

speed should

LAPPING

Lapping Flat

1S9
Surfaces

In

which
are
lappingflat surfaces,
usuallyon hardened steel,
a
is
used
and
abrasive. In order
as
an
as a lap
plate
emery
it should either be quite
platemay stay reasonablystraight,
it rigid,
to make
and in any case it
thick, or else ribbed sufficiently
should be supportedon three feet,
the same
surface
as a
place. For
the lap works better
rough work or
blockingdown," as it is called,
if scored with narrow
about
inch
J
apart, both lengrthways
grooves,
and crossways,
thus dividing
the plateinto small squares, as in Fig.
The
is sprinkled
the block,wet with lard oil
on
loosely
9.
emery
and the work rubbed on it;care is taken to press hardest on the highest
spots. The emery and oil get in the grooves, and are continually
between the plateand the work and are
rollingin and out, getting
into the cast iron,thus chargingit thoroughly
crushed
in a short

cast-iron
that the

"

is best for this purpose.

emery
has firstbeen ground on a
After blockingdown, or if the work
surface grinder,the process is different. A pidinplate is used
of flour of emery
with the best quality
as
an
abrasive,as the least
About

time.

No.

100

or

No.

120

will scratch the work

that it will be very hard

so
is used as a lubriof
Instead
benzine
cant
the
scratches
out.
oil,
get
and the lap should be cleaned off and fresh benzine and emery
appliedas often as it becomes sticky. The work should be tried
from time to time with a straight-edge
and care taken not to let the
the
in
from
under
and
out
work, as this will cause the edges
emery run
than the center, and will especially
the comers.
to abrade more
mar
the plateand work should be cleaned
After gettinga good surface,
The
charging in the plate will
perfectlydry, and then rubbed.
whatever
have become charged
cut justenough to remove
may
emery
in the work, will take away the dull surface and leave it as smooth as
to produce.
glassand as accurate as it is possible

lump

or

coarseness

to

Laps

for Holes

lappingholes various kinds of laps are used,accordingto the

and the conditions under which the work is done.
accuracy required,
turned cylindrical
with a longituis a pieceof wood
The simplest
dinal
the
in
of
of
which
cloth is
a
or
edge
piece
split
emery
groove
In

around the wood until it fillsthe hole

inserted. This cloth is wound
in the work.
is
fitfor
This
only
rough holes
smoothingor enlarging
of round and bell-mouthed than
out
and usuallyleaves them more
and
at first. Another
lap used for the same
theywere
purpose
"

is'made by turninga pieceof copwhich producesbetter results

per,
it longitudinally
brass,or cast iron to fitthe hole and splitting
is sprinkled
Loose
distance from the end.
over
for some
it,
emery
is
the
a
nd
driven
into
with lard oil for a lubricant,
a taper wedge
end for adjustmentas the lap wears.
"

etc.,in largequanrolls,
bushings,cam
tities,
be
ably
can
where a littlebell-mouthing
allowed,and yet a reasona great many
copper
shops use adjustable
good hole is required,
of
One
above.
than
the
with
making
made
more
care
way
laps
them is to split
the lap nearly the whole
length,but leavingboth
For

lappingcommon

ends solid.

One

drill

side is drilled and

tapped for spreadingscrew."

AND

GRINDING

i6o

screw
for adjustment. Either one
used or two
screws
dividingthe

better

LAPPING

the split
half-waydown
may be i
Mother
and
into
thirds.
split

holea
adjustmentis to drill a small longitudinal
the lengthof the lap,enlargeit for half its length,
j

of

means

half
little over
and tap the largeend for

distance. This is done before spitting.

with a taper point is fittedso iha:
a long screw
it tries to force itselfinto a small hole,thus spreadwhen
ing
tightened
the lap.
better than a lead lap. Lead charges
For nice work there is nothing
the worL
holds the emery firmlyand does not scratch or score
easily,
cuts.
and holds its shape well for light
It is easy to fit to the work
while
it
this
Under hard usage, however,
wears
easily.For
reason,
job are sometimes cast on straight
lapsfor a singlehole or a special
arbors,where much lappingis done it is customary to mold the lajs
for a slight
sive
to taper arbors with means
adjustment. After any extenadjustmentthe lap will be out of true and must be turned on.
end in
in Fig. lo, are to be held by one
All of these laps,as shown
some

Into this hole

Fig.

lathe chuck, and

io.

the work

Laps for Holes

"

back and
of a clamp held in the hand.
or
by means
should be taken not to springthe work.
a

How
There

are

several

to

run

Do

Good

pointswhich

must

forth
If

on

them

by hand,

clamp is used

care

Lapping
be taken

into consideration

in order to get good results in lappingholes.

The most
important
is that the lap shall always fillthe hole. If this condition is not complied
with the weight of the work
of holding
and the impossibility
it to lap out of round, or if it is out of round
cause
the
the
start
at
surface. Iftbe
lap will be free to follow the original
it will bear hardest on the high spots and lap them off. Next
lap fits,
in importance to gettinga round
To
hole is to have it straight.
attain this end the lap should
be a little longerthan the work,so
it exactly
rightwill

that it will

lap the whole lengthof the hole at once, and not have a
there may be in it. What
is known
tendencyto follow any curvature
as
the
is
or
hard
on
bell-mouthing,
lappinglarge
to prevent,
ends,
if the emery
is sprinkled
the lap and the work shoved
=tspecially
on

LAPPING

i6i

itwhile itis running. The best way to avoid this condition when
is to put
usingcast-iron or copper laps,which do not chargeeasily,
in
the
of
and
the emery
the slot,near
the lap,
after the work
center
is shoved on squirtoil in the slot to float the emery.
Then, when
the lathe is started the emery will carry around and graduallywork
Where
lead is used the emery
out to the ends, lappingas it goes.
be put on where it is desired to have the lap cut and rolled in
can
of iron. It will not come
with a flatstrip
out easily,
so will not
spread
is
with
and
it
to any
a lapchargedin this manner
extent,
possible
the ends of the hole at all. The work should always
to avoid cutting
be kept in motion back and forth to avoid lumping of the emery
which will score grooves in the work.
and cuttings
on

Ring Gage
lapped with

Ring

gages are
straightand smooth
lapped^are cooled

to
as

and

Other

Work

lead lap. They are first ground

a
within .0005 inch of size,and then, when
well as cleaned,before tryingthe plug,by

Fig.

II.

"

Lap

for

Plugs

placingthem

in a pailof benzine for a longenough time to bring

down
Some
to the temperature of the room.
shops leave a
thin collar projecting
from each side around the hole,so that,if there
is any bell-mouthing,
it will be in these collars,
which are ground
ofif after the lappingis done.
Other metals are
lapped in this same
except that the
manner,
abrasive is different. Cast iron is lapped with emery, but charges
to some
This chargingcan
be taken out without changing
extent.
the work materially
it
by rubbing by hand with flour of emery cloth.
In lapping
Crocus
bronze or brass,crocus
and Vienna
lime are used.
is used with a cast-iron or lead lap,and the chargingis removed
by
which
fits
work
few
seconds
for
hardwood
stick
the
a
on
a
running
the hole. Unslaked
Vienna lime, freshlycrushed, is used with a
lead or hardwood
lap,and does not charge. It does a nice job,but
is very slow, and is only used in watch factories.
For lappingplug gages, pistons,
articles,a
and other cylindrical
with
fitted
cast-iron lap is usuallyused,splitand
a
closingand a
in Fig.11.
Sometimes, where a very fine
spreading
screw, as shown
them

finishis
inade

where
or
required,
largerthan the work,

the

and

work
a

lead

is not

hardened,

ringcast

the hole

into it.

POWDER

DIAMOND

LAPPING

AND

GRINDING

i62

IN

THE

MACHINE

SHOP

used for this purpose, costing85 cents per carat, is

an
gradeof diamond, not so hard as the black diamond used
for drills and truingemery
wheels,and not of a clear and perfect
the gem
class. Many
to permit it to enter
structure
are
a mixed
but
black and white, others yellow and some
clear
are
pink; many
diamond
there
is
the
which
small
d6bris
from
Then
flaky.
cutting,
is reduced to ]X)wderand sells somewhat
find
but some
cheap"er;
it more
economical to use the above and i"owderit themselves,
as
is
and
of
the debris from diamond
does
not
a flakynature,
cutting
charge into the lap so well.
lows:
Assuming there is 25 carats to reduce to powder,proceed as foldiamond

The

inferior

Into

mortar,

hammer

8-ounce

shown

as

to crush

Fig. 1 2, placeabout 5 carats, usingan

from 3 to 4 minutes* steady
a
Scrape the f"owder free
good average.
sides and empty into one-half pint of oil.
at

it. It takes

reduce it to
from the bottom and the
The
oil used is the best olive oil obtainable,and is held in a cupthat will hold a pintand one
half. The 25 carats
shaped receptacle
stir
and
until
in
the
it
mixed,
oil,
beingreduced to powder,
thoroughly
and allow to stand 5 minutes; then pour ofF to another
dish. The
in the dish is coarse
that remains
and should be washed
diamond
in benzine
and allowed to dry, and should be repounded, unless
diamond
is desired. In that case
label it No. a
extremelycoarse
Now
stir that which has been poured from No. o, and allow to stand
Then
off into another
residue will
dish. The
minutes.
10
pour
be No. I.
the table below.
Repeat the operation,
following
small
for convenient use,
be
into
The
dishes
c
an
settlings
put
of
oil
it
the consistency
with
the diamond
to give
enough
staying
supplyhouse.
paste. The dishes can be obtained from a jewelers'

pounding

to

Table

To

obtain

No.

"

5 minutes.

To

obtain

No.

"

10

To

obtain

No.

"

To

obtain

No.

To

obtain No.

To

obtain

No.

To

obtain

No.

Diamond

metal.

For

"

Diamond

minutes.

30 minutes.
i hour.

"

"

10

"

Settling

for

hours.
hours

until oil is clear.

is seldom

hammered; it is generallyrolled into the

instance,several pieces of wire of various diameters

charged with diamond

Place
be desired for use in die work.
the wire and a small portionof the diamond
between two hardened
surfaces,and under pressure roll back and forth until thoroughly
No.
the metal

charged.
form

diamond

may

in this

case

is generally
used.

Or

one

can

and use a roll,

any desired shape and apply diamond
into the metal.
This is then a file
as
Fig. 14, to force the diamond
which will work hard steel,
but the moment
this diamond
or
file,
lap,
is crowded
it is stripped
of the diamond, and is consequently
of no
It is to be used with comparativelylight
e.
pressure.

is the best metal.

etains
it longer than other
latter is used when
iteel. The
s often used.

SHOP

163

Laps

Diamond
Copper

MACHINE

THE

IN

POWDER

DIAMOND

It

the diamond

takes

metals;

next, then

brass

it is wished

and
readily,

to preserve

bessemer
that

form

D
IG. ]13
FIG.

^==TV.

go
FIG.

14

e=acD
FIG.

FIG.

12

Diamond

For

15

Laps

and Tools

say
sharpeningsmall,flat drills,

0.008

to o.ioo,

copper

lap

taper shank, as in Fig.13, and chargedon the face with

diamond, usingpressure on the roll,makes a most satisfactory

mounted

on

No. 2
method of

lastsfor a long time if

used, and there is no dangerof drawing the temper on the
properly
drill.It is much quickerthan any other method of sharpening.
To chargethe lap use the roll.Fig. 15, supportedon a T rest
firmlyagainstthe lap,beingcareful to have the roll on the
pressing

sharpeningdrills.

The

diamond

lap it will be grindingthe

and
either
the lap or the roll,
on
be spread
may
that
of
diamond
usuallytakes twice the amount
subsequent
chargingtakes. To avoid loss of diamond, wash the
This can
for that purpose.
lapin dish of benzine

center;otherwise instead of chargingthe

roll. The diamond
the firstchai^ng
a

be reclaimed by
be resettled.

kept exclusively
burningthe metal with acids,and the diamond

can

AND

GRINDING

i64

LAPPING

holes in hard spindlesor for position

where
holes
the use of
too small to allow
are
plates,
No.
work
diamond
does
the
i
wheels.
beautifully.Or ifit
emery
is wished to grindsapphirecenters or plugsas stops, etc., a bessemer
lap made in the form of a wheel and charged with diamond on the
diameter does the work nicely.
Nos.
used on
boxwood
are
laps,mounted on
5 and 6 diamond
and
with the finger.
the
diamond
smeared
or
chucks,
on
taper plugs
is
The
at high speed and used for fine and
slow cutting
run
lap
which also givesa highpolish.

grindingof taper

the

For

work

in hard

-^jJ^=-.=^

Fig.

REAMER

Cross-section of
6.
Reamer
Hand
"

AND

CUTTER

Reamer
After

GRINDING

Clearances

for a periodof
experimenting
MillingMachine Company succeeded

constant

Cincinnati
for four

than

to be the

which

the greatest number

of smooth
holes with a minimum
The
four stylesof reamers
follows: Hand
are
as
for
hand
for steel,
iron
and
reamers
bronze, chucking
gray
for gray iron and bronze, chucking reamers
for steel. The

ream

of

amount
reamers
reamers

company
which

reamers

for

obtainingwhat they consider

best clearances,
the objectbeingto grindclearances on reamers

would

of
styles

year,the
in establishing
tables

more

wear.

uses
are

-inder.

adjustableblade

ground in the toolroom

reamers
on

almost

allof
exclusively,

their universal cutter

and tool

REAMER

CUTTER

AND

GRINDING

165

Two
clearance lines,
cross-section of a hand reamer.
the
the
on
a
blades,
being
ground
cuttingclearance
d
b the second clearance called for in the table. The objectof
zing the adjustmentfor the second clearance so minutelyis to prode a proper width of land,which equals.025 inch on allhand reamers
iron or bronze,and 0.005 i^^h on hand reamers
for steel.
r
gray

Fig.
and

16 is

Bf

are

Fig. 17.
Blade for

'bucking reamers

"

Chucking Reamer
Gray Iron and Bronze

ior gray iron and bronze have,in this system,

23-

legreebeveled ends as shown in Fig. 17, and are providedwith two

for which the settings
learances along the blades,
are given in Table
have
which
is equal to the
The
ends
clearance
beveled
onlyone
econd clearance givenin Table 3. Fig.18 shows a chuckingreamer
the blades are circular ground
or
reaming steel. In these reamers
of
be
size
reamed
the
hole
and without clearance,the 45to
exact
o
iegreebeveled ends only havingclearance as given in Table 4. On
the blades are ground from .015 to .020 inch
illreamers
of this style
aelow size half of their lengthtoward the shank end.
..

.^._._^

Fio. 18,
Chucking Reamer
Blade for Steel
"

clearances for the various kinds of reamers

as
held
the
tooth
is
the
rest
on
givenin Tables i, 2, and 3,
stationary
while in grinding the 45-degree
emery wheel head of the grinder,
the tooth rest is
for steel,
beveledends on the chucking reamers
and
travels
The
with
the work.
table
f
rom
the
grinder
supported
blades are tapered about 0.004 per
frontend of the hand reamer
inch. The back ends of the blades are also slightly
taperedto prevent
the
out.
the
when
holes
reamer
backing
injuring
In

grindingthe

i66

GRINDING

AND

LAPPING

REAMER

AND

CUTTER

GRINDING

167

i68

LAPPING

AND

GRINDING

Tooth

Cup
For

Wheel

Clearance

tooth
setting

Table

Disk

rest to obtain

cup-shaped wheel.

rest is set below

at A

work

the distance
,
the table below.

Tooth

centers

beingfound

as

Clearance

Table

Giving distance

B
for setting
and tooth rest below
of wheel
center
spindleto
obtain
5" or 7" clearance with
of
wheels
different diameters

5" or 7" clearance when grindingwork

teeth of millingcutters
peripheral
with

Wheel

Best

in when

centers

of
grinding with periphery

disk wheel.

MACHINE

SCREW

PEEDS

AND
BOX

CUTTERS

AND

TOOLS

of
generalprinciples

The

SPEEDS

TOOLS,

two

types of box

tools

usingrespectively

radial cutters
are
representedin Figs, i and 2. The
ngent
for
is
used
roughing and the latter for finishing,
rmer
generally
type
in Fig. i lies in a
he tangent cutter in the type of box tool shown
and

3t formed

Fig.

of the box

the bottom

to
parallel

I.

Roughing

"

degrees,with

the

front

Tool

Box

an

angle,usually

with

Cutter

Tangent
ten

but at

of the

box,

thus

givingthe

desired

rake

the

cutting point. Finishingcutters of the type in Fig. 2 are

the end, located square
with the work
and ordinarily
on
straight
It

ground

as

and 5 to 8

The

indicated

degreesfor

tangent

to

degreesfront

10

pensation
sharpened by grindingon the end, and comby adjusting
grinding away of the metal is made

in

the

frequent
sharpening cannot

be

done

the

below

of the

tool

radial

type of

the

cutter

resultingin

without

in

Fig. 2,
lowering

work, unless a
radial tool,however,

of the

center

substantialpart of the tool be sacrificed.

iseasily
ground

for steel

brass.

forward, whereas

cuttingedge

clearance

is

cutter

for the
the cutter

give 7

to

The

face a, which is the edge governing the

correspondingface on the tangent tool is rather

accuratelyon

while
the
finish;
difficult
to grind so

as

to

produce

as

169

smooth

work.

lyo

SCREW

MACHINE

SPEEDS

TOOLS,

AND

FEEDS

for box-tool cutters are as follows:

The sizes of steel recommended
box tools used for stock diameters up to ^ inch, ^ inch squa:?;
up to I inch diameter, ^ inch square; up to J inch diameter,J inch
square; up to } inch diameter,^ inch square; up to i inch diameter,
I inch square; up to i^ inches diameter,^ inch square.
For

HOLLOW

MILLS

teeth of hollow mills should be radial or ahead of the center.

With the cuttingedge ahead of the center, as in Fig.3, the chips
as
outward
caused
from
the
to
work
and
move
are
produced
away
p:^
it. With
the cutting
vented from disfiguring
edge below the center,
above the
rough turningwill result. With the cuttingedge greatly
About one tenth of the cuttingdiameterj
occurs
center, chattering
the teeth ahead of die center.
is a good average amount
to cut
The

7'to 10"foT steel

6"to 8"for BraBB

Fig.

2.

"

the

FinishingBox
Radial

When

chips produced from

Tool

with

Cutter

any

turningor

boring cut cd

nicely,it

at
is indicative of a free cuttingaction; but these chips
holloa
troublesome
the
automatic
In
machine.
on
screw
making
very
is
mills for the automatic,part or all of the rake to the cutting
edge

generallysacrificed.
d
the hollow
table under
mill in Fig. 3 gives proportions
mills from ^^ to f diameter, showing the amount
to cut the teetli
ahead of the center, the taper of the hole,etc.
The

DIES

Fig.

3.

"

AND

Hollow

DIES

AND

TAPS

171

Mill Dimensions

TAPS

in making springscrew
It is good practice
dies to either hob out
the thread with a hob tap 0.005 to 0.015 i^ch over-size,
according

size,and

in

springthe

to proper
cuttingsize by a
prongs
clampingring,or to tap the die out from the rear with a hob tap
from -j^inch to J inch per foot,leaving
the front end about
tapering

to

use

to

and in this case

also to use a clamping
inch over cuttingsize,
ring. Both of these schemes are for the purpose of obtainingback
clearance and are effective. Of the two the use of the taper hob is

0.002

to be

preferred.

lya

MACHINE

SCREW

SPEEDS

TOOLS,

Spring Die

AND

FEEDS

Sizes

for springscrew
dies,Fig.4, should prove
steel. For brass the cutting ed^eis
The width of land at bottom
dimension A,
radial,thus eliminating
of thread is usuallymade about i outside diameter of cut, the milling
between flutes being70 degrees,
leaving50 degreesfor the prong in
the case of three-flute dies.
The

table of dimensions

for
of service,particularly

Taper of

Tap"3Jf
per

Ft.

-"l
Sizes

Small

of

Sizes

Fig.

4.

"

to

Spring

Sizing Work

Dies

Given

(Over all Dimensions

Die

for

in

Sketch)

Inch

Dimensions

Threading

to tappingthey should be somewhat

boringholes previously
laigerthan the theoretical diameter at bottom of thread, as the

In

crowding action
compensate

reakageis

for

of the tap will

Where
no

this.

liable to

occur

and

the metal to flow some

and
allowance is made, frequent tap
torn
threads in the work
also. On
cause

TAP

LENGTH

AND

NUMBER

OF

LANDS

173

it is for the same

external work
advisable to turn the work
reasons
undersize and the following
table givesgood average allowances for
both internal and external work.

Tap Length

and

Number

of Lands

of teeth in taps and the width of land should be

number
the
diameter and pitchof work as irell
of
as the nature
by
regulated
the material beingcut.
On fine threads,
where a drunken
thread is
teeth are required
than on a coarser
to be insured against,
more
pitch
A good average number
of teeth on taps for
diameter.
of the same
United States standard threads is givenin the following
table. With
The

short land

very littlesupport is afforded and

heat due
much
land in contact causes
thismay cause
of
to excessive friction,
welding chipsand torn threads.

too few teeth and

too

too
chattering;

174

SCREW

MACHINE

TOOLS,

SPEEDS

AND

FEEDS

The
two
nachine
are

FORMING

TOOLS

FORMING

TOOLS

75

types of formingcutters

commonly used in the screw

6.
The
and
circular formingcutter in
Figs.5
is
usuallycut away from | to -fginch below center to give
Mg. 5
;uitable cuttingclearance and the center of the tool post on which
is a corresponding
t is mounted
above
the center
amount
of the
that
the
is
nachine, so
cutting
edge of the circular tool
broughton
shown

in

f^O^^

Fig. 5.
the

"

Circular

Forming

Tool

The
relative clearance ordinarily
work.
obtained by circular cutters and dovetail tools of the type shown
in
is
in
with
indicated
is
that
It
obvious
material
a
6,
Fig.
given
Fig.7.
the diameter of the work the greater the angleof clearance
the larger
requirwi. Clearance anglesare seldom less thin 7 degreesor over
12

center

line

of the

degrees.

diameter
of circular formingtools is
consideration. A small diameter has a more
The

Fig. 6.

"

Dovetail

an

importantmatter for
pronouncedchange of

Forming Tool

clearanceanglethan a largediameter.
In fact,
when
of an exceedingly
the
tool
diameter
in
circular
large
approaches cuttingaction
dovetail
the
type of tool which is usuallyprovidedwith about 10
clearance. Circular tools usuallyrange from about if to
degrees
in which
the size of machine
3 inches diameter,depending upon
are used.
they

SCREW

176

MACHINE

Gettingthe
order

In

make

to

Tool
a

Diameters

circular

or

AND

SPEEDS

TOOLS,

at

FEEDS

Different Points

dovetail type of tool so that

of its cuttingedge is such as to producecorrect work,the

below center, as at c in Fig.8,and the
amount
a circular tool is cut
clearance angleof a dovetail tool as at A\ Fig.7 must
be known.
to Fig.8, the formingtool shown
cuts
two different
Thus, referring
sion
diameters on the work, the step between beingrepresented
by dimenfinished
To
be
find
which
tool
the
must
to
a.
depth/
forming
the center line to givethe correct depthof cut a in the work (the
on
the contour

To aait amoant
Aato"
matic Tool Holder
la
above Center.

Fig.

10.

Finishinga

"

Circular Tool

by c)the
represented

beingmilled below center an amount

be applied:
formula may
following
cutter

Supposethe depthof cut in the work represented

by a to be o.iS^'"
the radius g of the formingcutter i inch; the distance c which the
formingtool is milled below center, -^ inch. Applyingthe above
formula to find/ and substituting
the values justgiven for the letteg
in the formula

Then/

we

have/

V 1 + -0231
V .724485

.1488

\/

"

(.304 X

.8512

.0231

"

.9823)
=

.1488

(.304\/i

".03516)

DOVETAIL

TOOL

Dovetail

Tool

DEPTHS

177

Depths

similar pieceof work is to be formed with a dovetail type of

cutter,the distance T, Figs.7 and 9, to which it is necessary to plane
the tool shoulder in order that it may
cut depth a correctly
in the
the
formula: T
a
(cosineA*). As 10 degrees
work, is found by
this form of tool,the cosine of this
is the customary clearance on
which is .98481,may be considered a constant, making reference
angle,
of
rule.
cosines unnecessary
to a table
as
a
Assuming the same
depth for a as in the previouscase, that is .152 inch,and multiplying
by .98481,gives.1496inch as the depth of T to which the tool must
If

be

planed.

DoTetan
Oatter

Blank

-y
Fig.

II.

"

Finishinga

Dovetail

Foiming Tool

While it frequently
is necessary
advisable to determine
or
by
calculation the dimension computed in the precedingexamples,in
the majority
of cases
when making a cutter with a master
tool of
the same
outline as the model, the correct form in the circular cutter
is obtained automatically
tool to the same
by droppingthe master
distance below the lathe center as the circular cutter is to be milled
off center and then feeding
it in to finish the cutter.
This procedure,
shown
in Fig.10, assures
the correct
all
pointsbeing proshape at
duced
ing
in finishthe exact working plane of the cutter.
Similarly,
on
tool may
be
in the planeror shaper,the master
a dovetail cutter
1
0
the
cutter
with
set as in Fig.11 at the same
degrp
(usually
angle
to the work.
as the latterwill afterward be applied

178

SCREW

MACHINE

CIRCULAR
When
a

on

TOOLS,

FOR

TOOL

circular cutter
in

POINTS

CONICAL

is to be made

for

FEEDS

AND

SPEEDS

forminga

conical surface

tool of the exact

on
Fig. 2,
anglerequired
be used for finishing
the
the cutter in the same
way as

piece

as

master

the work may

tool in Fig.9 is applied;that is,the master
is to be droppedbelow
the cutter center, is to be above
the work center
the amount
center
in operation. The
distance is representedby ^ in Fig.
when
12.
Another
of making a master tool,
method, which avoids the necessity
is to set the compound rest of the lathe to the exact
anglerequired
with
this
with
the
and
center line)
case
a horizontal
(in
30 degrees

Fig.

12.

Circular

"

Forming Tool

for Conical Points

center, turn off one side of tbe

the other way
cutter blank and then set the compound rest around
and face off the other side. If desired a similar method
may be
followed
for grinding the forming cutter
after hardening.The
the cutter should be located either above
below
arbor carrying
or

cuttingtool

set at distance D

below

(R

the

grindingwheel

distance

equal to

4- r\

"

where

equals

is milled below center, r the radius of the cutter,

and R the radius of the emery wheel.
Assuming D to be .187(A)
and
the
vertical
distance between centers
i
inch,
inch;Ry 2.5 inches;
r,
the

of
-

depth the

cutter

formingtool and grindingwheel

.187 (3.5)
=

-6562 (ii)inch.

centers

would

equal.187

"

'-^

CUTTING

AND

SPEEDS

P4

s
en

Q
M
H

FEEDS

179

l8o

MACHINE

SCREW

AND

SPEEDS

TOOLS,

FEEDS

SCREW

FOR
of

AND

FEEDS

MACHmE

WORK

feeds for different types

in the automatic
of tools used on materials commonly worked
screw
machine have been compiledfrom data accumulated
and thoroughly
in this class of work.
tested duringextended experience
where a series of tools is used on an
It is,of course, impossible,
automatic machine, to select speeds theoretically
correct
for eventool carried by the turret and cross slide. A compromise is necessan'
and therefore speedsare selected which will faJl within the range
suitable for the different tools.
The

accompanyingtables

SPEEDS

Speeds and

speedsand

Feeds

for

Turning

Tables i and 2, page 1 79, cover

turningspeedsand feeds for br%htdrawn stock (screwstock)and brass,with various depthsof chip (that
is,stock removed on a side)from -^^up to i inch. These feeds and
more
for such tools
especially
speedsand depthsof cut are figureid

roughingboxes where
cuttingtool.
by a single
as

the cut,
For

thoughfrequently
heavy,is

taken

yV^^ch chip the feeds for various

of stock are
diameters
practically
midway between those tabulated
feed
for i-and J-inchchips. The
per revolution for f chiptaken on
is the same
diameters ij inch and lai^ger
as
given for J inch chip,
the speed also beingthe same
for corresponding
diameters.
Where
hollow mills
or

more

used

steel and the work

is divided
among
cuttingedgesthe feed per revolution for a given
are

on

than givenfor box

25 per cent coarser
classes of tools the feeds are, of course, increased as

chip is about

three

depth

of

tools;with both
the diameter

of

FORMING

FOR

FEEDS

i8i

TOOLS

the peripheral
increases,
speedsbeingreduced as the feeds
The
for finishing
box tools as used
feeds
and
coarser.
specxls
grow
cating
indistock and brass are given in Table 3, the last column
on
screw
of stock which, generally
the amount
speaking,it is advisable
the stock

to

in order to

remove

surface.

producea good

Forming-toolSpeeds and
Speeds
It will

and

be

feeds for

reached, a
feed, tools
as

work

are

diameter

givenin
of about

Tables

inch

4 and

has

take the

5.
been

tool about

i-inch wide

from

monly
approximately^ (such as comof
heavier
admitting
purposes)
cutting-ofif

employed

crowding

formingtools

that after

seen

Feeds

this width
for

rule than

Table

up

adapted to

to

either the

4.

is

narrower

Speeds

for

or

wider tools.

Forming

coarsest

l82

MACHINE

SCREW

TOOLS,

SPEEDS

DrillingSpeeds and
Drillingspeeds and
speeds

are

makers
as
noted that

feels

AND

FEEDS

Feeds

given in Table 6. While these

velocities than drillhigherperipheral
rule
recommend
for general purposes,
it should be
a
in the automatic, on
nary
conditions for drilling
the ordibased

on

are

much

of work, are usuallyideal so far as lubrication,

ness
steadiit
is
and
feed,etc., are concerned,
possiblewhere the holes
drilled are
comparativelyshallow and the drill has ample opportunity
for coolingduring operationof the other tools,to maintain
speedsthat would be considered too high to be attempted in general
run

of

shop practice.

Table

6.

Drilling

Speeds and

Feeds

Feeds

for

and

Speeds

Reaming

In
for reamers.
feed data
7 is made
up of speed and
ered
this table the feed for dififerent classes of material has been considof reamer,
for any given diameter
constant
as
althoughit is

Table

probablethat

with certain materials,especially

brass alloys,
etc..
on
the feed per revolution might be increased somewhat, to advantage,
the rates given. These
feeds have been tabulated,however, as
over

^presentinghighly satisfactory
practicein reaming
led.

the

materials

DIAMETERS

OF

SHELL

BLANKS

i8S

B
.2

60

.S
.S

\^
2

FINDING

OF

METHOD

TOOLS

PRESS

PUNCH

DIAMETERS

THE

OF

SHELL

BLANKS

findingof diameters of
shapes which frequentlyoccur

shell

blanks, applies
some
practice.
the surface of the shell in comparison
is based upon
method
The
and should therefore be used only when
of the blank
with the area
of the flanged shapes the
In case
lightmaterial is to be considered.
for the

method

This

also

other

to

width

in

flangeshould be small
shell of
shows a cylindrical

of

the

Fig. I

in

proportionto

the diameter

the

d and

diameter.

the

depth

h.

the diameter
d of the
of the blank, lay down
find the diameter
horizontal line,Fig. 2, add to this a distance equal
shell twice on
a
times
the
four
to
depth h of the shell and describe a semicircle of

To

which

total distance

the

desired

diameter.

blank

If the shell has

this
In

case

on

the

times

d from

In

of

flangeas

horizontal

the

flangeto
the

Line

circle to

vertical line D

The

diameter.

the

the

horizontal

is to be drawn

at

line

from

gives

distance

the

d from

horizontal.

of the

the end

to

is the

intersectingpointwith

the

Fig. 3, add four times the

proceed as above; see

hemisphere,Fig.

horizontal
the

in

end,

width

line and

line and

5, lay down

Fig.

at

4.

Siree

the diameter

the vertical line

draw

of

the

tance
dis-

in

Fig. 6.
If the hemisphere has a flange as in Fig. 7, add a distance
equal
twice the width
of the flange to the horizontal line,as in Fig. 8.
eter
diamany case, the length of the vertical line D gives the desired
as

of blank.
If

shell with

first the

diameter

bottom

of the

taperingsides. Fig. 9,

diameters

by itself and
di and

has

divide

in order

be

to

drawn,

the

multiply

product by

obtain

the

the

length x.
Fig. 10.
If the taper shell has a flange of the width o. Fig. 11, add
to the
in Fig. 12.
base line of the diagram twice this width, as shown

sum

Otherwise

two

proceed as

AND

PUNCH

shown

DIE

to

in

ALLOWANCE

ACCURATE

FOR

WORK
In
press

the
for

desired
^

to

blanking, perforatingand forming of flat stock in the power

parts of adding machines, typewriters,etc., it is generally
make

two

leave the outside

different
of the

kinds

blank

of cuts

of

184

with

the dies used.

semi-smooth

finish,with

First,

sharp

DIAMETERS

OF

SHELL

BLANKS

i8S

i86

PRESS

PUNCH

free from
comers,
the cuttingside.

TOOLS

of roundingon
burrs,and with the least amount
Second, to leave the holes and slots that are perforated

and straight
and true to
in the parts as smooth
as
possible,
size. The
table given is the result of considerable experimenting
this class of work, and has stood the test of years of use since it
on

compiled.

was

The

The

die

the size of the work

always governs

punch governs

the size of the work

passingthrough it.

that it passes

through.

In

Punch

Fig.

13.

"

BlankingTools

Punch

Fig. 14.

"

Tools
Perforating

the die is made to the size of the work wanted and

the punch is made
work
to the
smaller. In perforating

blankingwork
the

punch

size of the work

wanted
and the die largerthan the punch. The
the results obtained.
clearance between
the die and punch governs
of the table in determining
Figs. 13 and 14 show the application
the clearance for blanking or perforating
hard rolled steel .060 inch
thick. The clearance givenin the table for this thickness of metal

CLEARANCE

FOR

PUNCHES

AND

DIES

187

for blankingto exactlyi inch diameter

is deducted from the diameter of the punch, while
is added,as in Fig.14, to the diameter
for perforating
the same
amount
fitmake punch and die .00025 *o .0005 inch
j{ the die. For a sliding
larger;and for a drivingfitmake punch and die .0005 to .0015 inch
smaller.
is .0042,

Fig.13 shows that

and

this amount

Table

or

Allowances

Punch

for

Thickness

CLEARANCE

FOR

and

PUNCHES

Die

and

for

Different

FOR

BOILER

Materials

AND

DIES

WORK
The practice
of the Baldwin Locomotive
Works
sizes up to i J
on
inches is to make
inch
the punch ^
below nominal size and the die
it inch above size,which gives^^ inch clearance. Above i{ inches
the punchesare made to nominal size and the dies ^ inch large,
which
allows the same
clearance as before. The
taper on dies below i{
inches is i inch in 12; on sizes above i{ inches it is half this or J
bch in 12 inches.

i88

LUBRICANTS
there

Although
when

working

is best

to

use

all

For

oil

punching.
sheets

be

may

are

to

the

stock

the

shells

and

drawn

be

will

coating

lead

work

the

the

with

the

small

by taking

For

of

hot

as

until

slime

that

soap
In

is

drawing

shells

will

be

Aluminum
For

lubricants

good.

The

of lard

coating
strips

or

before

sheet

sheets

the

the

it will

of

found

be

it will

be

of

of white

lead

clean

the

of

oil

and

it does

not

does;

punch.

mixed

blanking
brush

or

the

on

clean

to

the

press

of

speed

the

be

warm

shells

of oil

coating

to

equal parts

it may
be used
speed of the drawing

the

necessary

necessary

it will

help

cloth

direction

the

article

black

the

aflfect
thicker

in with

give

heavy

it is also

boiling until
possible.
formed

changing
grain
the drawing.

in

strong

resin

the water

or

work

shell

the

potash

should

of

the

polish
polish

as

of

all the

If the

on

of the
reduced

lateral

the

is considered

water
soap
largest brass firms in

the

die

the

to

clean

copper

or

to

and

by putting 15 pounds

zinc

which

the

best, as

not

while

same

of

and
as

from

purpose.
is very
smooth
and
hard
the comer
at
of clogging will be
the die, the liability

brass

has

coat

die

made

hot

thin

having disappeared during

oil is applied with
a
pad

must

the

to

water,

is used

oil is best

this

satisfactory. One
preparation

is to

mixture

stripof emery

drawing

it

work.

sheets

the

over

be

to

that

Often

circular

is used

obtained,

are

animal

heavy

silver, a

coating

proportion

for

minimum.

from

When

the

as

slower

drawing
or
edge

"draw,"
to

oil

the

and

much
the

results

of sheet-metal

this

and

steel shells

recommended
If

thin

very

useful

as

stock

grease

of

found

process.
thick
so

is very

lubricant

no

good

German

do

method

be

produced.
In drawing

which

steel

spread

be
to

afterward,

will

and

or

will be
be

drawing

where

TOOLS

evenly
one
thickly
way
of other
through a pair of rolls,after which a number
run
through the rolls and thus coated
evenly. For

this

work

drawn

in

brass

copper,

good
it

feed

then

shops
all classes

on
on

oil should
A

PRESS

satisfactory,although expensive.

oil is very

sperm

or

and

dies

punching

When

FOR

metal, and

lubricant

cutting

lard

Pure

some

are

sheet

TOOLS

PRESS

PUNCH

this

Fuller's

lumps

will

or

in

soap

to

draw

all the

barrel
This

lie in the

give good

not

be hot,

country

dissolved.

are

is allowed
it will

most
uses

water

better.

results.

the percentage

of broken

large.
is

an

easy

lard
lubricant

metal

to

oil, melted
should

draw,

but

Russian
be

applied

it hardens

tallow
to

both

and

up

very

vaseline

sides

of the

quickly.
are

all

metal.

BOLTS,
U.

NUTS

S. STANDARD

AND

BOLTS

SCREWS

AND

NUTS

The
U. S. Standard for bolts,nuts, etc., called also Sellers' Standard,
Franklin Institute Standard, and American
Standard, was recommended
in 1864 by the Franklin
Institute for general adoption by
sides of the bolt head and
engineers. The distance between parallel
is
and
one-half
bolt
diameters
of the bolt
nut for
one
a
rough
plusone-eighthof an inch. The thickness of the head in this system
fora rough bolt is equal to one-half the distance between
its parallel
is equal to the
thickness of the nut
sides. The
diameter of the
thickness of the head for a finished bolt is equal to the
distance between
The
the parallel
thickness of the nut.
sides of a
and the thickness of the nut is one
bolt head and nut
sixteenth of
than for rough.
less for finished work
an inch
bolt. The

189

NUTS

BOLTS,

190

AND

SCREWS

Rougrh
H""dt
B..A

and

1.156.

Natt

0=A

8"S|

1.414

""

St^ S00bW
U. S. Standard

Bolts

and

Nuts

ROUGH

Note.
Standard
Bolts and Nuts are
made to
U. S. Government
above U. S. or Sellers' Standard
Dimensions.
sizes of
The
Rough
"finished bolt heads and nuts are the same
the sizes of the rough
as
the forgingsmust
be largerthan for
ones, that is for finished work
wrench may be used on both black and finished
rough,thus the same
heads and nuts.
"

U. S. STANDARD

BOLTS

NUTS

AND

Finished

Wx"
U.

S Standard
FINISHED

Bolts
HEADS

Nuts

and

AND

NUTS

191

BOLTS,

ig2

Note.
standard
nut

sizes

Nuts

"

bolts
are

NUTS

AND

SCREWS

for manufacturers
supplied by different makers
somewhat
as
regards thickness. The above
vary

Hoopes

and

Townsend

Standard.

SET

^-_t

SCREWS

193

'yvv^AAAA^AA^v^AAA^\1?J

i___"^sA/VV\AA/\/^VVv\^/

-^-*!
Set

Screws

J94

BOLTS,

NUTS

AND

SCREWS

FILLISTER

HEAD

CAP

SCREWS

195

196

BOLTS,

NUTS

AND

SCREWS

BUTTON

AND

COUNTERSUNK

HEAD

CAP

SCREWS

197

BOLTS,

198

"

j*i"

NUTS

SCREWS

AND

(I

JzL

".jSBp

Machine

Dimensions

Screws.

given

being below

are

them.

American

maximum,

the

Screw

Company

necessary

tions
working varia-

FILLISTER

HEAD

MACHINE

SCREWS

ii
;;e

mi^'H-

l"w"^

Machine

Screws.

American

Screw

Company

199

NUTS

BOLTS,

2cx"

Company.

Screw

American

A.S.M.E.

STANDARD

AND

SCREWS

Standard

PROPORTIONS

Threads

OF MACHINE

per

Inch

SCREWS

tables herewith show the proportions

of machine ;
recommended
screws
as
by the committee of the American Society
of Mechanical
Engineers on Standard Proportionsfor Machine
the
Screws,
being aiidopted
by the Society
report of this committee
at its springmeeting,1907.
The
included angle is 60 degrees,
and the flat at top and bottom
of thread is one eighthof the pitchfor the basic or standard diameter.
There is a uniform increment of 0.013 i^ich,
between allsizes
from 0.06 to 0.19 (numbers o to 10 in the tables which follow)
and
of 0.026 inch in the remaining sizes. This change has been made
in the interest of simplicity
and because the resulting
pitchdiameters
in
with
the
accord
diameters
in presof
are
more
screws
nearly
pitch
ent
The

diagramand

use.

The
formula

pitchesare

function of the diameter

as

expressedby the

Threads

per
'^

inch

'^
=s

"

0.02

tional
with the results givenapproximately,
of fracso
as to avoid the use
threads.
The diagram shows the various sizes for both 16 and 72 threads
other things,
the allowable differencein
per inch,and shows, among
b
etween
the flatsurface,
the maximum
screw,
tap and the minimum
this variation being from one-eighthto one sixteenth.
The minimum
tap conforms to the basic standard in all respects,
The
difiFerence between
the minimum
except diameter.
tap and
the maximum
screw
providesan allowance for error in pitchand
for wear
of tap in service.
The form of tap thread shown is recommended
as beingstronger
and
serviceable than the so-called V-thread,but as some
more
believe a strict adherence to the form shown might add to the cost d
small taps, they have decided
that taps having the correct angle
and pitch diameter are
This
with the V-thread.
even
permissible
will allow a largeproportion
of the taps now
in stock to be utilized.
The tables givenby the committee were
combined
into the present
compact form by the Corbin Screw Corporation.

A.

S. M.

E.

MACHINE

SCREW

DIAGRAM

20

202

"

BOLTS,

NUTS

AND

SCREWS

TAPS

FOR

A. S. M.

E.

STANDARD

SCREWS

203

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NUTS

BOLTS,

204

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lO

lOVO

NO

t^

"".

On

000"00

WvOnOOOOO

*"""

GO
On

"0Q
H

-^vO

Th0"0
On "

eicO'tO
-^

"^

On

"

'^

MMMMMMMMMMMMC4C"C"M(OC"0"0"0'^^

-i
00
On

"0

WOOOoOOvO

trj r*.

f"5
%^

On

to
fO

row

"*3vO NO
OnOn"
fO
"* **" ID to

NOO

00
"^00
lO-^QVO
M
t^OO
00

'^

t-*

'^

CJOO

too

00

"

"

-^O^O
M

tJ-nO

pOMD
t".00

On

On

00
mX
Onh

MMM""WCJfOPO*OtO'*'

000O0v0"Onn0n00'"1""'^'^000000vO00

"^O

fOfOW

"".

'^nO

^i

On

""J

ok

NO

t^

00

^VO

"

tJ-nOOO

On

C*

-^

"

"".

"

-^NOOOOi

TAPS

FOR

A. S. M.

E.

SPECIAL

SCREWS

205

2o6

AND

NUTS

BOLTS,
PROPORTIONS

OF

MACHINE

A. S. M.

SCREWS

SCREW

HEADS

". Standard

four standard heads are given herewith.

i
These proportiori
based on and include the diameter of the screw, diameter ofthe
head, thickness of head, width and depth of slot,radius for round!
and fillister
heads, and included angle of the flat-head screw.
The

are

Oval

Fillister

Diameter

1.64^

oMA

.002

"

.173^

A. S. M.

SCREWS

"

of Head

and

Hight of Side

.015
Depth of Slot

iF

.134B +

Hightof

r
Head.

E. Standai^

'DK-

f=^W^

/j;

Screws.

Body.

Diam.
.009
for Oval

"

Rad.
=

of

Machine

HEAD

fillister

OVAL

Head

Flat

Fillister

FLAT

A
B
C
n
"

"

MACHINE

HEAD

FILLISTER

FLAT

Screws.

Machine

Head

Diameter

of

1.64^4

.009

Diam.

.002

Hight of

Head

Width

of Slot

0.66A

"

"

E. Standard

Body

o.iysA 4- .015
JC
Depth of
==

A. S. M.

207

SCREWS

HEAD

fillister

SCREWS

of Head.
.4...

-fA"
Slot

"

2o8

Head

Flat

"

Diameter

"

2A

"

A-

SCREWS

of

.008

Body
Diam.

"

.008

C-

Screws.

Machine

HEAD

FLAT

AND

NUTS

BOLTS,

"

of Head

Depth of Head

1-739
D

*-

"

"

.173^4+ .015

JC

Depth

Width

of Slot

of Slot

SCREWS

A. S. M.

E. Standard

Round

Machine

Head

"

D
E

Diameter

of

A. S. M.

209

". Standabd

Body

Diam.
1.85X
.005
Hight of Head
.7X

of Head

Width

of Slot

"

"

Screws.

SCREWS

SCREWS

HEAD

KOUND

MACHINE

HEAD

ROUND

.173X +
JC + .01

.015
-

Depth of

Slot
"

-"^S

BOLTS,

2IO

Hot

Pressed

Hot
U. S. Standard
Colo Punched

HEXAGON

Dia.

Bolt

Across

and

Pressed
Nuts

AND

NUTS

and

and

Cold

Cold

Punched

Punched

Nuts

Check

Thick-

Dia.
Hole

Dia.
Bolt

Across

A
f
i

t
iH
2

2A

"

A
A

H
H

I,
a

If

li
il

iH
2

f
f

i|

^A

ij
If

2i

if

2i

Dia.
Hole

lA

i.ji

^A

if

It

i
3i
3tV

Thick-

If

Jam Ncts

Flats

A
i

and

square

Flats

SCREWS

3*

if

3i

f
3

4l
4f

Finished
case-hardened
and
semi-finished
above
dimensions.
Semi-finished
nuts
are
the bottom.
on

made to tli"
tapped and faced tru"
nuts

are

HOT

Hot

Hot Pressed

Nuts, Manufacturers

PRESSED

NUTS

Pressed

Hot

Nuts

Pressed

Standard

211

and

Forged
turers
Nuts, ManufacStandard

square

Dia.

Dia.

Hole

Bolt

i4
li
li
li
If
li
2

2i
2i
2|
2\

Ik
3i

Dia.
Hole

BOLTS,

212

Cold

Punched

NUTS

AND

SCREWS

Nuts, Manufactureks

Hexagon

Dia.
Bolt

Across

Standard

Square

Thick-

Dia.

Hole

Flats

Dia.
Bolt

Across

TWck-

Flats

Dia,
Hole

t
t
I
f

f
t

ft

i
A

"i

It

2J
}

"i

3i
3i
4

li
3i
34
3i

2
2

2i

lA
lA

HOT

Hot

Pressed

Nuts.

PRESSED

Manufacturers
Gage

Sizes

NUTS

213

Standard

Narrow

Button

Diameter

Head

Bolt

Head
Thickness of Head
Diameter

AND

SCREWS

Carriage

and

NUTS

BOLTS,

214

Machine,

BOLTS

Button

measured
are
bolts,bolt ends and rods are

under

Head

bolts

Lengths

Bolts
are

OF

Head, Hexagon Head,

Square

Bolts

LENGTHS

Cone
Head

Loom

longerthan
usuallythreaded

of

20

Threads

inches

about

and

3 times

Head, Round
the

measured

Cut

Head and

Countersunk
head.
all.
over

on

largerthan
the diameter

Bolts

in diameter
of the rod.

t\ inch

MACHINE

Round

Diameter
Diameter
Distance

Head
Thickness
Round

BOLTS

aiS

Head

Bolts

Head
Flats

across

TAP

Countersunk

Square

and

Bolt
Round

AND

Square

If
Square and
Heads

?J

Tap

Bolts

0
Diameter

Bolt

of Threads per Inch

Across Flats Hex. and Square
Heads
Hex. Head
Across Comers
Comers
Across
Square Head
Hex. and Square
Thickness
Heads

No.

Bolt

Dl/^eters

(^

ii

and

li
Iff
2i

lA lA

8^:

Threads

Dia. of Bolt
No. of Threads

Stove

I
II

I
per

Inch.

16

BOLTS,

2l6

B.

Sefert
"ad

to "n

Bcnw

d"PU.

Automobile

NUTS

AND

Nats

DZ

Heads.

1^

P^Pttch

Xength

of Thread

of Thread

-J=Flal

OottecFIa

Screw

SCREWS

and

Nut

Standards

Adopted

by

the

A.L.A.M.

BOLTS

Planer

of Threads

Across

217

Nuts

of Bolt

Diameter
No.

NUTS

AND

per Inch

Flats

Thickness

Coupling

)iameter

of Bolt

To. of Threads
Ihort Diameter
^ngth of Head

per Inch
of Head

Thickness of Nut
of Nut
Ihort Diameter

Planer

Head

^ rr

diameter of Bolt
^o. of Threads
per Inch
of Head
)hort Diameter
^ngth of Head

iVashers for Planer Head

Diameter of Washers
of Washers.

Bolts

Nuts

and

12

of Nuts
)hort Diameter
Thickness of Nuts

rhirkness

Bolts

Bolts.
..:....

i
i

2i8

NUTS

BOLTS,
Depths

Drill

to

SCREWS

AND

and

Tap

for

Studs

Dk,

of Stud.

Dia,

of Drill C. 1...

._

...

of ThnvirL
Dijptkto Drill

Depth

Bolt

1''.

"1 in-i

Heads

for

Standard

T-Slots

EYE

Spring

RegularLengths vary by }
are
Lengths

measured

inch

up

under the eye.

PINS

COTTER

AND

BOLTS

219

Cotters

to 4

inches and

by

inch from

4 to 6

inches*

BOLTS,

230

Round

and

SCREWS

AND

NUTS

Washers

Square

Gage

Narrow

Washers

Thi"liM9s
Win
Gage
No.

U. S. Standard

I6(A)
l6 (A)
16(A)
14(A)
"(A)
"(A)
(i)
10

Washers

10

Thickness
Wire Gage
No.

(i)

l8(A)

9(A)
9(A)
9(A)
9(A)
8(")

16(A)

8(ii)

l6(A)

14(A)

14

(A)

12

(A)

A
I

12(A)

io(i)

9(A)

Sizeof
Bolt

Square

Washers
sizes

standard
10

(i)
Size of
Bolt

Size of
Hole

Width

Thickness

9(A)
i

9(A)
9(A)

8(il)

8(ii)

8(H)

8(ii)

8(U)

A
i
f

8(ii)
6(A)

s(A)

li
li

li
li
If
li

II
I

2j
2i

^i
4

4i

If

;l

2i

5
6
6
6

i
i
A

WASHERS

AND

Cast-Iron

of

Rivet

Size
of
Hole

Outside
Diam-

eter

ness
Gage

Size

of
Rivet

Size of
Hole

12

i8

14

i8

ii
li
ii
Ii
li
Ii

14
14
14
14

Machine

Thickness
Wire Gag

li

i6

Outside
Diameter

i8

i6

221

Washers

ThickWire

GAGE

Washers

Riveting

Size

SCREW

and

Wood

Screw

Gage

12
12

12
II
II
lO

AND

NUTS

BOLTS,

222

SCREWS

Pot"t

Cone

Gimlet

Coach

Screw
Diameter
of
No.
Threads per Inch
Across Flats Hex. and

Square
Thickness

Lag

and

Point

Screws

i
4i

"

Heads

Hex.

and

Square

Heads

Lengths

of

Threads
of

Coach

on
all

Test

Diameter

Depth
Force

in Pounds

Screws

Test
out

of

by Hoopes

and

Screw.
in Wood

drawn

Lag

diameters

Lag-Screw

(screws

and

in.

yellow

pine)

Townsend

m.

3iin.

4 in.

4,960

6,000

fin.

tin.

I in. I

4 in.

5 in.

6 in.

7"685 11,500

WOOD

WOOD

SCREWS

223

SCREWS

o to No.
30, by the American
inch
The
from
to 6 inches.
J
lengths
Company's gage
increase in lengthis by eightsof an inch up to i inch, thpn by quarters
of an inch up to 3 inches and by half inches up to 5 inches.
As
the
tenths
of
total
is
about
seven
a rule the threaded
length.
portion
The
included angle of the flat head is 82 degrees. The table below
gives the body and head diameters,and the threads per inch as generally
cut, althoughthere is no fixed standard as to number of threads
manufacturers.
which is universally
adhered to by all wood-screw

Wood

screws

range in size from No.

and

Screw

in

Et
Wood-Screw

(angle

of

flat

Dimensions
head

82

degrees)

224

BOLTS,

NUTS

Boiler

AND

Rivet

SCREWS

Heads

Tank

cm

Rivet

^^

Heads

)\

CALIPERING
THE

of

measuring

parts is credited

very
The

small

and

In
5.
divided

Fig.

distances
of Pierre Vernier in

to the invention

Figs, i

in

moving

the lower

seal

one

"

division will divide

u.

TT

TTJ

FIG.

11

FIG.

I 1
FIG.

,1 ,1,1,1,

or

Reading

the upper scale is divided in half

in thirds.
If the lower scale is moved
either way
under
the end line,it has moved
| of an inch

in half.
one
comes

if either of these

} of this

I ,1,1 ,1

Vernier

the upper
one
and the lower

1! 1U

FIG.

moved

1631.

2
FIG.

but

into

to

OKI

until

IT

dividing known

"

it is clear that

of

or

READ

TO

in Figs. 4
3 and its application
but they
Figs, i and 2 both distances o-i are the same
then in
into different divisions.
i inch
i
Callingo

principleis shown

are

HOW

AND

VERNIER

method

This

FITTING

AND

amount

In

Fig. 2

moved

are
or

to

the

center

line then

it is

only

of the
Figure3 shows the usual application
is divided in four parts instead of ten.
Here

principle
except
both

the

scales

that it
have

four

parts but on the lower scale the four parts justequal three parts
of the
the lower scale so
move
upp"er scale. It is evident that if we
that o goes to i and 4 goes to 4 that it will be moved
\ the length
i inch,
the upper scale. If this distance was
the lower
each division on the
upper scale equals J inch and moving
the
to
on
next
line
o
the
scale so that the line i just matches
upper
scale gives J of one
of these divisions or ^ of an inch.

of the distance

"

4 on

225

226

CALIPERING

Figures4 and 5 show

AND

FITTING

the usual

in which
the lower or
application
which
equals 9 parts of the
parts
scale.
The
division
holds good, however, ajid when
same
upper
the lower scale is moved
that the firstdivision of the vernier just
so
matches
the first line of the scale,it has been
moved
justone
of
the
In
match
division.
third
lines
tenth
that it has
so
a
Fig. 4
So if A B is one
moved ^^and in Fig.S, t^ of a division.
inch then
is 3^ of
each division is ^ of an inch and each line of the vernier
scale is divided

vernier

we
I

an

10

inch.
of any vernier,divide one division of the upper
To find the reading
the
scale
number
of divisions in the small scale.
So if
by
large
had a vernier with 16 divisions in each, the large scale being
of one
division is ^^ of 1*6^
inch long,then the movement
or
j|jof
inch.

that

or

into

lijfof

or

an

THE

READING

MICROMETER

micrometer consists of a frame,the anvil or fixed

measuring point,the spindlewhich has a thread cut 40 to the inch
the portioninside the sleeve or barrel and the thimble
which
on
sleeve
the
the
One
outside
and
turns
of the
turn
spindle.
goes
commercial

The

"

Frame
Anvil

B-

_^

Fig. 6.

"

"

Spindle

D-

Sleeve

E-

Thimble

or

Screw

or

Barrel

Micrometer

inch and the marks on the

is moved.
sleeve show
screw
Every fourth
tenths of an inch or
graduationis marked i, 2, 3, etc., representing
each mark is .025 the firstfour means
as
-loo, the third
.025 X 4
means
.300.
.025 X 4 X 3
The
thimble has a beveled edge divided into 25 parts and numbered

screw

the

moves

^^ or
spindle

the number

.025 of

of turns

an

the

and to o again. Each

of these mean
20
^ of a
marks
of ^
of
inch.
To
the
an
y^^
read, multiply
the
the
barrel
and
add
of
the
on
by 25
graduationson the edge
In the cut there are
thimble.
the sleeve and 3 on the
on
7 marks
o, 5, 10, 15,

turn

or

thimble
In

^
so

we

say

7 X

25

175, plus 3

shop practiceit is common

by using mental addition.

to read

178

them

Beginning

or

.178.

without any multiplying

number
at the largest

MEASURING

shown

THREE-FLITTED

TOOLS

227

it hundreds
and add 25 for each
calling
show
and
100
mark,
25, 50, 75 and then add the
the
thimble 3, making .178 in all. If it showed
numbers shown on
one
mark, with the thimble showing 8 marks, the reading
4 and
would be 400 4- 25 + 8
433 thousandths or .433.
on

we

the sleeve and

say in the

case

THE

TEN-THOUSANDTH

MICROMETER

adds a vernier to the micrometer sleeve or barrel as shown

plained.
Fi^.7, which is read the same as any vernier as has been exFirst note the thousandths as in the ordinarymicrometer
and then look at the line on the sleeve which justmatches a line on
This

in

Fig. 7.

"

Micrometer

Graduations

If the two
lines match two lines on the thimble,
the thimble.
zero
is in even
the measurement
thousandths as at B which reads .250.
At C the seventh line matches a line on the thimble so the reading
is .2507 inch.

MEASURING

THREE-FLUTED
THE

TOOLS

WITH

MICROMETER

sketch,Fig. 8 on page 228, shows a V-block or gage for

measuring three-fluted drills,counterbores,etc.
the distances -4,5, and C are equal.
The angle being 60 degrees,
Consequentlyto determine the correct diameter of the pieceto be
measured, apply the gage as indicated in the sketch and deduct
The

one

third of the total measurement.

of this gage has a decided
The
use

of

soldering

to

fitto.

on

pieceof metal

advantage over the old way

oppositea tooth or boringout a ring

for setting
and a few different
Using a standard 6o-degreetriangle
the V-block
sizes of standard cylindrical
plug gages for testing,
made.
and
very accurately
may be easily

228

FITTING

AND

CALIPERING

(Tim

Fig. 8.

Measuring Three-Fluted

"

PRESS

AND

Parallel
Table

RUNNING

Press,Drive

and

Tools

FITS
Close

Fits

of the C. W. Hunt
Company,
229, givesthe practice
shafts
drive
close
and
for
hand
fitsfor
or
York,
parallel
press,
and
in
between
In
diameter.
ten inches
accordance with
one
ranging
the holes for allparallel
fitsare made standard,
except
generalpractice,
for unavoidable variation due to the wear
of the reamer, the variation
from standard diameter for the various kinds of fits being made in
the shaft. This
variation is,however, not positive,
but is made
i, page

New

limits of accuracy or tolerance. Taking the case of a press

that the holefiton a two-inch shaft,for example, it will be seen
is kept between
that is,the reamer
the correct size and 0.002 inch
be between
below size,while the shaft must
and 0.003 inch
0.002
size.
for
the
hole are the
For a drive or hand fit the limits
over
while the shaft in the former case must be
for a press fit,
as
same
between o.ooi
and 0.002
largeand in the latter between 0.001 and
small.
0.002
between

"

Parallel
Table
the same

Running

Fits

230, givesin the same

way the allowances made by
ness.
for parallel
running fits of three gradesof closeferent
difin the holes are
variations allowed
not
materially

2, page
concern

The
from

those

of the

preceding table, but

the

shafts are, of

below
instead of above the nominal
size.
In all cases
the tables apply to steel shafts and cast-iron wheelsor
other members.
In the right-handcolumns
mulas
of the tables the forfrom which
the allowances
calculated are given,and from
are
which
the range of tables may
be extended.

course,

LIMITS

FOR

FITS

229

S.8 8 8

6.S "8

+ +

+ +

+ +

88

"8

+4"o

to

+ +

+ +

++

88

8 8

8 8

8 8

++

++

II

+1

+ +

Oh

xo'

8 8

8 8

8 8

++

++

II

+1

"

"

"ro

Ciro

0"O

8 8

8 8

8 8

8 8

ri

++

++

II

+1

+ 4-

++

II

+1

rO?^

"-""

w"

0"

8 8

8 8

8 8

8 8

++

++

II

+1

++

++

II

+1

C"ro

t^

MM

OM

8 8

8 8

8 8

8 8

8l

ff fMI

+ +

+4-

II

+1

4-4-

++

?f 8? "?

MM

Oh

mM

OM

8 8

8 8

8 8

8 8

++

++

II

+1

4-4-4-4-

**^
rt

^
o

**-i

"

M
C/3

**:!
"

M
W

M
CO

"c

*^
"^

II

II

4-1

4-1

I
W

CALIPERING

230

AND

FITTING

8^

+ +

5^o

8S

8^
o

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ +

88

88

88

8.8

"era
M

wO

WW

I I

I I

10

88

I I

I I

in

t i

t^

Cm

MM

't

"

tnin

CO

00

00

II

11
I I

"o

r""

88

II

00

1 I

00

I I

II

MM

GO

I I

"0

II

+1

o ,0o

S-q

88

II

I I

+1

I I

moo X5
M

PI

CO

11

Tf

Ov

"c

-t

Tl-

c3
AM

"

Tf
00

"

II

l""

CO 00

II

0\

II

I I

ro

VO

88

CO

MM

PI

fo

00

II

rovO

MM

ro

00

00

I I

13

*3

C/2

C/5

00

+1

PO

I I

Xi
m

P^

ifi

PL4

LIMITS

GAGES

FOR

Shrink

231

Fits

gives the practiceof the General Electric Company,

allowances
the same
Schenectady,New York, in regardto shrink fits,
for press fits on heavy work such as couplings,
also being made
etc.
Table

Table

3.

Allowances

LIMITS

Shrink

for

FOR

Fits

GAGES
when

developingtheir system
the practiceof the leading English,
investigated
relative to allowances
American
concerns
engineering
table
which
of
fits
is the average
and prepared a
for different kinds
of all the data received,every point included being covered by the
ances
prominent establishment. The limits and allowpracticeof some
for
in
which
is
Table 4,
thus arrived at
shop gages are given
self-explanatory.
The

Newall

Company,
Engineering

of limit gages,
Continental and

Table

4.

Limits

and

Different

Limits in

Allowances
Kinds

Plug Gages

(Table Continued

in
of

Shop

Fits

for Standard
on

Gages

Holes

Page 232)

for

4 Continued.

Table

Allowances

Nomina)

Mean

High

Diameters

00175
ooo75|.

ooioo'.00200

Low

00050.00150
00050'
00050

Allowances
Nominal

Mean

High

Margin

"

over

000375
,00050
,00025
,00025

"

Gages

for Force

Fits

.00900

,01100

.01000

.01 20c

00450

.00700
.00800
.00600

00150

.00200

.00200

00350

00525

,00400

00600

,00300
OOIOO

Standard

"

for

.00800:.0100:
.00200

Driving Fits

)'

Diameters

Low

Standard

Shop

in

Margin

Limits

"

over

"

FITTING

AND

CALIPERING

232

000875 .00125

.00250

.00200

OOIOO

.00150 .00250 .00300

00075
00025

.00100

.00200

.00150

.00050

.00100

.00100

.00300 ,00350
.00350 .004M

.00250

,003001

.00100

.00100

I
Allowances
Nominal

High
Low

Diameters

Margin

"

Below

Standard

"

for Push

or

Keying Fits

J'
.00150.00150

.00200

.00200

.00250

.00250

,00025

.00050

,00075

.00100

,00150 .00200.00250

,00050

,00050 .00050 .00050 .00050

,00050

Clearances

for

OOIOO

Running

.ooc;o

Fits

Class X is suitable for engine and other work

requiringeasy fits.
Class Y is suitable for high speeds and good
average machine work.
Class Z is suitable for fine tool work.

CALIPER

MAKING

ALLOWANCES

SIDE

SHRINK,

^33

THE

WITH

RUNNING,

PLAY

AND

CALIPERS

PRESS

FOR

FITS

of the familiar devices of the machinist consists in giving

Onb
of side play,when
it is desirable
the inside calipers
a certain amount
to obtain a measure
minutelyless than the full diameter of the
or
a
slidingfit as of a
hole,as in making a loose or running fit,
in
^4
is
the diameter of the bore,B
Fig,9,
plimgerin a cylinder.Thus
the caliper
in the hole.
and C the side playpermittedthe caliper
setting
In the table below is given a listof the reduced dimensions
for
in a 12-inch hole.
different amounts
of side play of the calipers
From
eters
this,the dimensions may be obtained for holes of other diamif
Where
the
is
division.
in
table
the
side
2
inches,
by
play
the
divide
items
and
the
have
side
the
reduced
we
by 4 we
play
dimension for a 3-inchhole,
or
0.5 inch and 2.9894inches respectively.

Fig. 9.

Table

Reduced

of

FOR

"

Side

the

Calipers

Indicated

Diameters
Amounts

Different

Play of

of

Side

Play

by
in

Inside
a

Calipers

i 2-inch

Side play
o.i

11-9999

0.2

11.9991

0.4

0.6

"

11.9983
11.9962

0.8

11.9933

i.o

11.9895

1.2

11.9849

1.4

1.6

11.9795
11.9730

1.8

11.9660

2.0

11-9579

2.2

11.9490

2.4

2.5

11.9391
"9339

3.0

11.9044

Hole

AND

CALIPERING

234

Axial Inclination of the

FITTING

Calipersin Measuring

for Shrinkor

Press Fits

worked out on page 233, itwas desired to produce

a hole
the
into
than
smaller
it,or a piece slightly
pieceto go
larger
slightly
where a hole is wanted
than the hole. In operations
somewhat
smaller
than the pieceto be shrunk or pressedinto it,a similar planof measuring
table
and
the
be employed,
a
can
can be
giving
tightness
computed. The sketch,Fig.10, will serve to make the meaningda'.
d
The
distance A is the diameter of a hole and line a is the length
the
size of the pieceto be pressedor shrunk into
a gage the exact
the gage lacks of assuming
distance b is the amount
a
hole. The
axis
the
the
at
of
to
hole.
a right
angle
position
square or
It is an easy matter
to make
table as suggested. It is only
a
to find the different lengthsfor the hypotenusea fortbe
necessary
of which A is the constant
base and b the perright-angle
triangle
pendicular,
b
different
taking at
lengthsfrom J inch to 2 inches.
Assuming the diameter to be 12 inches,then the lengthsindicated
for different inclinations in the direction of the axis w3i be as give:
in the following
table.
In the

case

WSfiMmm
Table

Fig.

10.

for

Axial

"

Shrink

Inclination of the
Inclination
or

Force

for
Calipers
Calipers

of

Fits

in

i 2-inch

Press Fits

in

Allowing

Hole

Inclination of

calipers
\ inch

\ inch

i inch
I inch
I inch
f
J

inch.
inch

inch

\\ inches
\\ inches
if inches
2

inches

12.00065
1

2.00260

12.00580
12.01040

12.01626
12.02340

12.03180
1

2.04159

2.06490

12.09338
12.12689
1

2.16550

for

SIDE

CALIPER

Play of Calipersin Borine

Side

of ELnown
is an
following

The

hole

in the
in the

calipers.The rule
appliedequallywell

be

can

In most

has

havingrecourse

A in
B

"=

than

Piece

variation
side

play

the merit

to

The
Let

Larger

of extreme
and
simplicity
to all diameters except the very smallest.
be done menthe calculation is so simple that it can
tally

cases

without

Holes
Diameter

235

the
approximaterule for obtaining
of
to a given amount
corresponding

size of

PLAY

pencilor

paper.

Calculation

side play of calipers

or end measuringrod in
Fig.ii
sixteenths of an inch.
of measuring
dimensions to which calipers
are set,or length
rod in inches.
difference between diameter of hole and lengthof B in
thousandths of an inch.
""

A^

Then

"5^,

within

Fig.

very

II.

"

small limit.

Side Play
Caliper

standard end measuring rod; 5! inches long,has

I inch of side play in a hole. What is the size of the hole ? In this
A
6 and B
case
5J. Apply the above formula:
6 X 6
^6
^"
C
3.27 thousandths of an inch,or 0.00327 inch.

Example: A
=

"^

II

'

II

The diameter of the hole,therefore,is 5^ + 0.00327 or 5.50327.

The method
will be found
within a limit of about
to be correct
than one
inch if the amount
of side play is not more
0.0002
eighth
of the diameter of the hole for holes up to 6 inches diameter; within
0.0005 i'lchfor holes from 6 inches up to 12 inches;and within o.ooi
for holes from 12 inches up to 24 inches.

CALIPERING

236

AND

Allowing for Running

FITTING

and

DrivingFits

This rule has been found to be useful for boring holes of large
allowances
have
be made
for running or
to
diameters in which
rod
for
each
sizeis
nominal
as only a single
measuring
drivingfits,
roids
should be of standard length, or
known
a
required.The
less than standard,the allowances beingobtained by varying
amount
of side play when
the amount
boring. The rule is also capableof
and minimum
of side
amount
determininglimits,as the maximum
be
allowable
be
The
rods
should
can
specified.
measuring
play
end
the
rounded.
and
For accurate
taperedat each
pointsslightly
work, the body of the rod should be encased in some
non-conducting
material to nullify
the effect of the heat of the hand.
In comparing this method
with that described on
233, it
page
should be remembered
that the conditions are reversed
that is
is for settingcalipers
to say, the firstmethod
to a given dimension
smallerthan a hole of known
diameter, whereas the method
now
described is for boringa hole a given amount
than
larger
a gage of
known
length.
In measuring the side play it is sufficient to take it to the nearest
sixteenth of an inch, and if anything like accuracy is required
it
should be measured- not guessed at.
"

DIMENSIONS

OF

KEYS

AND

KEY-SEATS

and table on page 237, as prepared by Baker

Bros.,Toledo, Ohio, give dimension of keys and key-seats.
The width of the key should equal one fourth the diameter of the
shaft.
The
thickness of the key should equal one sixth the diameter of
the shaft.
The
depth in the hub for a straight
key-seatshould be one half
the thickness of the key.
The depth in the hub at the largeend, for a taper key-seat,
should
be three fifthsthe thickness of the key.
should be -^ inch in i foot of length.
The taper for all key-seats
The depth to be cut in the hub for taper key-seats,
at the large
those
than
for
is
the
cut
that unless
end,
reason
straight,
greater
this isdone the depthin the hub at the small end will not be sufficient,
rules
following

The

in long key-seats.
especially
The
depths of key-seatsin the table are given in thousandths of
inch
and measured
from the edge of the key-seat,
an
and not
from
the center.
In this manner
the exact
be
depth of key-seat can

measured

after it is cut.
the depth cut in the hub
long key-seats
be slightlv
may
for
the
b
ut
the table will be found correct
increased,
average work
For

at any

extra

time

DIMENSIONS

Dimensions

of

OF

Keys

KEYS

and

AND

Key-Seats.

KEY-SEATS

(Baker Bros.)

237

THE

BARTH

Square

Feather

The

'^i

Basth

KEY

Key

Key

239
Sizes

AND

CALIPERING

240

FITTING

-^-t

Shaft

Whitney

Keys

and

Cutters.

Nos.

to

26

(Woodruff'sPatent)

Note:

Refer

to table at

top of page 241

for values of

dimension E.

PROPORTIONS

Whitney

Keys

OF

KEY

Cutters.

and

HEADS

27
28

29
R

30

31

3i
3i

32

3i

33

35

3i
3i
3i

36

3i

2i

34

U
V

A
2f
U--"

i-..

i
.,

36

2A
Proportions

of

(standard

oage

1^
2i

to

I.

i4

26

26

Nos.

241

Key
steel

f
i

Heads

CO.)

2j
2i
2i
2i
2i
4
2i

ii

3"

A
A
A

A
A
A
A
^"*

CALIPERING

242
Table

for

Finding

AND

Total

FITTING

Keyway

Depth

In the column
"Size of
marked
Shaft " find the number
representing
the size; then to the rightfindthe
column representing
the keyway to be
tance
cut and the decimal there is thedisof
the
which
added to
Af
depth
the keyway will give the totaldepth
from the point where the cutter first

beginsto

cut.

FINDING

Table

TOTAL

for

Finding

KEYWAY

Total

the column
marked
"Size of
ihaft" find the number
representing
In

lie

right find the

the keyway to be
representing

size;then

:olumn

to

the

decimal there is the diswhich

added to the depth of,
ance
Af
he keyway will give the total depth
the point where the cutter first
rem
:ut

and

beginsto

the

cut.

DEPTH

Keyway

Depth

243

CALIPERING

244
Tapers

Keys,

por
OF

etc., from

Taper

to

Lengths

for

FITTING

AND

Foot.

per

inch

Varying

by

Amount

inch

Length

I*

^l

.007S.0104

1,0104.0156,oaoS

,0130

Ji

4l

5t

.03oS ,0234 .0360

,0364.0416 04 6S. 05 20

"

.0156.oiBi

-0260 ,OJI2

0572

Lot56'.0334

.0313

0468 .0546.0625 .0703.0781 -0859.:

|,O308'

.041CJ 0520

0625

.0739

0937

,1041

145;

1041
.0530 .o()50.078!0911
1171 .1302 1432
2'
1
.046^ 0625 ,0780 "9J7 .1093 1250^*i4o6.1563 .171S
.o\
OJ64'054O 07 ^g
.1640 .rS23 3CK141
^^75 .145^^
1093
.0416'0634
.ID4I
1350 T457 ,1666 .1874^2083 .2291!
.046S 0701
I17I 1406 .1641 .1875 2109 ^2343 .3577
1563
,2083 2343,.3604 2S64
0530 07^0 J 04 1
IS
0S5.H "145 1431 1 7
2004
2577 ,2864 '315^;.

1016
1094

.o;8i.IT

73

1250

T875

2188

2500 ^2813
'343^
.3708 3047 -3385 3754.
HSS
21S7
32S1 3645 .4010,
:i563
2343 ^734
3125. 3515 .3906.4396!
1666 ao83 3500 2916 3333' 3749 .4166
-4S^
T250

0677

1354

237"

Length

6i

ji

fii

9I

TOJ

c"33S.0364.0390 .0416.0442 0468 .0494 0520 "0546 0572

0677 .0729 .0781 "0833!
.0885 0937 "0989 .1041 1093 'i'45
.1250I
.1328.140(1.:484 .1562.1640 171S
1013 .1093 .1171
.1770!
1S75 .1979 ^2083 .2187.2291
T354 .145S.1562!
.t656|
1693 .1823
.2083 .2213!
'2343 2473 2604 2734 .2S64
10^1 .2187"23431 .2500 .2656;
.28121.2968
3T25 3281 343
28
1
2369 ^55^ "2734
1.34633*^45"33^7 .4)010
.3
.370S 2916 ^3^^4]
.4166 '4374 45S3
"354 ^37543958
42181,445^
3046
39^4
375"^
.46S7 493
"3SrS|
4t66 .4426.4687"4947 .3208 .5468.5729
"3^45,
3733 .4010 .4296,45^31.4869
"5443 573g 6015 6^02
4063 "4375 ,4688!
5000 "53^3 "5^25"593S .6250 6563 6S75
440^
4739 "507"^! "5755 .6093 "6432 6770 .7109 .7447
473*3 .5104 .54681"5^3.V
6197 .6562 .6926 7291 7^55 .Se"ao
.5468"5859 ."2t;o"6640 703' .7423 7SI3 .820^
"541^ "5^33.6249 6666 ,7082 .750G 79
^333 S730 .9166 m
"

TAPERS

DOVETAILS

AND
MEASURING

An

TAPERS

Taper Gage

Accurate

illustrated in Fig. i is an
The
exceedinglyaccurate device
gage
of
the
for
gaging
tapers.
It is evident that if two round disks of unequal diameter
are
placed
certain
surface
distance
touching
two
a
on
plate a
straight-edges
apart,
these two disks will represent a certain taper. It is also evident

Fig.
that with
to

Accurate

measuring instruments
accuratelythe diameters

these disks are

positivelydetermine
the

rolls.
touching
these conditions can

These

If

gage

in

now

of the
three

be

is made

record

reproduced at

duplicate a taper piece

Taper Gage
it is

use

even

followingpages

of this character:
245

any

may

the

these

time,

though
be

simple matter
tance
dis-

straight-edges

three

thus

the

the

accuratelyand

dimensions

of

disks, and

two

apart.
the
t^iper represented by

the time be accessible.

The formulas
the
on
with

"

the

measure

to

dimensions

making

part may

of service in

it possible
not

tion
connec-

at

246

TAPERS

DOVETAILS

AND

Tfcperpear Foot
FIG.

Taper

per

Toot

FIG.

FIG.

FIG.

=X

of Taper Gage
Applications

APPLICATIONS

Formulas

for Use

I
\J

Dia.

Small

Disk

/?
Dia.

idth of

IV
of

to

Fig.2.

ay

a)

a)

(6

(6

o)"

(6

Opening

End

at Small

refi
Ends, refer

at

to

Fig. 5.

a.

(R-ry'^\Wl'-{R-f)V

Opening at Large

End

Find

Formulas

Distance

Center

"

26.

of
Applications

To

Taper Gage

Taper Per Foot (7^, refer to Fig.4.

Opening

Width

find Widthth of

To

(/),refer

L^+(b-

i" +

find

with

Diameters,
iameters,refer to Fig.3.

Ift/

247

3 r

Large Disk
To

Distance

find Disk

To

FORMULAS

in Connection

find Center

To

OF

Between

Disks

disks as shown in Fig. 2, whose diameters

inch. It is desired to construct
a taper of
mined
f to the foot and the center distance / between disks must be deterin order that the gage jaws when
shall
disks
touching both
givethat taper.

Suppose there are two

li and i
are
respectively

Let R

="

"

radius of largedisk,or 0.625inch.

radius of small disk,or 0.500 inch.

taper per inch

0-750
"^"
24

on

side,or
.

0.03125 mch,

248

TAPERS

AND

Then

DOVETAILS

zfv/

-h f"

o.

0.03
3125

000976

Find

To

4 X

1.0005

4.002

inches.

Diameters

Disk

gage jaws are to be set as in Fig.3 for a three-inch

whose
foot
lengthis to be four inches. The small end is
taper
per
the largeend for this taper will,therefore,
inch
and
to be exactlyi
be li inches.
What diameter must
the disks be made so that when
the jaws are in contact with them and the distance L over
the disks
the
will
be
three
inches
measures
exactly
taper
4 inches,
per foot?
of
Here a represents i the width
opening at the small end, and b one
half the width of opening at the largeend.
The radius of the small
be found by the formula:
disk may

Suppose the

Then
16 +

Diameter
^or the

small

0.25 +

0.0625 (4.0311+ 0.5)

disk
0.2832inch X 2

0.5

0.2832.
0.5664 inch,

largedisk:

i?=|ji/z'^+(6-a)"Then

Diameter

0.1875 (40311

largedisk

To

0.6621

Find

o-S)

inch

Taper

Per

0.6621.
1.3242 inches.

Foot

a taper the gage

duplicating
jaws may be set to the model and
by placingbetween the jaws a pair of disks whose diameters are
known
the taper per foot may
be readilyfound.
For example, the
in
certain
disks
set
two
to a
model,
jaws
Fig.4 are
0.9 and i.i inch
them
diameter are placed between
and the distance over
the disks
/ (which is 3.5 inches)is readily
measured, from which dimension
found by subtracting
half the diameters of the disks.
Here / represents
the center
in
To
distance as
determine the taper per
Fig. 2.
foot which may
be represented
by T, the formula is:

In

R-r

-.(:
V/*-

(R-ryj

WIDTH

OF

GAGE

OPENING

249

Then

^^VV12.25-

per foot

Taper

"*

'^

\3.4985y^.

0.684 inch.

To

^"^

0.01/

Find

Width

of

Opening

at Ends

If, with the ends

of the gage jaws flush with a line tangent to the

iisk peripheries
as in Fig. 5, it is requiredto find the width of the
opening at the small end where a represents one half that width,

followingformula

:he

example

0.9 and

i.i

be applied,the disks being as in the last

inch diameter respectively,
and the center dismay

3.5 inches:

:ance

Then

(V

0.45

D.437

1.00043

inch X

i/

0.00086

12.24/

\v

0.45 (1.00043

width

0.874 inch

12.24

of

0.0293)

opening at small

0.437.

-*

end

of gage.

Similarlythe width of openingat the largeend of the gage

follows where b
half the width at largeend.
be found
as

may

"

b
Then

*=

0.55

(1.00043

0.5663inch
The

+
=

formulas

however, they are

i/ 0.00086 ^)
j

0.55
0.55

1.

for

13 26 inches
a

and

width

b appear

simpleenough.

The

(1.00043+ 0.0293)
=

of gage

0.5663

openingat largeend.

little complicated;actually,

expression

\//'
-

{R-

ry

which appears twice in each formula is readilygiven its numerical

fied.
simplivalue and upon this substitution the appearance is generally

250

TAPERS

AND

DOVETAILS

BROWN

"

SHARPE

TAPERS

251

2S2

TAPERS

AND

DOVETAILS

MORSE

TAPERS

253

TAPERS

254

THE

AND

REED

DOVETAILS

TAPER

in itslathe
F. E. Reed Company, Worcester, Mass., uses
is
the i in 20 taper (0.6 per foot)which
the Jamo system
spindles
based on.
The diameters of the Reed tapers,however, differfroi
less. Tht
somewhat
the Jamo, and the lengthsin most cases
are
in
the table below.
dimensions are given
The

F. E. Reed
TAPER

PER

FOOT

Lathe

0.6 INCH.

THE

JARNO

Tapers

Center
TAPER

PER

INCH

0.0$

INCH

TAPER
"

tool builders use

the Brown
majorityof American
Morse taper
in-their
and
the
Sharpe taper
milling-machine
spindles
While

the

of firms,among
them the Pratt " Whitney
lathes,a number
Company, Hartford, Conn., and the Norton
Grinding Company,
Worcester, Mass., have adopted the "Jamo"
taper, the proportion!
of which
are
given in the accompanying table. In this system tb
in their

is 0.6 inch per foot or i in 20, the number

of th
which
all
the
deleJ
dimensions
key by
are
immediately

taper of which

taper is the

JARNO

TAPERS

^S5

nined without the necessity

of referring
to the table. That is,
even
he number
of tenths of an inch in diamof the taper is the number
ter at the small end, the number
of eighthsof an inch at the large
nd, and the number of halves of an inch in lengthor depth. For
xample: the No. 6 taper is six eighths(f) inch diameter at large
nd, six tenths (^) diameter at the small end and six halves (3
16 taper is V, or
the No.
inches
nches) in length. Similarly,
2
liameter at the largeend; }J or 1.6 inches at the small end;
or
" inches in length.

i.

Jarno Tapers
taper

per

foot

0.6

inch.

taper

No.

Dia.

Large

Dia. Small

inch

per

of

End

Taper

End

Lengthof Taper

No.

of

Taper

No.

of

Taper

"

o.05

inch.

256

TAPER

PINS

THE

AND

REAMERS

SELLERS*

257

TAPER

system of tapers used by William

Sellers " Company, Inc.,

and boring machines, is
lathes,drilling
Philadelphia,Pa.,
given in the precedingtable. The taper is f inch per foot and each
size of
taperis splinedas shown for a key the dimensions of which
in the table. The pitchof the spiral
included
for the drillsused
are
is also included.
by the company
The

in

Df

TAPER

PINS

Taper

REAMERS

Reamers

(PRATT

Taper

AND

"

and

WHITNEY

inch per foot

or

Pins

CX).)
.0208 inch per inch

~"3a

32

1"

COUP

(5
.162''

.146^

.179''

.162''

.200"
.226"

.208''

.257''
.300"
.354"
"279"
"331'' .423"
.507''
.398'

"5

2"

I'

AY
f

li'
li'
i}'

.i56"
.172'
"193'
.219'

3l6

2'

.2150'

These

\n

7^
8J"
9i'

.6oq"

reamer

"341'
.409'
.492"
"591'
.706*
"857'

5'

"581'' .727'' f
.878''
.706"
.842'' 1.050'' 10''
1.009" 1.259'' 12''

sizesmaller about

A'

W
A'

.2"89"

.240*

.482''

"

sizes are
i inch

i"
4i'
"si'
6"

!"
18*

W
ir

^.013'
i6"

so

lor

that
proportioned

each

overlapsthe

2SS

TAPERS
Tapers
amount

of

from
taper

DOVETAILS

AND

tV
for

to

iJ

lengths

inch

per
up

to

Foot
24

inches

TAPERS

Tapers

AND

Per

Foot

CORRESPONDING

in

Inches

and

ANGLES

Corresponding

259
Angles

TAPERS

26o

Table
The

Tabulated

AND

for

Computing

Quantities Twice
=-

DOVETAILS

the

Tapers

Tangent of Half the Angle.

FOR

TABLE

Table
he Tabulated

COMPUTING

for

Compxtting

Quantities Twice
=

the

TAPERS

Tapers

Tangent

of Half the

10'

.85238
.87308
.89394
.91496
.93616

Refer

to

Angle.
60'

.85582 .85926 .86272 .86616

.87656 .88002
.88350 .88698
.89744 .90094
.90444
.90794
.91848 .92202
.92908
.92554
.94326 .94682 .95038
.93970
.96110 .96468 .96828 .97186
.95752
.97906 .98268 .98630 .98990 "99354
x"oo8o
.00808
1 .00444
.01538
.01174
.02272 1.02638 .03006 .03376 .03744
.04484 1.04854 .05226 .05596 .05970
.04114
.06342 .06716 1 .07090
.07464 .07840 .08214
.10102
.08592 .08968 1.09346 .09724
.10482
.10862
1.11624 .12006
.11242
.12388 .12770
.13538 1.13924
.14696 .15082
"13154
.14310
.15858 I. I 6248
.16636 .17026 .17418
.15470
.17810 .18202 1. 18594
.19382 .19776
1
.20568 .20966 .21362 .21762 .22160
.20172
.22560 .22960 1.23362 .23764 .24166 .24570
.25378 1.25784 .26190 .26598 .27006
.24974
.27824 1.28234 .28644 .29056 .29468
.27414
.29882 .30296 1. 30710
.31126 .31542
.31960
.32378 .32796 1.33216 .33636 "34056 .34478
.35326 I -35750
.36176 .36602 .37028
.34902
1.
"37456 .37984 38314 .38744 .39176 .39608
.40042
.40476 1.40910
.41346 .41782 .42220
.42658 .43098 1.43538 .43980 "44422
.44864
1
.46200
.46646 .47094
.45308 .45754
.47542
48442 1.48894 .49348 .49800 .50256
.47992
.51168 1. 5 1 624 .52084 .52544
.50710
.53004
"53466 .53928 1.54392
.54856 .55322
.55790
.56258 .56726 1.57196 .57668 .58140 .58612
.59088 .59562 1 .60040 .60516 .60996 .61476
"61956 .62440 1.62922 .63406 .63892 .64380
.64868 .65356 1.65846 .66338 .66830 .67324
.67820 .68316 1. 68814 .69312 .69812 .70314
.70816 .71320 1.71824 "72332
.72836 .73348
.73858 .74368 1.74882 .75396 .75910
.76428
.76946 .77464 1.77984 .78506 .79030
"79554
.80080
.80608
.81668
1. 81 138
.82198 .82732
.83266 .83802 1.84340 .84878 .85418 .85960
.86504 .87048 1.87594 .88142 .88690 .89240
.89792 .90346 1 .90Q02
.91458 .92016 .92576
.93138 .93700 1.94266 .94832 .95400
.95968
.96540 .97112 1.97686 .98262 .98840 .99420
.84894
.86962
.89046
.91146
.93262
"95396
.97546
.99716
.01906

261

page 262 for

of
explanation

table.

.86962
.89046
.91146
.93262

.95396
.97546
.99716
.01906
.04114

.06342
.08592
.10862

.13154
.15470

.17810
.20172

.22560
.24974
.27414

.29882
.32378
.34902

.37456
.40042

.42658
.45308
.47992
,50710

.53466
.56258
.59088
.61966
.64868

.67820
.70816
"73858
.76946
.80080

.83266
.86504
.89792

"93138
.96540

262

TAPERS

TABLE

FOR

AND

USE

IN

DOVETAILS

COMPUTING

TAPESS

in
when expressed
In the table on pages 260 and 261 the quantities
inches representthe taper per inch correspondingto various angles
is
advancingby i o minutes from i o minutes to 90 degrees. If an angle
is
givenas, say, 27 J degreesand it desired to find the corresponding
taper
from the table.
in inches,the amount, 0.4894 may
be taken directly
the
This is the taper per inch of lengthmeasured as in Fig.6, along
axis. The taper m inches per foot of lengthis found by multiplying

Fig. 6.

"

Taper per

Inch and

Angle
Corresponding

would be
in this particular
case
the included angle is not found
X 12
0.4894''
5.8728''.Where
in the table,the taper per inch is found as follows: Assume
directly
inthe
that the anglein questionis 1 2\ degrees,
then the nearest angles
under
the respective
tabulated
table are 12" 10' and 12" 20',
quantities
the tabulated

by
quantity

12, and

angles being 0.2 13 14 and 0.21 610. The diflferencebetween

between
is 0.00296,and as 12^" is half way
12" 10' anc
half of 0.00296,or 0.00148 is added to 0.21314, giving
12" 20' one
0.21462' as the taper of a piece i inch in lengthand of an included
X 12
angle of 12! degree. The taper per foot equals0.21362*'
2.5634^

these
the

two

==

TABLE

FOR

DIMENSIONING

DOVETAIL

SLIDES

AND

GIBS

263 is figuredfor machine-tool work, so as to

in
to tellat a glancethe amount
to be added or subtracted
one
u?
dimensioningdovetail slides and their gibs,for the usual angles
column
for 45-degreedovetails is omitted,as A
to 60 degrees. The
and B would, of course, be alike for this angle.
sions,
dimenof the table,assuminga base with even
In the application
the dimensions x and y 0^
as in the sketch Fig. 7, to obtain
the slide Fig. 8, allowingfor the gib which may
be assumed to be
J inch thick,the perpendiculardepth of the dovetail being f incK
and the angle 60 degrees^look under column
A for f inch and it
will be found
oppositethis that B is 0.360 inch, which subtracted

The
enable

table

on

page

find y fi^
To
2 inches
gives 1.640 inches,the dimension x.
dimension
the
for 60-degTec
1.640 inches,then under the column
get
gibs (where C is J inch),D is found to be 0.289 inch,which is added
to 1.640, giving1.929 inches.
In practicethis dimension
is usuallymade
a little
say to
larger,
the nearest
allow
for
to
the gib.
64th,
fitting
from

DIMENSIONING

Table

for

Dimensioning

.018'

SLIDES

AND

Slides

Dovetail

263

and

Gibs

.022'

.036^ .044'

.027*1

.144"

.152* .163" .176*

.053'

.216*

.228*

.144'

.175'' .210*1 A"

.216^

.262'

.288'

"350^ 420'

.360' 437'

.314'

"505'' .612-'

.361" .381' 407*

.525' r

"525' .629'

.244*

.734'

1.

.577^ .70c/' .839I

.457" .489" .530*

"577"

.610'

.652* .707"

.721

.762'

.815' .883*

.866*

.915' .979* 1.060*

010*

1.067' I. 142* 1.237*

1.154' 1.220*

"^^29i-

.794^ .962''1.153"
1.050''1-259"
i.oic/'

1. 1

1.225* 1.469*1

54''1400" 1.677'

1.298^ 1-575' 1.888'

1442'

1-750''2.097'

1.588' 1.925' 2.307'

1.732' 2.100"
2.020^

2.517'

2450* 2.937"

2.308''2AX/'

3.356^

2.598''3-150''3.776*
2.885''3-501''4.195'

"

.442*

"433'

1.305" 1 414*

.649'' .787- .944'

.721'' .875" 1.049'

.264*

.289' .305' .326* "353''

.072' .087" .105'

"433'

GIBS

-"-

"

J
1
"

^r-*"-

2^-^

TAPERS

264
MEASURING

DOVETAILS

AND

AND

EXTERIIAL

INTERNAL

DOVETAES

is for use
The
with
the phig
accompanying table of constants
The constants
method of sizingdovetail gages, etc.
calculated
are
in use; and to use them
for the plugsand anglesmost
a
knowledge
of arithmetic is all that is required. The formulas by which ther
obtained are added for the convenience of those who
were
may have
make.
unusual
an
angle to

External and Internal Dovetails

of the table,
suppose that Z, Fig.9, isthe
the dimension A and the angle0 are
dimension
wanted,
0.
above
known.
A glance at the formulas
shows that Z
A
D corresponding
Then
the constant
to the size of plug and the angle
used is subtracted from A and the remainder
equalsZ. For instance,
if i4
4^ the plug used
f, and the angle
30 degrees,then
Z
i4-X)=4'1.0245'' 2.9755'.
As

an

example of

the
and

use

that

"

"

CONSTANTS

If A
below
and

the

angle
1.1547)

(.75* X
If the
and

G,

is 30
of

l-^
as

if 7

HF

as

dovetail

the

I and

Then

=^

the

the

angles

table

J', and

that

1.

CF

B"A-CF

fcot,

*=

I cot,

"

90

I +

also
"

HF

G-HF

("-^)

tan

known,
=

f,

3.134'

shown.
9

at

and

it will
1 -\- H

be

F;

angle
30 degrees, then
Z is
4^ from which
1547)

Dovetails

for

already
Fig.

the

in

are

before.

Constants

-^^ CF

formula

the

to

3.134',

B
before, A
be found, as
flat,as shown
are

(.125'

if 5

can

and

265

given, according

are

below

3-8557', H
3.8557'' +

DOVETAILS

F,

whence

formulas

the

-\- C

degrees,

4^

and

dimensions

from

that

found

corners

the

found
so

table

the

but

known

is not

FOR

SHOP

AND

DRAWING
STANDARD

PARTS

JIG

Drill
When
the same

STANDARDS

ROOM

Bushings

drillingand reaming operationsare to

jig,two slipbushings, one for the drill
should be used; if the jigis to be used

the reamer,
ber of parts, the

perfonnedin

be

for
and the other
for

nunlarge

bushings should in turn be bushed

a
liningto prevent wearing. The soft cast-ironwillwear
have to be reborec
rapidly if this is not done, and the jig will soon
with

and

hole

for

the

steel

rebushed.

Fig.
Loose

Fig.

Bushings

Loose

Fixed Bushings

Bushings

Fixed

Boshings

No.

52

No.

30

No.

12

52

30

t
V

if
lA

'^

i
A
i

12

t
t
a

li
lA

i
li
ij
If

266

JIG BUSHINGS
Three

SCREWS

AND

of bushings with their dimensions

differentstyles

267

shown
in quantities
in Figs. I, 2 and 3.
and
These can
out
of tool
finished to required sizes as needed, and should be made
in the blanks for grindingand
steel. Allowances
should be made
be

Fig. 3.

Fixed

"

after hardening. Fig.

lapping

are

also used

are

{"-M

Bushings

shows

slip bushing;Fig.

to

liningsfor slipbushings.

for

--J

'
.

Fig.

Collar**Head

stationary
Fig.3
bushingwhere tools with
used.
be
in Figs.2 and
Such bushings as shown

stationary
bushing,and
stopcollars

are

blanked

Jig Screws.

Fig. 5
Winged Jig Screws

268

SHOP

AND

DRAWING

ROOM

STANDARDS

Binding Screws
in various sizes and with tbreads
be made
with
which the shop is provided.
conform
to the standard
taps
with a squareor
drillsof
size
When
a very
are
used, a screw
large
hexagon head is best, as the work requiresfirm clamping. If the
wUl be sufficientand more condrillsused are small,a winged screw
venient,
l
ess
time
to manipulate. Some
as itwill require
good screws
in Figs.4 and 5. Of course
for clampingstraps are shown
the screws
made
desired.
of
be
can
any length
the work is to be held againstthe seat or a stop by means
When
shown in Figs.6 and 7 will be found
of a set-screw,such" screws
as
useful.
the
work is very light,
can
a wing screw
If,however,
very
be used.
should
Binding-screws

to

Fig. 7

Fig. 6

Headless

Square-Head Jig Screws

JigScrews

SupportingScrews
Figs.8 and

that
9 show screws
thrust
drillswhen
the
of
the work

are

useful in

is of such

work against
supporting
nature

that it cannot be

supportedotherwise.
Locking
A

to

This
is shown in Fig.10.
hinge-coverlockingscrew
should
be adjustedso that only a quarter turn vi^
used,
to clamp or
should
release the cover, which
be slotted

convenient

screw,

be

Screws

when

needed
admit the head of the screw.
The different sizes of the stylesof

shown are not onlyused

but are
drilling
equallyuseful with other jigsand fixtures,
jigs,
"^hese screws
should be made
of screw
stock and case-hardened.

with

screws

269

DIMENSIONS

STRAP

JIG

Fig. 9
Nurled-Head
JigScrews

Fig. 8
Nurled-Head
Jig Screws

Strap Dimensions
The
in Fig.11.
with these jigsis shown
after
case-hardened
and
steel
traps should be made of bessemer
and made
nishing. The slot G can be located in the proper position
f such dimensions as to allow the strap lo be slippedback out of
when work is beingplacedin and taken from the jig.
le way
A convenient

Iu

K-fr-

10.

-t
"

^li
IG.

strap to

"

use

Locking Jig Screws

Fig.

II.

"

JigStraps

270

SHOP

-^h!-i

'To

AND

DRAWING

J:
"-(ok-

ROOM

STANDARDS

HANDLES

Handles

AND

for

KNOBS

Hand-Wheels

Knobs

"-p'
"9^
rJi

271

272

SHOP

AND

DRAWING

Ball

ROOM

STANDARDS

Handles

(Pratt" Whitney Co.)

Binder

Handles

BALL

Single

End

Ball

HANDLES

Handles.

t
2

If
Ball

t
Lever

A
i

(Walcott" Wood)

4l

273

Handles

fi

274

SHOP

AND

DRAWING

Wing

ROOM

STANDARDS

Nxrrs

F*"

Machine

Handles

HOOK

Thttmb

BOLTS

275

Nuts

GS3-10
o

Hook

Bolts

"iCf"

V\
l

276

SHOP

DRAWING

AND

Dimensions

of

Standard

STANDARDS

ROOM

Plug

and

Ring

Gages

WITH

COUNTERBORES

COUNTERBORES

WITH

INSERTED

INSERTED

PILOTS

277

PILOTS

Diam.
A

"Nv M

From

A^tojr
m32nds.

t
H

iBi

i"
i

From

i^tojr
in

32nds.

a
I

ij
From
i" to

I Jf^
in32nds.

I'Ooanterborei
f^ have
(to

Flutist

278

SHOP

OOOvO

rr)"
J":
ON

^vo

CO

"5r}"o
-/ y^.

"

lOtOTj-tOPOfOW
"
"i-vo 00
o
00
"
po Tt 100
o\ o

^vo

r^oo

'"*'"
e-i

STANDARDS

ROOM

DRAWING

AND

a^arico

"

-rt -^

zr

="

"

r*-

1-.*^

r-o

,1-, r-

Q^

"

c"

^o

^o

no

0
0

3-^oc
lovq t^a
"

vo

On

'^''illn

"

o
Tt-

cj

md

rn-j \r

HH

"

00

C7^ O

00

t^C

fO

"0

1^

r^

t^-OOO

"-"

"-

d
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r-.,

^i r^mr-O^w

..-

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J^O
M

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"^fOM
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CO

-i-

t^OO

rj- lOO

ro

"

Qv O

"-"

C^

f^^r^C""H

r*5ior-.a\'f^

"-"

C^OO

""'":;
^'^ E" q

co

tO

(^jlOO

IN

"^

"

C^O^C^O^O^OOOOOMHH

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P*

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t^

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INTEGRAL

TRIANGLES

RIGHT-ANGLED

281

erection of a perpendicular
by the construction of a triangle
whose
sides are respectively
3, 4 and 5 units in lengthis a familiar
and
handy device. The followingtable gives a greater range of
choice in the shape or proportionsof the triangle
employed. The
is
listof
all integral,
table
or
a
whole-number, right-angled
triangles
the
units of whose least sides do not exceed 20.
The

TABLE

OF

CHORDS

any anglefrom the table of chords,page 282: Let the

be
requiredangle 36"38';the nearest anglesin the table are 36"30'and
36" 40/,and the chords are respectively
0.6263and 0.6291,the diflFerTo

construct

angulardifference of 10'. To find

must
to 0.6263 (thechord corresponding
to 36" 30') in order to obtain the chord for a 36" 38' arc, multiply
0.0028 by A
0.6263-t-0.00224
0.62854. Then, ifthe
0.00224.
radius is i^ and the angle36" 38' the chord will be 0.62854^.
ence

0.0028

correspondingto

which

the amount

an

be added

=*

-10

layingout

in the

accompanying illustrationa base

be drawn, say 10 inches long,then with a radius A B
and center
Ay arc B C can be struck. Multiplychord 0.62854 inch
by 10 giving6.2854 inches,as the radius of an arc to be struck from
In

line A

an

angleas

can

and

C and

the

cuttingarc B C 2XC.
Through pointC draw a line
will equal 36" 38'.
angleB AC
the angle requiredis in even
Where
degrees or sixths of degrees
(as 10',20',etc.)the correspondingchord may be taken directlyfrom
the multiplication
the table. A 10 to i layoutis particularly
convenient
as
of the tabulated chords by 10 is readily
mentally.
performed

center

282

SHOP

AND

DRAWING

ROOM

Table
the

tabulated

quantities

of
"=

STANDARDS

Chords

twice

the

sine

of

half

the arc

283

CHORDS

Table
he

tabulated

quantities

op
=

twice

Chords
the

sine

op

halp

the

arc

284

SHOP

AND

Table

DRAWING

for

Spacing

STANDARDS

ROOM

Holes

in

Circles

SPACING

Table

for

HOLES

Spacing

IN

Holes

CIRCLES

in

Circles

285

DRAWING

AND

SHOP

286

SPACIIIG

FOR

TABLE

ROOM

STANDARDS

HOLES

IN

CIRCLES

when it
table on
pages 284 and 285 will be found of service
of holes up to and including
is desired to space any number
32,ina
ic
found
divisions
will
be
The
number
of
desired
holes
or
circle.
at the center
the first column, the correspondingangle included
in
second
column.
The
the
convenience
remaining
a
beinggivenas
of
circles
from
diameters
various
column heads cover
i to 12 indies,
and under these different heads and oppositethe requirednumber of
holes will be found the lengthsof chords or distances between hole
for the given circlediameter.
centers
bv
to space off 18 holes in an
8-inch circle,
Thus, if it is required
until
18
is
down
the
column
reached
and
first
then
reading
following
directlyto the right,in the column headed "Length of ChordDia. 8," will be found the distance 1.389as the chord lengthforthat
of
of divisions and diameter of circle. Or, suppose
number
a circle
be
off
for
be
of
holes
is to
to
a series
1 2 inches diameter
spaced
27
in the firs*
drilled at equal distances apart: Opposite 27 found
column, and under the heading,"Dia. 12," will be found the chord
The

1.393 ^s the lengthto which

off the series of holes.

the dividers

may

be set

forlaying
directly

If it is desired
not

the

eter
diamto layoff a series of holes in a circle of some
tract
subthe
in
table,say 10 holes in an iii-inch circle,
given
chord

chord in the

"

for

Dia,

holes in

10
12

"

an

column,

or

11

-inch

3.399 from the

half the difference

circle,
or,

3.708,and

add

(.154)to

distance between
3.399, giving3.553 as the chord or center
holes.
Or, if 24 holes are to be equallyspaced in a 20-inch circle,
is
all that is necessary in order to find the chord, or center
distance,
find

opposite 24, and in the column headed, "Dia. 10,"the

quantity1.305 and multiplythis by 2, givinga lengthof 2.610 inches

to

as

the

center

distance.

TABLE

OF

SroES, ANGLES

AND

SINES

table on pages 287 to 291 is carried out for a much

higher
of sides or spaces than are included in the precedingtable
and will be found useful in many
cases
not covered
by that table.
It was
originally
computed for findingthe thicknesses of commutator
bars and also for calculating
the chord for spacingslotsin armature
punchings. In using this table the diameter of the circle is,of
by the sine oppositethe desired number of holes
course, multiplied
sides.
or
Assuming for illustrationthat a series of 51 holes are to be equally
spaced about a circle having a diameter of 17 inches,opposite
51 ic
the column
headed
"No, of Sides,"find the quantity.06156in tk
The

number

column

headed

"Sine," and multiply this quantityby 17. The

is
the lengthof the chord or the
product 1.0456
requireddistance
between
of the holes for this circle.
centers
Or, if 40 equidistant
points are to be spaced about a circle 16 inches diameter,opposite
the number
of sides,40, will be found the
which
by
multiplied

16

quantity .0784CQ

gives 1.255

inch

as

the distance between

centers.

TABLE

OF

SIDES, ANGLES

AND

SINES

287

288

TABLE

OF

SIDES,

ANGLES

AND

SINES

TABLE
MULTIPLY

OF

SIDES, ANGLES

DIAMETER

BY

(Angle given is half

SINE

TO

AND
GET

LENGTH

of angle subtended

SINES
OF

at

SIDE

center)

289

290

TABLK

or

MULTIPLY

ANGLES

SIDES,

DIAKETER

BY

SINE

TO

GET

OF

LENGTH

(Angle given is half of angle sabtended

Angle

SINES

AND

Angle

Sine

No.
Sides

Min. Sec.

35-52.82

.0104370

351

30-46.15

15-45-69

.0104024

30-40.91

35-38.61
35-31.58

.0103681
.0103340

352
353
354

Min.

Sec.

S1I"B

center)

at

Sbe

30-35-69

35-24.59

.0103001

355

30-30-51
30-25.35

^5-17-65

.0102665

356

30-20.22

35-10.75
35- 3-90

.0102330

357

.0101998

358

34-57.09

.0101668

.359

30-15.12
30-10.05
30- 5-01

34-50.32

.0101340

360

30-

34-43.60

.0101014

361

34-36.92
34-30.29

.0100690
.0100368

362
363

29-55.01
29-50.05

34-23.69

.0100049

29-40.22

34-17.14

.0099731

364
365

34-10.63

.0099415

366

29-30.49

367

.0098791
.0098482

368
369

29-25.67
29-20.87
29-16.10

.0098174

370

29-"

33-38.69

.0097868

371

29-

6.63

33-32.42

.0097564

29-

1.94

33-26.19

.0097261
.0096961

372
373

33-20

33-13-85
3333-

7.73

1-65

32-55.61
32-49.60

28-57.27
28-52.62

375

28-48

x"oS67S3
"086544

.0086306
JO086070

x"o8s"35
.0085601

.0085368
.0085137
x"o84907

.0084678
.0084451
.0084224

.0083999
.0083775

28-43.40

377

28-38.83

.0095779

378

28-34.28 .0082891
28-29.76 JO082673
28-25.26 .0082456

32-37-70

.0094911

32-31.81

.0094625

382

32-25.95

.0094341
.0094059

383
384
385
386
387
388
389

2.85

.0087023

376

380
381

32-

.008726s

.0096663
.0096367
.0096072
.0095488
.0095198

32-14.33
32- 8.57

.0087753

-35

374

32-43.64

32-20.12

joo8S2iS

.0087998

29-35-34

.0099102

4.16

.0088744
.0088494

29-45.12

33-57.74
33-51-35
33-45

34-

.008924S

.0093778
.0093499

31-57.16

.0093221
.0092945

31-51-50

.0092671

31-45.88

.0092398

31-40.29
31-34.74

.0092127

31-29.21
31-23.72

379

.0083552
.0083331

.0083110

28-20.78

.0082240

28-16.33
28-11.91

.0082025

28-

7.50
28- 3.12

.0081812
.0081599

.oo8i3"7

27-58.76

.0081177

27-5442
27-50.10

.0080760

27-45.81

.0080553

27-41.54

/)o8o347

.0091858

390
391
392

.0091590
.0091324
.0091059

393
394
395

27-28.85
27-24.67
27-20.5'^

.0090796

396

27-16.3^

.0090534
.0090274

397

27-12.24

398

30-56.73

.0090016

399

30-51.43

.0089758

400

272727-

31-18.26
31-12.83
3131-

7-44
2.07

27-37-^9

27-33.06

/307993"
.0079735
.0079533
.0079332
.0079132
.0078934

8.14-

.007873^

4.06

.0078534

TABLE
MULTIPLY

OF

SIDES,

DIAMETER

BY

ANGLES
SINE

TO

GET

AND
LENGTH

(Angle given is h;ilfof angle subtended

SINES
OF

at

SIDE

center)

291

AND

SHOP

292

Actual

Cutting

DRAWING

Speed

ROOM

of

STANDARDS

Planers

in

Feet

MuorrE

per

increase in forward cutting

table shows very clearly
that a slight
better
than a high return speed. A 25-footforward
speed
speed is
better than an
8 to i return
is much
with 20-feet
at 4 to I return
forward speed.
The

ALLOWANCES
Stock

Allowed

i in. Upset to
-

FOR
for

Standard

HEADS

BOLT

Upsets

by

fin. Length of Upset,3

-

a
"

AlW)

in.

^j
3J

UPSETS

Stock

i J in.
required,
u

"

j|

"

"

"

li

"

2i

"

23

"

2j
2j

"

2I

"

It

tt

tt

ti

((

((

tt

tt

ft

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

^J

Co

Machinery

Acme

^J

tt

"

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

(t

it

tt

tt

tt

tt

ft

tt

2I

"

ij

**

"

"

"

si

"

"

"

((

tt

-1

tt

tt

tt

((

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

ji

tt

tt

^
5

It
tt

tt

tt

^^..

6j

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

tt

2i
2\

tt

tt

tt

"

"

"

tt
ti

tt

"

"

^^
-

"

jl

"

"

2
I*

''

"

"

2S

"

Stock

Required

HEXAGON

AND

SQUARE
to

Make

manufacturers'

UNITED

states

BOLT

Square

and

standard

STANDARD

HEADS

Hexagon
sizes

SIZES

Bolt

293
Heads

SHOP

294

QUICK

WAY

AND

DRAWING

OF

ESTIMATING

ROOM

STANDARDS

LUMBER

FOR

PATTERS

and
length,breadth, and thickness in inches together
this by 7, pointingoff three places.
Board
8 inches wide, i8 inches long, i inch
thick.
8 X i8Xi
Multiply

1.008 square feet.

X 7
work.
for most
Board
=

correct

answer

Table

Giving

is .008 too

li X

10

36

much,
540

but

nearenougt

3.780.Tbe

is 3.75.
Weight

Proportionate
OF

Degrees

This

Obtained

Wood

by

of

Castings

to

Weigh:

Patterns

Opening

Two-Foot

Rule

distance apart given

Open a two-foot rule until open ends are
in table when
degrees given in table can be scribed. Saipe results
end.
be had with two
can
12 -inch steel scales placed togetherat one

OF

WEIGHT

WEIGHT
facilitate the

To
f

calculated

been
each

find

by

the

drawings,

the

from

-j^to

3 inches

for filletsconnecting sides that

of

the volume

lengthare
radius

weights of the different parts

or
accompanying table of areas

of the

be

can

are

at

used.

It

rightangles

other.

Table

To

calculations
the

295

FILLETS

OF

of filletshaving radii

olumes
las

from

machine

FILLETS

Areas

of

given, multiply
the

or

fillet
the

Volumes

by

value

this table
in the

Fillets

of

when

table

the

radius

and

the

given

opposite

lengthof the filletin inches, and this result multiplied

weight of a cubic inch of the material will give the weight of

by

the fillet.

TWIST
The

DRILL
Drill

Twist

and

be

not

confused

between
from
in the

the

about
cases

.0005 to
of a few
Twist

Rod

steel drill rods.

GAGE

is used
sizes

SIZES

for

by

sizes.

Steel Wire

numbers

Drill

and

STUBS'

the systems

where

Steel

Wire

Gage

measuring tlie

this

Stubs*
Gage
in the two
corresponding numbers
Stubs
sizes
the
being the
.004 inch,

with

sizes of

Gage

Steel Wire

WEIGHTS

WIRE

STEEL

AND

sizes of twist drills and

STOCK

AND

GAGES

WIRE

gage should
difference
The
gages
smaller

coincide

ranges

except

exactly.

Sizes

GAGES

Gages, the difference between the Stubs Iron Wire

Steel Wire
The
Gage should be kept in mind.
Stubs
Iron Wire
is
the
known
the
one
Gage
as
commonly
English
Standard
Wire, or Birmingham Gage, and designatesthe Stubs soft
wire sizes.
The
Stubs
Steel Wire
Gage is used in measuring drawn
steel wire or
drill rods of Stubs'
make
and
is also used
by many
In

Gage

using Stubs'
and

American

the

Stubs

makers

of drill rods.

296

DIFFERENT

STANDARDS

FOR

WIRE

GAGES

297

298

WIRE

Wire

and

GAGES
Drill

AND

STOCK

Sizes Arranged

WEIGHTS

Consecutively

WIRE

Wire

and

Drill

AND

DRILL

Sizes

Arranged

SIZES

Consecutively

299

300

WIRE

GAGES

AND

STOCK

WEIGHTC

WEIGHTS

SHEET

OF

Wire

Music

Weights

of

united

(Adoptedby

S.

AND

IRON

301

Sizes

Steel
standard

and

Iron

gage

Government, July i, 1893)

cubic foot is assumed

480 lbs. for iron plates.

Weightof
and

Sheet

states

U.

STEEL

to be

487.7 lbs. for steel plates

J02
Weights

WIRE

op

GAGES

AND

Steel, Wrought
american

or

STOCK

Iron, Brass
brown

"

sharpe

WEIGHTS

and
gage

Copper

Plates

WEIGHTS

Weights

of

Steel, Wrought
birmingham

OF

SHEET

Iron,
or

METAL

Brass

stubs*

gage

and

303
Copper

Plates

Weights

of

Steel, Iron,

AMERICAN

Dia.

No.
of

Gage

in
Inches

STOCK

AND

GAGES

WIRE

304

on

Brass

BROWN

Weight

Steel

WEIGHTS

Copper

and

SHARPE

"

in

Lbs.

GAGE

per

Iron

560.74

OOOO

Wise

Lineai Feet

zooo

Brass

605.18

Copper

640.51

444.68

479-91

507-95

380.67
301.82

402.83

352.66
279.67

221.79

239-35

253-34

189.82

200.91

17589
139.48

150.52

159-32

110.62

119.38

126.35

OOO
OO

319-45

87.720

94.666

75.075

79.46:

59.545

63-013

69565
55-165

43.751

34.699

100.20

49-976

47.219
37.437

39^

29,687

31.426

27.512
21.820

23.549

24-924

13

17.304

18.676

19.766

13

13.722
10.886

14.809

1S.674

11.746

12.455

lO
II

14

15
i6
17
i8
19
20
21
22

23
24

8.631
6.845

9-859
7.819

7.587
5.857

6.199

4.304

4.645

4.916

3.413

3.684

3-899

2.708

2.920

3-094

2.147
1.703
1-350
1.071

2.317

2.452

1.838

1.945
1.542

5-427

25
26

".8491

27

"5640
.4235

28

9-315

.6734

1.457
1.155

.9163
.7267
.5763
.4570

1.223

.9699
.7692
.6099

.483/

.3835

29

.3358

.3624

30

.2663

.2874

.3042

31

.2113

.2280

.2413

32

.1808

33

.1675
.1328

34

.1053

.1434
.1137

.19^3
.1517:

35

.0836

.0901

36

.0662

.0715

.1204

.0956
.075;
.0600

37

.0525

.0567

38

.0416

.0449

.0475

39

-0330

.0356

.0375

40

.0262

.0283

.0299

WEIGHTS

Weights

of

OF

WIRE

Iron, Bilass, and

birmingham

or

stubs*

305
Copper
gage

Wire

3o6

WIRE

GAGES

AND

STOCK

WEIGHTS

WEIGHTS

EIGHTS

OF

Brass, Copper

OF

and

BAR

Aluminum

STOCK

Bars

307
per

Linear

Foot

3o8

WIRE

GAGES

AND

STOCK

WEIGHTS

WEIGHTS

OF

SEAMLESS

BRASS

TUBING

309

BELTS

AND
BELT

fasteningfor

SHAFTING

FASTEMNGS

splice. It is far beyonr

or
ing
any form of lacing,belt hooks, riveting,
any other method of joinappliec
together the ends of a belt. The cement
jointis easily
but
make
rubber
leather
m s,
and
to
to
to
belts,
splice
a good cement
time
and
a:
than is usually
belt requires more
canvas
apparatus
fish
hand.
for leather belts,
and
Good
gk;
glue makes a fine cement
is less affected by moisture
than the other.
the
of
glues
Miany
liquid
when cold. A
fish glue treated with acid so as not to gelatinize
are
littlebichromate
of potash added
to ordinary hot glue justbefore
The

best

belt is the

cement

'i

is used

it insoluble

will render

There

in water.

of the more co3"

stylesof belt hooks in use, some
in Figs, i, 2, 3 and 4.
kind being shown
mon
Fig. 2 is practkaily
iron fastening,
double
a
rivet,Fig. 3 a malleable
althoughsimilar
hooks
have been made
of pressed steel,and Fig. 4 is the Blake stui
has
the advantage of not weakening the belt but makes i
which
the ends turn up.
hump on the outside where
Fig. 5 is the Brislo*
in the points turned over 0:
hook
is driven
of stamped steel which
the other side.
Fig. 6 is the Jackson belt lacing and is applifi
which
the ends of a
a
by a hand machine
screws
spiralwire across
then
belt. These
flattened and
rawhide
are
a
pin or a heavy son
cord used as a hinge jointbetween
them.
These
jointsare probabb
equal to 90 per cent, of the belt strength.
are

many

Lacing
Belts

fastened

by lacingare

of material

Belts

weakened

accordingto

the amoiffi'

the lacing.
to
punched
making
It is preferable to lace with a small lacing put many
times throu^
small holes.
Such a jointis stronger than a few pieces of wide lacinJ
of large holes.
number
through a
Figs. 7 and 9 illustrate two forms
of belt lacing,the latter l^ing
far preferableto the other.
The lacir^
^'^^
shown
The
by Fig. 7 is in a double leather belt 5 inches wide.
makes
diflference
the
is
in
no
as
strength
figured
percentage of thf
four
total width.
There
holes in this piece of belt, each ho'f
are
fc
thus cut out of the belt
The
f inch in diameter.
aggregate width
Then
Y
i inch
li inches.
4 X
or
1.5 -^ 5
0.30,
30 pa
out

cent,

of the

in

the holes

belt has

been

cut

strength.
In Fig. 9 a different method
few large holes,there are
more
fact.

There

total of
cent,

largeholes.

or

total belt
A

away

0.9375

"

nearly one

is followed.
smaller

five holes, each

are

\i inch,

of the

receive

-^

ones

18}
leather

"

in

per

strength, against 70

first-class double

Instead

yV inch
=

third

per

one

of

the total

of there being*
fourth

more,

ii

diameter, making '

cent.,
cent,

leaving 81I P"

in

belt will tear

the

belt"itl

in two

undt

BELT

LACINGS

AND

HOOKS

3"

of about 500 pounds to each lace hole,the strain being

the holes by means
in
of lacings.
ipplied
belt shown
has
The
8ii per cent, of 1.875square inches
by Fig.9.
)f section,
1.525 square inches left after cuttingout the five holes,
I

strain

rhis

jtrain,and
that

;een

as
we

the

good for 3000

lacingwill tear

cannot

1.875

out

5625 pounds breaking

2500 pounds, it will be

"

under

afford

to use
lacingsif the full power of the
This,under a factor of safetyof 5, would
the square inch,or 1125 X 1.525
1715 pounds

is to be utilized.

eather

1125

"e

is

amount

pounds

to

(^=3

C=J)

SQmm':r'''i"}:{m
FIG.

FIG.

TlGv

TIG.

Belt Hooks

and

FIG.

10

Lacings

working strain for the belt,ori7i5-7-5

343.5 pounds to each
This,too, is too much, as it is less than a factor of safetyof 2.
ice.
belt to carry 40 pounds working tension to the inch of width
The
also
nust
carry about 40 pounds standingtension,making a strain
"f 80 pounds to the inch,or 80 X 5
400 pounds. This is a better
and
of
of
factor
we
a
t\. Still,
bowing,
gives
safety 2500 -^ 400
in
order
to get
re
wasting a belt of 5625 pounds ultimate strength
it 400 pounds working strain.
This means
rom
a factor of safety
which
f over
14 in the body of the belt but of only 6} at the lacing,
hows
the advantageof a cement
splice.
used
sometimes
to relieve the lace-holes
Fig. 10 shows a method
of the strain. Double
f some
of holes are punched as at a h,
rows
=

nd

the

lacingdistributed

among

them.

As

far

as

helpingthe

BELTS

312

AND

SHAFTING

ttf ihc
sJrtfn^lh

l^"cUh roncemed, this does nothing,

fgr aU tbeaUB
l"ecarried bythebeliifi
at c must
jjul upiA} [he Iid I by the lacing
li
lUm
of punching holes does not iacTcasr
at ij ; Uicrefure tliisway
i'
the holes as sb'jwti
EMS lion
i^lrenjrth.Neither dtics staggering
rtttfl
Th'- i*fcrm of holc!-jJun('hing
iihown ^i a b c h dcstraW^
f*
aniJlkrr rt^ason,
li tliairibules the lacingvery nicelyand d^je;
c
ttMhkv suc h II lum^^Li" thump when itpasses over the pulleys,

SHAFTING

ALIIftNG

sriML

win'

ttlUn

used

BY
for

measuring fmmllieit^^

Ivirijiiinlal
direction. This sted viire can ah"
Uit^il
for kviling"ir aUning m a dirt:ction at rightanglestolk-tJf
l(j

wm*

in

WIRE

aliningshaftingby Ftrektufli:!

%silh the tlircrtion of ihe shaft and

Itiinilli'l

i)\v

STEEL

Sags

''

;i

of

Steel

Alining

Dtsiuiicc in Fe?t;ip
Itwu

Hcd

Wire

to

Potnt

tor

Shaftosg

gf Measutemeiu

SAGS

STEEL

OF

if it is stretched

vertical measurements,
and
if the sags at the

by making
conditions

points of

3^3

under

established

measurement

in inches

the

table

WIRE

ALINING

known.

are

from

a
truly level
gives
accompanying
sags
passing through the points of support of the wire, at successive
points beginning lo feet from the reel and spaced lo feet apart for
No.
a
high grade piano wire, stretched with a
gage
17 Birmingham
reel of a minimum
of
wound
diameter
of
60
on
a
pounds,
weight

The

line

three
and

of

kind
10

sags
when

to

40

and

from

be

can

between

truly level

Distance

varying by

wire

of any

increments

the

reel

10

feet

of

l(k

Alining

170

convenient

this

as

conditions

the

in Feet, from

TSO

between

distances

total

length, of the
is a multiple
length
long
and
the
table gives the
the limits specified,
line at points 10 feet apart for its entire length

Steel

of

for

wire

selected, so

under

it is stretched

Sags

the

Thus

feet.

indicated,
feet

of

support

280

and

inches

one-half

point

from

of

and

Reel

So

Wire

to

These

designated.
Shafting

for

Point of Measurement

230

lyo

240

250 260

2S0

370

ti

27C3
260

1}

250

sags

340
330
220

210
200

190

Sag

180

of the Wine

Inches

la

170

160

being known,
a

shaft

by

direct

vertical

method

measurements

can

be

was

to

level

or

aline

measurements.

originallydeveloped
shafts of vessels,but it is equally serviceable
as factory line shafts.
The

made

for

alining the

for semi-flexible

propeller

shafting,

BELTS

3^4

SPEEDS
fact

The

the

times

or

both; but if the

only 4 inches it
every

of

turn

pulley is the

desired

diameter

that

both

to

another

is

16

the

pulley

it easy
driver

of

pulley
driving pulley
is clear

makes

6-inch

and

and

pulley

figure speedsby
driven
pulleys.

speedto

same

turn

have

and

the

not

been

outside

arranged
pulley or

about

TO

HAVING

diameter

for
gear

in

of
of

Speed

of

Driving Pulley
Driven
Pulley Speed
Driving Pulley

finding any

speeds.

FIND

of Driven

Diam.

of

Speed
Speed

of
of

Driving Pulley
Driving Pulley Diam.
Driven
Pulley

of

Pulley

Driven

Pulley.

Multiply Diam. of
Pulley
Driving
its
Pulley
by
Speed and
Divide
by Speed
of

of

Diam.

of

Speed

of

Diam.

of Driven

Speed
Speed

of
of

Driving Pulley
Driven
Pulley Speed
Driven
PuDey

Pulley
Driven
Pulley
Driving Pulley

rules

These
or

diameters

to

and

Diam.

of gears

speeds

are

its

Driving Pulley

Diam.

of

Pulley hj

Speed

vide
and Di-

by Diam. of
Driving Pulley.
Multiply Diam. oi
Driven

apply equally
train

Driven
of

Pulley,

Driven

Multiply
Diam.

of

Pulley
Driving
its
by
Speed and
divide
by Diam.
of Driven

Diam.

lowing
fol-

The

is taken.

convenience

Multiply
Diam.

times for

the small
and
large pulley. If this is reversed
turn for
driver, the large pulley will only make
one
the small
rule applies to gears ii
same
pulley. The

information

Diam.

pulley

driven

the

will

is always

gear

the

gives

inches

small

or

to

the

four
of
every
the pitch diameter
rules

of

diameter

GEARS

AND

circumference

the
the

SHAFTING

PULLEYS

OF

that

3f
considering only
one
Belting from
3.1 41 6

AND

of

well

vide
Speed and Diby Speedof
Driving Pulley.

its

Driving Pulley

to

if all the

number

driving
together.
grouped

and

Pulley by

of

pulleys belts

all the driven

gether
to-

pulley

STEEL

AND

HEAT

OTHER

METALS

TREATMENT

OF

STEEL

of steel rests upon

the influence
theory of the heat treatment
in
the rate of coolingon certain molecular
structure
occurchanges
in
solid
the
different
These
state.
at
changes
are
temperatures
g
and
critical
the
former
two
occur
classes,
progressive;
periodically
certain narrow
tween
temperature limits,while the latter proceed
idually with the rise in temperature, each change producing alterin the physical characteristics.
ons
By controllingthe rate of
be
)ling,these changes can
given a permanent set, and the physical
The

iracteristics
its normal

thus

can

made

be

different from

those

in the

metal

state.

The

highest temperature that it is safe to submit a steel to for

at-treatingis governed by the chemical composition of the steel.
carbon
steel should
be raised to about
ire
1650 degrees Fahr.,
lile some
of the high-gradealloysteels may
safelybe raised to 1750
be raised to just below
grees Fahr., and the high-speedsteels may
It
is
raise
the
metal to these points
to
3 melting point.
necessary
that the active

coolingprocess will have

of the structure.
crystallization

l the

of

Methods
Furnaces

using solid

fuel such

have

as

Heating
coal, coke, charcoal,etc., are

and

numerous

nsist of

to

place the fuel on,

Liquid

fuel furnaces, which

els,are

not

vingto

the

"

compared
Crude

Jces,

with

oil and

owing

with

ease

to

which

coal, coke

kerosene

have
at

numerous

very

used

the

longest. These furnaces

arch
to reflect the heat and
a grate
The
plateto put the pieces on.
plate should be so arranged that
will not strike the piecesto be heated, and for that reason
e flames
cast-iron or clay retorts which are open on the side toward
use
me
of
the furnace.
e doors
3st

been

the desired effect of check-

are

the

an

open

fires and

present, but

their

the fire is handled

charcoal fire.
or
the fuels

their

and

cheapness and the

are
usuallystored in a tank near
them or flow by force of gravity.

Heating

in

is

use

the

generallyused
fact that they

fuels

atained. These
id are pumped to

which

liquid
increasing,
use

cleanliness

in these furcan

be

easily

the furnaces

Liquids

using liquidfor heating have a receptacleto hold the

quid,which is heated by coal, oil, gas or any other economical
the
leans; the liquidis kept at the highest temperature to which
iece should be heated.
The
piece should be heated slowly in an
800
furnace
to about
degrees, after which it should b
rdinary
Furnaces

315

STEEL

3i6
immersed

in the

AND

bath
liquid

and

OTHER

METALS

kept there long enough

temperature of the bath and then removed

to be annealed

to
or

tiie
attain
hardened.

usuallyconsists of lead,althoughantimony, cyanateof

potassium,chloride of barium, a mixture of chloride of barium anf
chloride of potassium in the proportionof 3 to 2, mercury, commoc
used.
salt and metallic salts have been successfully
to \t
This method givesgood results,
no
as
portionof the piece
i
treated can
reach a temperature above that of the liquidbath;
hi^
indicate
when
the
attachment
will
exactly
piece
pyrometer
be acted upoc
arrived at that temperature, and its surface cannot
perature
at the proper temchemically.The bath can be maintained easily
control.
and the entire process is under perfect
When
lead is used it is liable to stick to the steel unless itispure
and
retard the coolingof the spots where it adheres.
Impurities,
such as sulphur,
liable to be absorbed by the steel and thusaffect
are
itschemical composition. With high temperatures lead and cyanaie
of potassiumthrow oflFpoisonousvapors which make them prohibitive,
mental
and even
low temperatures these vapors are detriat comparatively
Tlie
in the hardeningroom.
to the health of the workmen
The

bath

metallic salts,
however, do not give off these poisonous vapors,a:i
times the funs
milch better to use for this purpose, but many
are
unbearable.
are
Gas

as

Fuel

Furnaces using gaseous fuel are very numerous

and are so cod1
structed that they can
either natural gas, artificialgas, or prouse
if
ducer gas.
built
well
art|
and
to
are
They
regulate
very easy

capableof maintaininga constant temperature within a wide rangei

In first cost this styleof furnace is greater than that of the sojij
fuel furnaces,
but where natural or producergas is used the costof|
0:
is
operating so much less that the savingsoon
pays for the cost
tbe
installation. Illuminating
expensivethan
gas, however, is more
solid fuels and is only usai where high-grade
work demands
the best|
results from

heat treatment.
COOLING

THE

STEEL

ening
baths for hardapparatus is divided into two classes
the different appliances
for annealing.
j
The baths for quenching are composed of a largevariety
of im-I
terials. Some
of the more
commonly used are as follows,being
arrangedaccordingto their intensity
on
0.85 per cent, carbon steelii
sii|
water
with
acid added; nitrate of potassium;
Mercury;
sulphuric
ammoniac; common
salt;carbonate of lime;carbonate of magnesia:
sweeti
pure water; water containingsoap, sugar, dextrine or alcohol;
|
milk; various oils;beef suet; tallow;wax.
These baths,however,
do not act under all conditions with the same
3"
relative intensity,
their conductivity
and viscosity
with the temperature.
vary greatly
With the exceptionof the oils and some
of the greases, the
ing effect increases as the temperature of the bath lowers. Sperw
"nd linseed oils,however, at all
temperatures between 32 and 253
"rees
Fahr., act about the same
as distilledwater
at 160
Cooling

"

and

quench-j

degreesj

HARDENING

THE

The
which

baths for

BATH

hardeningwhich give the

317

best results are

those in

provided for keeping the liquidat an even

Where
few piecesare to be quenched, or a conbut
siderable
temperature.
time elapses
the bath will
between the quenching of pieces,
retain
natural radiation.
an
atmospherictemperature from its own
for
Where
of
a bath is in continuous
quenching a largenumber
use,
be
must
means
provid^to keep the
pieces throughoutthe day, some
of
bath
The
the
low
at
hot pieces
a
even
temperature.
temperature
from
the heatingfurnace will raise the temperature of the bath many
degrees,and the last piecequenched will not be nearlyas hard as the
some

means

are

first.

Annealing
The

for annealingare
appliances

quenching,and
all that

where

steel,to-daymany

as

numerous

as

the ashes from

the baths for

the

forgewere
properlyannealinga pieceof
are
special
preparations
being manufactured and
a

considered

were

few

years

ago
necessary for

sold for this purpose.

The

more

materials used

common

for

annealingare

powdered

charcoal, charred bone, charred

leather,slacked lime, sawdust,
fire
sand,
clay,magnesia or refractoryearth. The piece to be
annealed
is usuallypacked in a cast-iron box, using some
of these
of them for the packing,the whole is then
materials or combinations
heated in a furnace to the proper temperature and set aside,with
lefton, to cool gradually
the cover
to the atmospheric
temperature.
but
For certain grades of steel these materials givegood results;
for all kinds of steelsand for all gradesof annealingthe slow-cooling
the temperature can
fumace
doubt givesthe best satisfaction,
no
as
be easily
raised to the rightpoint,kept there as long as necessary,
and then regulatedto cool down
as
slowlyas is desired. The gas,
oil or electricfurnaces are the easiest to handle and regulate.

The

Hardening Bath

influence of the bath depends upon its

and its nature; or to express this in another
temperature, its mass
its volatility
its
and its
heat, its conductivity,
specific
way,
upon
the
the
lower
With
other
viscosity.
temperature of
thingsequal,
the bath,the quickerwill the metal cool and the more
pronounced
will be the hardeningefiFect. Thus
at 60 degreeswill make
water
the bath is in consteelharder than water at 150 degrees,
and when
stant
the firstpiece quenched will be harder than the tenth or
use
twentieth,
owing to the rise in temperature of the bath. Therefore if
uniform results are to be obtained in using a water
bath, it must
mechanical
either be of a very largevolume or kept cool by some
In other words, the bath must
be maintained at a constant
means.
.In

hardeningsteels the

temperature.
The

mass

of the bath

can

perature
largeso no great rise in tembe made
or it can
coolingof pieces,

be made

is made by the continuous

small and its rise in temperature used for hardening tools that are to
the
remain fairly
soft,as, if this temperature is properlyregulated,
a
nd
cracks
and
tool will not have to be re-heated and temperedlater,
fissuresare not as liable to occur.

STEEL

3i8

AND

OTHER

METALS

Another way of arrivingat the same

results would
be to use the
double bath for quenching,that is,to have one
bath of some
product
similar to salt which fuses at 575 degreesFahr.
Quench the piece
in that until it has reached its temperature, after which
it can
be
in
cooled
air.
cold
the
bath
in
or
quenched a

HIGH-SPEED

STEELS

made
steels are
by alloyingtungsten and chromium
or
with steel. These compositions commolybdenum and chromium
pletely
revolutionize the pointsof transformation.
Chromium, which
has a tendency to raise the critical temperature, when
added
to a
the
tungsten steel,in the proportionsof i or 2 per cent., reduces
critical temperature to below that of the atmosphere. Tungsten
and molybdenum prolongthe critical range of temperatures of the
steel on slow coolingso that it begins at about 1300 degrees Fahr.
and spreads
to 600 degrees.
out all the way down
These
steels are heated to 1850 degreesfor the molybdenum
and
2200
degreesfor the tungsten, and cooled moderatelyfast,usually in
the property known
air blast,to give them
"red-hardn^."
as
an
This
treatment
prevents the critical changes altogetherand preserves
the steel in what is known
the austenitic condition.
as
The
austenitic condition is one
of hardness and toughness.
rule which has givengood results in heat-treating
One
these highspeed
steels is to heat slowly to 1500 degreesFahr.,then heat fast
to 2200
degrees;after wliich cool rapidlyin an air blast to 1550
degrees;then cool either rapidlyor slowlyto the temperature of the
air.
These

CASE-HARDENHTG

Case-hardening,

carbonizing,
or,

as

itis called in

tation,"
Europe, "cemen-

shell can be made hard enough

so that the outer
and the core of the piececan be leftsoft enough to withto resist wear
stand
the shock strains to which it is subjected.
is largely
used

of packing
different from the old established one
the metal in a box filled with some
carbonizingmaterial,and then
in the lastfew years.
been
i
t
devised
have
to
heat,
subjecting
Among
the Harveyizing
them might be mentioned
process which is especially

Several methods

to armor
applicable

charcoal

over

the

plate. The Harveyizipgprocess uses a bed of

work, the platesbeingpressedup againstit in a pit

furnace and gas turned on so that the steel will be heated through
the charcoal,
thus allowing
the carbon to soak in from the top.
or

Factors

Governing Carbonizing

result of the carbonizingoperationis determined

by five
w
hich
of
the
follows: First,the nature
factors,
are
as
steel;second,
the nature
of the carbonizing
material;third,the temperature of the
The

furnace; fourth,the
carbonizing

time the pieceis submitted to the carbonizing

heat
which
treatment
follows
process;
carbonizing.
The
nature
of the steel has no influence on the speed of penetration
of the carbon, but has an
influence on the final result of the
the
fifth,

operation.

CARBONIZING

THE

MATERIALS

319

If steel is used that has a carbon content up to 0.56 per cent.,the

in carbonizingis constant; but the higher the
of penetration
in
carbon
content
brittleit becomes by prois, the core, the more
longed
annealingafter carbonizing.Therefore it is necessary that
the carbon content
should be low in the core, and for this reason
a
is
preference given to steels containingfrom 0.12 to 0.15 per cent.
of carbon for carbonizing
or
case-hardening
purposes.
rate

Table

i.

"

Penetration
Different

of

Carbon

Hour

per

with

Alloys

Speed of PcneComponent of Alloys

tration per

Hr. in Inches

0.5 per cent, manganese

0.043

per cent, manganese

0.047

i.o

chromium
chromium
2.0
nickel
2.0
nickel
cent,
5.0 per
cent,
tungsten
0.5 per
i.o

per cent,

0.039

per cent,
per cent,

0.043
0.028

1.0

per cent,

2.0

per cent, tungsten

tungsten

0.020

0.035

0.036

0.047

0.5 per cent, silicon

1.0 per cent, silicon
2.0 per cent, silicon
5.0 per cent, silicon
1.0 per cent, titanium
titanium
2.0 per cent,
1.0

per cent,

2.0

per cent,

per cent,
3.0 per cent,
1.0

0.024
0.020

0.016
0.000
,.

molybdenum
molybdenum

0.032
0.028

0.036
0.043
0.016

aluminum
aluminum

0.008

for ordinarycarbonizing
steel under the
rate of penetration
been
conditions
it will be seen
would
have
inch.
Thus
same
0.035
and
that manganese,
chromium, tungsten
molybdenum increase
the rate of penetration.These seem
to exist in the state of a double
carbide and release a part of the cementite iron.
retard the rate of penetratitanium and aluminum
Nickel, silicon,
tion
and these exist in
5 per cent, of silicon reducingit to zero
the state of solution in the iron.
The

"

"

The
The

nature

speed of

of the

Carbonizing Materials

carbonizingmaterials has

an

influence

on

the

it is very essential that the materials be of

compositionas this is the only way to obtain like

and
penetration

chemical
steel at all times.
results on the same
in many
manufactured
materials or cements
These
special
are
used
and
The
materials
are
and patentedpreparations.
following
them
of
as
but many
good
give
compounded in these preparations,
used alone as when compounded with others in varying
results when
Powdered
bone; wood charcoal;charred sugar; charred
a

known

percentages:

AND

STEEL

320

METALS

OTHER

of potassium;
bkhiO'
leather;cyanide of potassium;ferro-cyanide
of potassium;animal black,acid cleaned.
Prussiate of potash,
mate
anthracite,mixture of barium carbonate,graphite,petroleum
gas,
horn,etc.
acetylene,

Wood

How

Charcoal

Acts

but tbe
Wood
charcoal is very largelyused in carbonizing
steels,
err
method
value of this material varies with the wood
used, the
ployed in making the charcoal,and other factors. Used alone:t
tk:
for the firsthour, but after
givesthe normal rate of penetration
the rate graduallydecreases until at eighthours it givesthe lowe:
of any of the carbonizing
materials. The bes:
rate of penetration
wood charcoal is that made from hickory.
Powdered
charcoal and bone give good results as a carbonizing
used in carbonizing
nickel-chrome steel
material and are successfully
by packing in a cast-iron pot and keepingat a temperature of about
2000
degrees Fahr. for four hours,and then coolingslowlybefore
of the pot

takingout

or

uncovering.
Table

Matekials

Used

Rate

and

ov

Penetration

in

Inches

Temperature
in Degrees

Charcoal

60 per
cen*. -H 40 per

Fahrenheit

cent,

ate
of Carbonof B"^um

66
Ferro-cyanide
per cent, -f- 34
per cent, of

Ferro-cyanide Powdered Wooi

ChareoalAlone
Aloae

Bichromate

1300
0.020

1475

0.020

1650
1825

0.088

0.069

0.079

0.048

0.128

0.128

0.128

2000

0.177

0.177

0.098
0.138

caused by the action of different ceraenu

The speed of penetration
for
the same
at different temperatures
time, i.e.,
eighthours,isbest
shown
by Table 2.
The
of the carbonizingmaterial has a very pronounced
nature
the
the percentage of the carbon
effect on
or
rate of carbonization,
in the surface layerof the piece,
both.
content
or
Another
At

the

obtained

time

was

of Penetration

temperature, i.e.,1825 degreesFahr.,for different

same

lengthsof

Test

and

with

different cements,

accordingto Table

the rate

of

penetration

3.

charcoal
cent,
-f 20
of bariun
per cent, carbonate
charcoal
-h 60 per cent,
40 per cent,
carbonate of barium, ferifr
cyanide alone and 66 per cent, ferro-cyanide
+
34 per cent

Eighty per

EFFECT

bichromate
hours* time.

OF

were

COMPOSITION

used

with

AND

the
practically
Table

Another

set of tests

at

uniform

given

in

Table

same

321

results for

eight

carried out

was

other materials and

Fahr., with the results

with

HARDENING

for

longerperiod of time,

temperature of 1650

Table

degrees

4.

Carbonizing with

Gas

be kept
In the use
of hydrocarbons,or gases, a fresh supply can
and the time greatlyreduced
into the carbonizing
receptacle
flowing
for deep penetration
with an appreciablereduction of time for the

shallow

penetrations.
Effect

of

Composition and Hardening

in the hardened
constitution of a given steel is not the same
carbon
not
as in the normal
being in the same
state, owing to the
state. In the annealed or normal steel it is in a free state, while in a
hardened steel it is in a state of solution which we may call martenless carbon accordingto the original
and this contains more
or
site;
of the steel. The
carbon content
composition, and therefore th

The

STEEL

322

AND

OTHER

METALS

mechanical properties,
the carbon content,
depend principally
upon
and
the mechanical properties
byac
beingchanged slowly
gradually
increase in carbon.
This is best shown by Table 5 in which it will be seen thattie
and elasticlimit graduallyincreased with theincrease
tensile strength
staL'
in the percentage of carbon,both in the annealed and hardened

Table

5.

"

Effect

of

Composition

and

Hardening

on the

Strength

mechanical

properties

when

annealed

Tensile

Strength(in
pounds per square
130./^

inch)
Elastic

Limit

(in

pounds per square

inch)
Elongation(percentage
in 4 inches

mechanical

properties

when

hardened

Tensile

Strength(in
pounds per square
inch)

Elastic

66,400 73,100 99,400

Limit

(in

pounds per square

inch)
40,300 39,600 54,000
Elongation(percentage
in 4 inches)
22
24
14
.

while
with

the

153,400180,1*

132,100

81,400
9

elongationgraduallydecreased.

These

102,100

105,5=*

tests were

maj

bar i inch in diameter

and 4 inches in length. It willalsoi"
that there was
seen
considerable
change in the steels which were W
T"
low in carbon to be made
hard that they could not be filed.
so
reduction in elongation
when
the test bars were
heated and
show that the metal was
harder than when
in the annealed state.
a

quencii'

THERMOMETER

SCALES

3^3

that will

geneous
produce a steel that is as homofor
in
This
is
always sought
practice.
easily
if it contains 0.85 per
in a high-carbonsteel and especially
obtained
cent,
carbon, by passing the recalescent point before quenching.
The
desired homogeneity is not so easilyobtained,however, in the
steels as they have several pointsof transformation.
If
low-carbon
these
formation
are
quenched at a pointa littleabove the lowest pointof transA

hardeningprocess
as

possibleis

the carbon will pass into solution, but the solution is not
homogeneous. To obtain this result it is necessary that the quenching
be done from a littleabove the highest
point of transformation.
This is higherin the low- than in the high-carbonsteels. In practice
steels at about 1650
this calls for a quenching of the low-carbon
steel should be quenched at about
degrees Fahr.,while a high-carbon
1450

degrees.
Fahrenheit

Centigrade

and

Thermometer

Scales

Fahrenheit into Centigrade:Subtract 32 from Fahrenheit,

divide remainder by 9 and multiplyby 5.
Example: 212 Fahr.

To

convert

32

-^
180

180

-T-

9
^

Ans.

212

Example:

Cent,
Ans.

-r-

20

Fahr.

Divide

Centigradeto Fahrenheit:
260

20.

260

X
=

100

100.

Cent.

by 5, multiplyby

468 +
52.
52 X 9
Cent.
500 Fahr
=

add 32.
500 Fahr.

9 and

32

STEEL

3^4

OTHER

AND

Properties

of

METALS

Metals

ChtD-

Metal

Aluminum

Antimony

id

Bismuth

Brass, cast
Bronze
Chromium

Cr.

Cobalt

Co.

Copper

Cu.

Gold

An.

Iridium

In

Iron, cast
Iron, wrought.

Ft

Fe.

Lead

Pb.

Manganese

Mn.
.

Mercury

Hg.

Nickel

NL

Platinum

PL

Silver
Steel

cast

Steel

rolled

"

"

Tin

Tungsten

Vanadium
Zinc

Alloys

Gold

Gold

coin.

91.66
90.0

Copper

for

Silver

Coinage

Other
Constituents

Remarks

British standard.
Latin Union" art

8.33
lO.O

American.

40.35
Silver coin

0.1

82.73

15.93

19.63

40.02

7-1

92.5

Lead

0.2

Si
Roman, Septimus
A.D.
verus, 265
EarlyBritish B.C.?
Roman, B.C. 31.i
most

Silver coin

7.5

92.5

same

as

Ba

ish silvercoin.
British standard.
---a

BEARING

Composition

METAL

(Navy Department)

Bronzes

of

325

hite Metal:

parts

Tin

7.6

Copper

2.3

Zinc

83.3
3.8

Antimony
Lead
ird Bronze

3.0
for Piston

Rings:

Tin

22.0

Copper
arings

78.0
Wearing Surfaces,etc.:

"

Copper

Tin

Zinc

.'

ival Brass:
62.0

Copper
Tin

1.0

Zinc

37.0

"azingMetal:
Copper

85.0

Zinc

15.0

itifriction Metal:

Copper
Banca

(bestrefined)

"

3.7

tin

Regulus

88.8

of

antimony

Well

taringMetal
Copper

"

fluxed

7.5
with

borax

and

rosin in

mixing.

(PennsylvaniaRailroad):
77.0

Tin

8.0

Lead

15.0

Bearing

Metal

Journal of the Franklin Institute G. H. Clamer states that

excellent bearing
an
parts antimony and 87 parts lead make
;tal,these being exactlythe proportionswhich givea homogeneous
For heavier duty tin should be added.
"ucture.
In the

Bismuth

Alloys

(Fusible Metals)
Melting
Point

C"
ewton*s

alloys

ase's

"

arcet's

"

ood's

95
100

93

"

66-71

"

60

ipowitz's

AND

STEEL

326

OTHER

METALS

Alloys

Anti-

mony
Very hard.
"Big Ben"

Babbitt
Bell Metal....

Westminster.

Typicalbrass,

Brass
"

wire

7.81Birmingham

Britannia

sheet.

Heavy
metal

Mannheim
Muntz

beaii::^

Nickel varies.
Cannons.

silver.

German
Gun

coinnge.

British

Bronze

Gold
metal

Ship shearing.

Packfong

Chinese

Shot

Trace of arsenii
Telescopenl'-

metal

Speculum

....

alloy.

ror.

Type

metal

White

18.

metal...

Shrinkage

Aluminum

"

pure
Nickel

14.

Stereotyping.

12.

For

Castings

of

2031

Alloy

Special

.1875

.......

"

1718
0625

Iron, Small Cylinders

"

Pipes

"

Girders and

"

Large Cylinders,Contraction
at Top
Large Cylinders,Contraction

"

at
"

125
Beams

Brass

"

Copper

100

of

625
of

Thin
Thick

"
"
"
"
"

"

Diameter

083
of

Length

.094

167
150

Bismuth

1875
1563

^^^

3125

Z.mc

inch

Diameter

Bottom

Contraction
Large Cylinders,

bearings.

3125

"
"
"
"
"

"
**

per fort

ALUMINUM

327

ALUMINUM

Can
id

be

will

melted

not

[cits at

157
isily broken

ickel

silicon

about

at

of

crucibles

plumbago
carbon

or

Fahr.

degrees

brinkage

ordinary

in

absorb

pure

sand

or

avoid

to

run

molds

Burnishing.
:

melted

Drax,

overheated,
and

granular

and

foot

2031'' per
1875''
1718''
pounds
20,000
*'

"

"

of

about

of

"

to

brass.

should

be

poured

cool

as

as

blowholes.

in

bloodstone

and

vaseline

dissolved

used

be

can

Use

"

brass

as

Fahr.

1000

Aluminum

Iron

same

unless

Becomes

aluminum

Casting Alloy
pecial Casting Alloy
The
used
most
a
alloys have
strength
inch
of one
third that
at a weight
luare
will

it

injure

to

Cent.

625

or

the

kerosene
of

quart

steel

or

oil

hot

with

mixture

tablespoonfuls of ground
few drops of ammonia
a

two

or

and

water

burnisher,

Ided.
Clean
benzine.
with
Frosting.
in
solution
Kia or
potash, then
and
in
water
dry in
loroughly

Polishing.
can

Stearic

One

Acid

Fuller's

Six

"

Part

blasting

caustic

acid.

nitric

Wash

sawdust.
that

polish

will

recommended

Grind

parts

with
is

of

is

will

scratch

not

made

of

part

cleaned

are

Sand

is

solution

strong

undiluted

of
hot

metal

that

one

"

Stone

Castings
)eed.

One

"

earth

Rotten

good

Any

"

aluminum.

in

Dip

"

brass

mix

both

and

alone

well.

very

brush,

scratch

used

also

and

fine

at

run

high

scratch

before

rushing.
Spinning.
)inning. This
"

fee
I4

to

Turning.
Jtting tool
a

press

would
Use

"

as

lubricant,

3 a

that

means

this

use

per

go

they
or

about

high speed,

revolutions

2600

inches

up

to

3200

cut

to

5
is

good,

per
8

minute,

inches

while

for

in

is best

for

diameter,
work

smaller

r.p.m.

edge

shearing

themselves

if a bright

vaseline.

minute

with

tool

clear

work

for

feet

4000

better.

is wanted

use

Use

similar

to

kerosene

benzine.

For

a
or

woodwater

drawing

GENERAL

REFERENCE

COMMON

WEIGHTS

Linear

5J yards

AND

Measure

or

inches

12

"

foot.

="

rod.

36

198

Measures

7920

40

"=i76o

square

9 square

inches

feet

sq.

yd.
acres

30^

square

yards

160

square

rods

Sq. Rd.

A.

640

102,400

Cubic

1728 cubic inches

feet

27 cubic

cu.

cubic

foot.

cubic

yard.

27

16

grains

ounce.

ounces

pound.

ton

cwt.

20

grains
I

lb.

==

cubic

feet

Sq.In.
4,014,489'**

24I cubic feet

46,656 cu. in.

cord.

perch.

weight

i hundred
pounds
2000
i ton.
pounds
I long ton.
pounds
=

lbs.

2000

acre.

Avoirdupois

"

32,000

Weight
24

27,878,400

100

2240
I

Sq. Ft.

128

ft.

cu.

Weight

437.5

Measure

yd.

Measure

Sq. Yd.
3,097,600

sq. rod.

=1

sq. mile.

Equivalent

Sq. Mi.

8=1

Measure

sq. foot.

640

"=

320

Square
144

Mile

Furlongs

220

=5280

63,360

Rods

5.5

660

furlong.

16.5

yard.

"=

mile.

"-

Yards

Length

of

Equivalent
Feet

MEASURES

3 feet
40 rods

furlongs

Inches

TABLES

ounces

12

oz.

240

328

14,000,000

Troy

pennyweight.
12

oz.

pwt.

20

ounce.

pound.

pwt.

5760

gr.

gr.

WATER

pints

4
I

U. S. bushel

bu.

pecks
4 pk.
cu.

Liquid
4
2

gills
pints

"=

"

pint.

hhd.

"

64 pt.
2218.19 cu. in.

quarts

gallon.

"

i barrel.
barrels or 63 gals
i hogshead.
bbl.
63 gals. 252 qt.
504 pt.
=

"

2016

U. S. galloncontains 231 cu. in.

.134 cu. ft.
cubic foot
7.481 gallons.
One
cubic foot weighs 62.425lbs. at 39.2 deg. Fahr.
One
gallonweighs 8.345 lbs.
For rough calculations i cu. ft. is called yi gallons
and
8^ lbs.

gi.

="

One

Angles
to

seconds

"o

minutes

circle

peck.

Measure

The

British

in.

quart. 31! gallons

2
I

32 qt.

="

bushel

2150-42

"

8 quarts

quart.

329

Measure

Dry
2

FACTORS

CONVERSION

of arc
I minute
imes a land mile

minute.

90

Arcs

or

degrees

rt.

angleor quadrant

""

on

the earth's surface

is

CONVERSION

mile

FACTORS
8.33
0.13368

X
X
X
X
X

231

Englishgallons(Imperial) X

10

gallons
gallons
gallons
gallons

English gallons (Imperial) X

English gallons (imperial)X
English gallons (Imperial) X

Englishgallons(Imperial) X
of water

0^3
3.78

0.16
377-274
1.2

4-537

Cubic
Cubic
Cubic
Cubic

inches
inches
inches
inches

Cubic
Cubic
Cubic
Cubic

feet (of water) (39-1*')

X 62.425
feet (of water) (391") X
7-48
feet (of water) (39.1**)
X
6.232
feet (ofwater)(39.1")
0.028
X

of water
of water
of water

nautical

feet.

6080

or

U. S. gallons
S.
S.
S.
S.

=-

i circle.
degree. 360 degrees
21,600' 1,296,000^
360"
i

WATER

U.
U.
U.
U.

gallon

X 0.036024
(39.1**)
X 0.004329
(39-1**)
(39.1")X 0.003607
(39.1")X 0.576384

"

pounds.

"

cubic feet.

"

'

"-

'

""

'

""

""

cubic inches.

English gallons.
liters.

pounds.
cubic feet.
cubic inches.
U. S. gallons.
liters.

pounds.
U.

S. gallons.

'

Englishgallons.

ounces.

""

""

""

'

""

""

pounds.
U. S. gallons.

English gallons.
tons.

cubic inches.

cubic feet.
U. S. gallons.
English gallons.

""

1.17

multipliers

coNVEifisnr
Inches
Inches
Inches

X
X
X

ox)8333
0.0J778
0.00001578

Feet
Feet

X
X

0.3334

Yards

X
X
X

36

Yards
Yards

Miles
Miles

Miles

X
X
X

Avoir, oz.
X
Avoir, oz.
X
Avoir, lbs. X

feet.

"

yards.

miles.

Sq. inches
Sq. inches
Cu. inches
Cu. inches

Sq. feet
Sq. feet

X
X

Cu. feet
Cu. feet

Sq. yards

X
X
X

X
X
X

46656

X
X
X

32000

0.00019

inches.

"

0.0005681

""

feet.
miles.

63360

"

inches.

feet.

"

yards.

Sq. yards
Cu. yards
Cu. yards

"

pounds.

Avoir, lbs.

"

tons.

Avoir, tons

"

ounces.

Avoir, tons

5280
1760

0.0625
0.00003125
16

METRIC

THE

"Sq.ieet.
Sq.yai*-

OJO069S
0.0007716
0.00058

X
X
X
X

yards.

"

TABLES

REFERENCE

GENERAL

330

"

Cu. ixA.

sCiLjaids.

0.00002x4

144

Sq.ind*^

"Sq. yards.

o.iiia

1728
0.03704

Cu. indie.

Cu.yaris.

1296

.Sq.f"t.

9
27

o/xx"5

"

Oi.ind".

Cu. feet.

""

aooo

SYSTEM

**
the Meter which was
designedto be oje
on
m^dUn
earth's
of
quadrant
part
.the
(loo^oooo).
that the Meter excew"
Later mvestigations, however, have shown
Formentera.
ten-millionth part by almost one part in 6400. The value of the Meter, as.amnon^
u"
by the U. S. Government, is 39.37 inches. The Metnc system was legaJizea

The
Metric
millionth

System is based

tougDui^^^

in 1866.
U. S. Government
units
three principal
The

are

the Meter, the unit

vialions of the multiples

begin with
as in the followingtables:
letter,

10

millimeters
centimeters

10
10
10
lo

(mm)

of

decimeter

decimeters

meter

meters

dekameter
hektometer

kilometer

dekameters
hektometers

100

square

millimeters (mm^

100

square
square

centimeters
decimeters

Surface

1000
1000
1000

cubic millimeters
cubic centimeters
cubic decimeters

(mm^)

(not Land)

square

centimeter

decimeter

="

square
square

Measures

meter

Volume

of

cubic centimeter
cubic decimeter
cubic meter
.

^fj
T^j,.

divisions wtna

^ntimeter

"=

of

Length

Measures

100

,,

and of the
letter,
capital

Measures
10

"i,oiinioi
of length,the v.
"te'''.

CONVERSION

TABLES

Measures

"

milliliters(ml)
centiliters
deciliters

"

liters

"
"

"

Note.

liter is

The

"

equal to

Capacity

of

dekaliters
hektoliters

"

"

i
I

="

liter
dekaliter
hektoliter

kiloUter

the volume

d.

occupiedby

dl.
1.
Dl.
HI.
.Kl.

cubic decimeter.

Weight

of

milligrams(mg)

centiliter
deciliter

Measures

33^

centigram

eg.

"="

decigram

dg.

gram

dekagram
hektogram
kilogram

ton

"

centigrams
decigrams

grams

dekagrams
hektograms
xto
kilograms
Note.
t a
le

The

"

gram

is the weight of

weignt of

cubic

of water.

meter

AND

METRIC

T.

cubic centimeter of pure distilledwater

is the weight of i literof water; the ton is

one

of ^9.2"
F., the kilogram
temperature

g.

Dg.
Hg.
Kg.

ENGLISH

CONVERSION

Measures

of

TABLE

Length

f 39-37 inches,
meter

\ 3.28083 feet.

*=

[1.0936yds.

centimeter

inch, or

{"03937
inch

25

kilometer

foot

inch

.3048 meter.

"

2.54

centimeters.

25.4

millimeters.

nearly,

0.62137 mile.

Measures
mt^tt^r
meter-

sanarp
square

.3937 inch.

i ^0.764 Square
[ 1. 196 square

centimeter
square millimeter
square

.155

sq.

.00155

Surface

feet,

square

yard

yds.

square

foot

T
I

";niiarp
square

in.^

sq.

Measures

of

in.

Volume

of

in
m.

.836 square

="

meter.
sq. centimeters:
millimeters.
^

^452

[^^^^

=
-

meter.

square

.0929

="

Capacity

and

cubic feet.

(35.314
1.308 cubic yards.
264.2 gallons (231
cubic inch).

cubic yard

"=

.7645 cubic meter.

f .02832 cubic meter.
i 28.317 cubic decimeters.

.c"Mcded,ne.er.{*'-3-^^{5,''}..
cubic ft.
I

cubic centimeter
'

[ 28.317 liters.

decimeter.
61.023 cubic inches.
"0353

liter
=

I
I

cubic foot.

lbs. of water

at

Fi^'"
^

inch

16.387 cubic centimeters.

gallon (British) 4.543 liters.
gallon (U. S.)
3.785 liters.
=

62" F.

Measures

cubic

1.0567 quarts (U. S.)

.2642 gallons(U. S.)
2.202

'

.061 cubic inch.

cubic

15-432

kuogram

grains.

2.2046 pounds.
f .9842 ton of 2240
^
19.68 cwts.
2204.6 lbs.
2.20^

= =

metricton

of

-r
=

lbs.

Weight

grain

ounce

.0648 grams.

avoirdupois
28.35 grams.
pound
.4536 kilograms.

ton

of 3240

,,
=lbs.

1.

016

metnc

tons.

jqj5 kilograms-

GENERAL

33^

Conversion

Miscellaneous
I

kjlogram per

gram

kilogramper

kilogram

I
I
I
I

per

meter

^720 pounds

"

millimeter

square

meter

square

TABLES

REFERENCE

"

Factors

foot.

per

pounds
0.2084 pounds

per

1.422

inch.

square

foot.
foot.
cubic
per

"

per

square

.0624 pounds
pa- cubic meter
degree centigrade i .8 degrees Fahrenheit.
1.488 kilogramsper meter.
pound per foot
meta.
4-882 kilograms per square
pound per square foot
16.02 kilograms per cubic meter.
pound per cubic foot
"

"

"

"

"

degree Fahrenheit

Calorie (French Thermal

1

Watt

"

.5556 degrees centigrade.

Unit)
3.968 B. T. U. (BritishThermal Umt).
-

Hone

Power

P"^^
j^J;J^/Sf

(Unit of Electrical Power)

"^"^-

{^-T/^i^ST;^^

Watts.

fiooo

Horse Power.
foot pounds per minute.
44240
1.34

Decimal

Equivalents

of

Fractions
BY

Inches

mm.

jijs
ih
Th

Inches

'

.01024

t^oV

.02008

-00079
.00118

.01063

'

.01102

tSV
^

.02087

.02126

-02165

-00157
.00197

.01220

.01260

f^s

.01299

T^oV
t"V

jijs
jh
ih
T^TT
=

-00315

lb

.00354

^^""

"01339

-00394

.01378

"

.00433

.00472
.00512
.00551

AVAV
AV

*=

A%

tW
M
tw
T%V
AV

-00236
-00276

!%"

*=

^^
tVV
tw

.01142

.01181

.01417
"01457

-02047

"

.02205

.02244

TO*V
tV"
=

-02362

*=

-02402

J%

"

.02441

?jV

-02480

-00591

-01535
-01575

"

.00630

.01614

.00669

.01654

T%
tVt
AV
AV

-00709

.01693

AV

.00748

.01732
.01772
.01811

tVt
-02717
^V^ff .02756
iVff -02795

"=

.00787
.00827
.00866

AV

==

-02520
-02559

-0259S
-02638
-02677

T"A

"

T%

^315"

-033^1

^6% -033^
T'ift-"34^5
.0346^
^A
-03504
i"ifff
^o'ff""3543
-

T^--"3^^
AV--"3^'

l^A
^

-"37";

-03740

"

=-

*=

-00906

.01850
.01890

T^A
ivff

-02874

=-

.00945

.01929

=-

-00984

.01969

T%
At

.02913
-02953

""30/'
T^iftr

-02283
-02323

.01496

Inches

Inches

.00039

""

vancing
(Ad-

yj^ MM.)

WV
^
^
^%
AV
^V
^%
T^
iVo
^^

Millimeters.

==

*=

jh

of

-02835

"

'

^393?|

DECIMAL

EciMAL

OF

EQUIVALENTS

Equivalents

op

Millimeters

(Advancing

by

MILLIMETERS

and

mm.

Fractions
and

mm.)

^^^
of

limeters.
Mil-

334

GENERAL

REFERENCE

TABLES

EQUIVALENTS

DECIMAL

Equivalents

Decimal

BY

Decimal

of

Fractions

StHS, i6tHS, 32NDS

Equivalents

of

Fractions
BY

^
^\
-^^
^

.0625

.078125

.578125

-09375
.109375
.125

it
If
i

.046875

.59375

.609375
.625

If

If
.203125
-21875
t\
If
.23437s
i -.25
=

If

.703125

If

.71875

*{

li
If
a

765625
78125
796875
.8125

.546875
.5625

.140625
?Tf -15625
.171875
4i
.1875
tV

^^

(Advancing

64THS.)

.53125

.03125

Inch.

.515625

an

of

(Advancing

64THS.)

and

.015625

Inch.

an

If
i-i
If
A

^^
i?i
^
i

of

335

.640625
.65625
.671875
.6875

.734375

=.75

11
li
fi
If

.828125
'84375
"859375
.875
,890625
,90625
.921875

.9375

.953125

.96875

.984375

jj6

GENERAL

Decimal

REFERENCE

Equivalents

of

TABL^
Fractions

bei^^ i

EQUIVALENTS

DECIMAL

Decimal

Equivalents

op

Fractions

between

337
y

and

i*

33^

GENERAL

Equivalents

of

Inches

REFERENCE

Fractions

and

OF

Foot

TABLES

of

Inches

in

Dbcmais

EQUIVALENTS

QUIVALENTS

OF

INCHES

OF

DECIMALS

OF

FRACTIONS

AND
OF

OF

INCHES

FOOT

IN

339

DECIMALS

Foot

II

In.

.5000

"9167

.5026

"9193

"5052

"9219

.5078

"9245

.5104
"5130

.9271
"9297

.5156
.5182

"9323

.5208

"9375

"5234

^401

.5260
rj; .5286

"9349

^427

"9453

"5313
"5339

"9479
"9505

"5365

"9531

"5391

"9557

.5417

"9583

"5443

.9609

.5469

"9635

"5495

.9661

"5521
"5547
"5573
"5599

.9688

"5625
.5651
.5677

"9792

"5703

.9714
^740

.9766

.9818
.9844
^870

"5729
"5755

.9896

"5781
.5807

.9948

.9922

"9974

REFERENCE

GENERAL

340
Decimal
Roots
CLES

Equivalents, Squares, Square

of
FROM

Fractions

TO

; Circumferences

TABLES

Roots,

Cubes

and

Crsi

and

Areas

Ca-

of

INCH

Cube

Cube
Root

.000003815 .2500

Circum.
Circle

X)4909,000IQ2

.09818

.00003052

"3150

.000103

.3606 .1473
JOQXS
.3968 .1963

.0002442

.0004768

427s
"4543

.2455
.2945 .00^3

.001308

.4782 "3436.oo9#;

"001953

.5000

"3927

.002781
.003815
.005078
.006592

.5200

4438 .01553

"5724

.5890

.0008240

^1228

"S386 4909 ,01916

"556" .5400 .02321

.01287
.01562

.5878 .6381.03241
.03758
.6025 .6872
.6166
.7363.0431*
.6300 .7854.04909

.01874

.6428

.008381
.01047

.03052

.8345.05541
.0621J
"6552 .8836
.06922
.6671 .9327
.6786 .9817.07670

"03533

.6897

.04062
.04641

.7005
.7110
.7211

1.080

.05960
.06705
.07508

"7310

1.227

.7500

1.325

.08374

"7592

1.374 .1503

.02225
.02616

"05273

.09304
.1030

.1136
.1250

1. 031

1.129

,08456
.09281
.1014

1.178 .1104
.1226

.7406 1.276 .1296

.139S

,1613
.7681 1424
.7768 1.473 ipt
"7853 1.522 1843
i?63
"7937 1.571

SQUARES,

CUBES

AND

Decimal
Equivalents, Squares, Square
Roots of Fractions; Circumferences
FROM

TO

INCH.

ROOTS

341

Roots, Cubes,
and

Areas

of

Cube

cles
Cir-

GENERAL

342
Areas

and

REFERENCE

Circumferences

of

TABLES

Circles

from

to

ioo

AREAS

AND

CIRCUMFERENCES

OF

CIRCLES

343

GENERAL

Areas

and

REFERENCE

Circumferences

of

TABLES

Circles

from

to

ioo

AREAS

AND

CIRCUMFERENCES

OF

CIRCLES

345

346

GENERAL

REFERENCE

TABLES

AREAS

AND

CIRCUMFERENCES

OF

CIRCLES

347

348

GENERAL

REFERENCE

TABLES

SQUARES,

CUBES

AND

ROOTS

349

350

GENERAL

REFERENCE

TABLES

SQUARES,

CUBES

AND

ROOTS

351

GENERAL

352

Squares, Cubes, Square

AND

Circular

TABLES

REFERENCE

Roots, Cube
Areas

of

Nqs.

Circumperlnce

Roots,
from

to

520

SQUARES,
)UAREs,

Cubes, Square
AND

Circular

CUBES

Roots,
Areas

of

AND

Cube
Nos.

ROOTS

353

Roots, Circumferences
from

to

520

354

GENERAL

REFERENCE

TABLES

SQUARES,

CUBES

AND

ROOTS

355

GENERAL

356

Squares, Cubes, Square

AND

Circular

REFERENCE

TABLES

Roots, Cube
Areas

of

Nos.

CiRCUMmEsos

Roots,
from

to

520

SQUARES,

CUBES

AND

ROOTS

357

GENERAL

358

Squares, Cubes, Square

AND

Circular

REFERENCE

Roots, Cube
Areas

of

Nos.

TABLES

Roots.
from

Circumfexences,
i

to

520

SQUARES,
Squares,

Ctjbes, Square
AND

Circular

CUBES

AND

Roots, Cube
Areas

of

Nos.

ROOTS

359

Roots, Circumferences
from

to

520

36o

GENERAL

REFERENCE

TABLES

IIRCUMFERENCES

AND

DIAMETERS

OF

CIRCLES

361

SHOP

The
and

than

TRIGONOMETRY

of

anglesis sometimes
little knowledge of shop "trig"

layingout
though

as

we

called it

by

difficult by
is very

its full

ordinarymetbod^

useful

and

mucheasict

name.

Fig.

Fig.

based
the fai
or
on
reallya system of constants
multipliers
fixed
between
the
sides and angM
are
always
proportions
of triangles and
other figures. Fig. i shows
a
30-degree anglevid
3-inch arcs, i c, 2/, and 3 i. It will be found that eveii
I, 2 and
similar
is in exact
measurement
proportion to the radius, thus :^
is exactly twice the length of i a, and
k i is just three times h c. Sa
if we
know
the distance
fora
i-inch radius for any angle,asiiriliJ
o c
It is

that there

distance
radius
named

as

g i for the

of the
as

same

angle, will

circle to one, which

shown
in Figs. 2, 3, and

be

is the
4.

362

in exact

base.

All

proportion tot't
these

partsaH

SHOf

TRIGONOMETRY

363

(^e exact proportionof all the various

parts have been figured
eactipart of a degreeth^t is likely
to be needed in ordinarywork,
Itliese
are
figures
givenin the tables which follow. These niim"8 are

constants
or
simplymultipliers

for

radius of one,

and

for

other radius we multiplythe numbers

given by the radius we
These
tables
form
the
most
of calculating
means
accurate
UsiDg,
vdU be shown.
These
as
constants
uy problems
can
represent
'

of anything,
inches,feet,metens, or mileSiand the
the same
unit. In tool work they are usually
in

in

telatitm
is the saine

IS

Always

of the
regardless

Takepi

Side

each

answer

will

incbes,but

unit.

the

of

Ce^ttek

Linb'

Shown
^"3

1^3 and
1-2

T'7 are called radius of the circle,

is talkd cosine of the angle,
5 the same
as cosine of the angle.
the versed sine of the angle*
^L*co-verrsedsine of the angk.
^

Sine

"

"

liM trout

'*

''

''

*'

"

"

tl

it

it

ingent
.^^

nngle on
(1

one

angle.

In

"

side of the center

dealingwith a 60-

line and call the angle 3^

^erything is based on the radiuS
d as this base.
Perhapsthe \hrec:
r, the tnnge^t^and the secmU^ th"?se
ihrcc of the figures.From
this it
the chord or the distance from the
tangent 3-6 is the distance from
trntcr

TRIGONOMETRY

SHOP

364

givai
the horizontal radius to an extension of the radius at the angle
is the distance along the radius from the center to tk
The
secant
2 to 3 is called the versed
sine,and is the distance
tangent. From
from the center of the chord to the outer circle.
The
angle considered in this work is always less than 90 degree,
or the angle
the
and
angle between the angle used and 90 degreesj
which is necessary to completethis to 90 degreesis calledthecmcii
plementary angle. In the first case the complementaryangle
and in the thirdcase 3c
60 degrees,
in the second case 45 degrees,
ti;
co-sine is the distance 4-5, the co4angetUis 7-8,
is 1-8, and the co-versed sine is 4-7 in all three examples.
cosecant
are alite
In the 45 -degree
angleit will be seen that the various parts
thesire
while
in both angles,
as the cosine,
as the sine is the same
w
the cosine of the angle
of the angle of 30 degreesis the same
as

degrees.

The

by the tablesand can ^

anor
by making any calculation
be on the drawing board.

degrees. These facts will be

seen
by studyingthe diagrams
60

then

provingit as

All this is

as

near

borne

out

may
unless it is useful it has

but
interesting,

no

valuetotb

n
will see where it can be used to advantage
so we
practical
man,
savingtime and labor.
of a ^
is in findingthe depth
Perhaps the easiest application
0:
thread without making any figures.The
angle is 60 degrees
sotiia:
line. The
pitchis i inch
30 degreeseach side of the center

each side is also an inch, and so the radius is an inch,the deptb^:

the thread is the distance 1-2 or 4-5, and is the cosine of the ange
^;
Looking in the table for the cosine of the angle of 30 degrees
direct:
find 0.86603,and as the radius is i this givesus the depth
bj
would multiply
as
2 inches
we
0.86603inch. If the radius was
atoaN
\ inch,divide by 2 and get the exact depthwith
2, or if it was
no
figuring.Suppose,on the other hand, that the threadwas oce
inch deep and we
want
to find the lengthof one
side,the angledwhicbefore. In this case we have the depth
as
maining the same
is the line 1-3, and we
wish to find 1-6 which
is the secant,so we
look at the table again and find the secant of 30 degreesto be Uy]
inches

as

the

Suppose

lengthof

you

the distance

have

across

the

the side.
square bar
comers?

that the side of the square

the comer
distance by the secant

we

see

for the secanto-'

that half the 90 degreeangleof a squai^
find 1.4142 which would ht thedistanK

degrees(becausewe know
and
bar must
t)e 45 degrees)
45

if the bar was

3.5355 ii^ches

one

2\ inches on each side,whatj:

Looking at the second exampj
bar is represented
by line1-3^\

inch square, so
the distance across

1-6

we

so

look

we

multiply1.4142

by 2jandg?'

the comers,
arid can knowthi'
as
and is not a guess by any "sss^
this is closer than we can measure,
this
find
the
of a square that can be niilW
side
we
can
Reversing
such
the
end
out of a round
of
as
bar,
a reamer
or
tap. What squats
n
make
round
can
we
on
shank?
diameter
a
2 -inch
The
reamer
^'
the bar is the radius as 1-5 and the angle 45 degreesas before,
the side of the square
will be the sine 2-5, which
the tablesho"J
to be 0.707 II, and
this is half the chord
as
which
makes thefe'
the bar, we
across
this
multiply
by 2 and
inches as tlK

distance

get

across

the flats for

reamer

shank

i.

41 422

of this size.

SHOP

TRIGONOMETRY

365

f-inchsteel and want to find the

angleit will make with the base.
The
diagonalis the secant, and the
f-inch side is the tangent of the angle. Reducing these to a basis
of one
inch we have a bar i inch by J inch and the J inch is the tangent
find this to be almost
of the angle. Looking in the table we
With this angle
exactlythe tangent of 26 degreesand 45 minutes.
the secant
or
diagonal
is 1. 1 198 for a radius of
i J times this
I inch and
tance
gives 1.6797 as the disa bar of ij X
the
and the
across
comers,
is
the radius,the
li-inchside

Suppose

have

we

distance

across

very

comers.
use
practical

for this kind of calculation

is in soadng bolt

holes

or

otherwise dividing
circle into any

Fig. 6

of

equal parts.
enough to get
the lengthof each arc of
number

It is easy

the circumference

viding
by di360 degrees by

the number

of

divisions,

but what we want is to

tance
find the chord or the disfrom one pointto
the next
in a straight
line as a pairof dividers
would
step it oflF. First
divide 360 by the number
of divisions
say 9
in
and get 40 degrees
"

"

each

part. Fig.5

shows

the
this and we
want
distance shown
the
or
chord of the angle.This
equalstwice the sine of
half the angle. Half the
angleis 20 degreesand
the sine for this is .342*

Twice
this or 0.684 is
the chord of the 40-idegree anglefor every inch
of radius.
If the circleis 14 inches in diameter the distance between
the holes will be 7 times 0.684 or 4.788 inches. This is very quick
and the most
method known.
accurate
in degrees
Draftsmen often lay out jigswith the anglesmarked
has no convenient
the fact that the toolmaker
as in Fig. 6, overlooking
that a
protractorfor measuring the angle. Assume
h
and
20
c
degrees
shows
three holes as a, 6, and c, with
drawing
apart. The distance from a to 6 is 3 inches,what is the distance
or

accurate

from hKocor

from

to ";?

SHOP

366

TRIGONOMETRY

radius is from a to 6, the distance " c isthetaogent

As the known
a
of the angleand the tangent for a one-inch radius is .36397,
so for
and
Ho
a:
it
is
from
radius
c
3-inch
3 X -36397
1.09 191 inches
"*

rightanglesto

it.

the accuracy
of the square or oftbe
the
from
find
distance
as easiy
a to c just
use
it,as we can
way we
did b c.
This distance is the secaDt.
and justas accurately
as
we
this by3
and is i .0642 for a one-inch radius. Multipl)ring
3.19.^
measui^.
which
be
the
distance
can
as
accurately
then h c wotld
If the distance between a and c had been 3 inches,
have been the sine and a b the cosine of the angle,both of whichm
But

need not

we

depend on

easilyfound from the tables.

It often happens that we want
or other
to find the angleof a roller
tinue
pieceof work as Fig.7. Always work from the center lineandconthe l^esto complete the angle. Every trian^ehas thesides
be

and "hypotenuse,"
called the side "opposite,"
"side adjacent,"
the first being oppositethe angle,the secondthebase
Une, and the third the slant line.
rules are very useful in this kind of work:
The following
and

they are

^H^
^^^' (6) Opp.
(2)
^^^
^^^' (7) Adj.
(3)Tangent
(")
Opp.
gf^^^^^^'
(4) Co-Tangent
(9)
Adj.
g!^^^^^'
(i) Sine

Side

"

Cosine

"

Side

Hypot.X Cosine.

Side

Side

Side

Side

Opp.

_._

Hypot.X Sine.

"

Co-Tan. X

Side
Tx

have

we

shown

in

and
formula
4

dimensiocs

the

Fig.7, the sideopposis.

the

we

SideOpp.

Adj.

If

Adj.X TangecL

we
hypotenuse,

2
and dividing
the
of
get i or ,5 as the sine
The table shows thistobe

No.

angle.

the sine of the

angleof 30 degie".

consequentlythis is

3o-degi"

angle.
If

and

we

the

have
side

YiG

formula

or

.5

the

side oppoatt

we
adjacent

use

thatf *
3, and find
the tangentof theangle.

No.
=

table shows this to be the tangent of 26 degreesand 340^0'^^^

Should it happen that we
only knew the hypotenuseand the
No.
6
formula
and
we
use
multiply4 X .5
2, the side
In the same
find the side adjacentby usingior^^
we
can
way
No.
=
3'4^
cosine of 30 degrees in .866 and
7. The
4 X -866
inches as the side adjacent.
Having a bar of steel 2 by 3 inches,Fig. 8, what is the dista^""
the comers?
across
Either formulas
forihis
3 or 4 will answer

The

ang^

oppoa'^J*

TABLE

OF

REGULAR

POLYGONS

367

Taking No. 4 we have 2 as the side opposite,

3 as the side adjacent.
under
2
Dividing 3 by gives1.5. Looking
co- tangents for this we
find 1.5003 alter 33 degrees41 minutes, which is nearlythe correct
angle. Then look for the secant of this and find 1.2017.
Multiply
this by 3 and get 3.6051 as the distance across
the comers.
Complete tables of sines,tangents,secants, etc., will be on pages
371

to

405.

USING

THE

TABLE

OF

REGULAR

POLYGONS

of this kind is to draw a circle

easiest way to lay out figures
time
what spacingto use
of
ofif
but
it
to know
lots
it
saves
space
,
o
f
to
the
draw
how
rightsize. Suppose
or
get a figure
largea circleto
such as pentagon or five-sided
wish to lay out any regularfigure,
we
figure,having sides ij inches long.
The

and

Table

of

Regular Polygons

Looking in the third column we find "Diameter of circlethat will

justenclose it,"and oppositepentagon we find 1.7012 as the circle
This
that will just enclose a pentagon having a side equal to i.
be
in
inches
inch
or
so
as
we
i
i
we
else,
are
anything
dealing
may
As the side of the pentagon is to be ij inches we
call it inches.
1. 70 1 2 by I i and
multiply
get 2.5518as the diameter of circleto draw,
take half of this or the radius 1.2759 in the compass
to draw
the circle. Then
with ij inches in the dividers we
space round
done
it
work
has
been
the
will
if
and
justdivide it
carefully
circle,
these pointsby straight
into five equal parts. Connect
lines,and
and

you have

pentagonwith

sides

ij inches long.

368

SHOP

TRIGONOMETRir

If the pentagon is to go inside

inches,look under column 5 which

drcle of

given diameter,
say:
dur"
when
of
side
gives Length
circle equals i," and find 5878. Multiply
eter of enclosing
by2l
and the side will be 2 X .5878 1.175c
this is for a 2 -inch circle,
a

"

this distance in the dividers and

Take

that it is necessary to have,

largemust the shaft be to

Assume

shaft,how
a

step

the 2-inchcircie

around

triangularend on a loirc
x
give a triangle
1.5inches
a

side?

iid
table imder colunm
oppositetriangle
3, and
diametci
the
that
of
i
s
where
the side
a
1. 1 546, meaning
triangle i,
"
of a circle that will justenclose it is 1.1546. As the sideis 1.5,
have
the
of
the
diameter
shaft
requiwi;
1.7318,
1.5 X 1.1546
vodc
If the comers
need not be sharp probablya shaft 1.625
be ample.
c
Reversingthis to find the size of a bearingthat can be turned
^
bar of this size,look in column
a
triangular
4, which gives
to i.
with
circle
will
inside
that
a
a side equal
largest
triangle
go
!
.8661.
This gives .5774. Multiplythis by 1.5
a
A square taper reamer
is to be used which must
i inch
ream
Look

in the

"*

the small end

flats at both

and

1.5

back, what size

the

at

must

this be

across the

places?

column
5 find .7071 as the lengthof the side of asquan
circle is i so this will be theaa
when
the diameter of the enclosing
1.0606istbf
and 1.5 X .7071
of the small end of the reamer
side of the reamer
at the largeend.
Under

FINDING
It sometimes
know

to

Three
a

the
such

enough

radius
cases

of

curves

the last

go in the
otiier across

to

CENTER

THE

we well
accessible.
when
is not
the center
two being
in Figs.9, 10, and n,the first

shown

are

WITHOUT

measuring

in

happens

and

machine

RADIUS

THE

up

machine

that

pulley. In Fig.9 the ruleissflowhile in Fig. 10 it has one end touching

broken

curve

difference which:"
sides. It makes
no
the short
used so long as the distances are measured
correctly,
versed sine being taken at the exact center of the chore
tance
or
when the chordor thf
and at rightanglesto it. It is easier figuring
inches,so in measuring slipthe rule until oneortht
hight are even
co"
sometimes
other comes
it^isbetter to make the hight
even;
let the chord go as it will,while at others the reverse nay
I inch and
The rule for findingthe diameter is: Square halfthechow,
be true.
and

the

the

c^-

add

the

to this the

^.
hight,and divide the whole thing

of the

square

hight.

If the chord is 6

chord.

31+1^

hight"
^

hight

Or as shown
in Fig. 10
then the figures
are
-

"

ii_"i

the chord

I'

5'+
"

Fig.9, and the highti J inches we

in

inches,as

is

10

25+1
=

Hi
,

li

inches and

,
=

20

inches.

ha"

y^ i",hes.
the

i incl^
hight

PROPERTIES

In
B

Fig. II

to

be

.24

we

OF

have

FIGURES

369

and find the chord

pieceof a broken pulley,
the hight ^ to be 2 inches. This becomes

inches,and

REGULAR

"

222'
laches.
74

74,

so

that the diameter of the pulley

is
r
/
^

FIG.

II

Findingthe

Radius
OF

PROPERTIES

The
circleis a continuous
distance from the center.
A

without Center

REGULAR

FIGURES;

Circle

curved line

having every pointat

an

equal

perimeteror circumference is always 3.14159265359times, the

diameter, although3.1416 is generallyused and 3} is a very close
Its

approximation.
Area equalsthe

diameter

squaredX 3.1416,or
Diameter
times

of

squared X
half the diameter

.7854,or
X

having equal

square

half the diameter

half the circumference.

area

diameter

of

circle

.89 very nearly.

Triangle
regularfigurehaving three equal sides
and three equal anglesof 60 degreeseach.
The side equals .866 times the diameter of enclosingcircle.
side to oppositepoint equals the side times
Distance from
one
of enclosingcircle X .75 or inside circle X ij.
.866 or diameter
Diameter of enclosingcircle equals the side times 1.1546or ij
times distance from side to point or twice inside circle.
Diameter of inside circle equalsside times .5774 or J the enclosing
triangleis
Equilateral

circle.
The area
Diameter

equals one side multipliedby itself and by .433013.

times .ys*
of circlehavingequalarea equalsside of triangle

SHOP

370

TRIGONOMETRY

The
A

is

sauare

of 90

figurewith

Square

four

equal sides and

four

angb
equal

degrees.

of one side.
perimeteror outside surface is four times the length
side multiplied
Area equalsone
by the other which is the same as
itself
or
"squaring."
multiplyingby
Diagonal or "long diameter,"or "distance across comers,"equds
Its

by
multiplied

the side

iw^i4.

of drcle that will go inside the square

equalsone sideindby itselftimes .7854 or .7854 times the area of the square.
tiplied
Area
of circle that will jiistenclose the square equals
diagonal
of
the
times
times
the
itself
area
squaK
.7854 or 1.27
by
multiplied
Diameter
of a circle having an equal area
is 1.126 or piacdcilj
the side of the square.
1 1 times
Area

The

Hexagon

hexagon is a regularfigurewith six equal

anglesof 120 degrees. It can be drawn inside
A

around

with

sides and sixeqoal

a

circle by spadri

the radius of the circle.

equals half the

The

side

The

long diameter

diameter

of

equalsdiameter

enclosingcircle.

of

enclosingcircleor

tb
twice

side.
one
short diameter equals the long diameter multiplied
bySit^
side.
1.732 times one
The
side multipliedby itself and by 2.5981.
one
area
equals
and
of
The
area
enclosingcircle is one side multiplied
by itself

length of
The
or

b} 3.1416.
The

of

area

itself and

inside circle is the

an

short diameter

bj
multiplied

by .7854.
of drcle

Diameter

having equal

is

area

Ion?
practically
.9 times

diameter.
The
An

is

octagon

Octagon

regularfigurewith eightequal

equal angles of 135 degrees.

s^ equals the long diameter
The
The side equals the short diameter
The
long diameter equals diameter
by 2.62.
multiplied
short

The
or

side

diameter

multipliedby .382.
multipliedby .415.
of enclosingdrcle or one side

equals the long

diameter

by-93'
multiplied

The

area

multipliedby 2.45.
equals one side multiplied
by itselfand

The

area

of

The

area

of inside

The

diameter

one

diameter

enclosing circle

of the

of

is 1.126

times

drcle

is .972 times

drcle

having equal

octagon.

sides and eight

area
area

area

by 4.8284.

of octagon.

of octagon.
is .953 times theH

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO-TANGENT^S

371

372

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO-TANGENTS

l^ATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO^TANGENTS

373

374

NATURAL

TANGENTS

CO-TANGENTS

AND

lb'

14"

13*"

12*"

Co-tan.
I

2679s

3-73"5 M
3-72771:"?

Tan.

Co-tan.

Tan.

Co-tan.

Tan.

Co-tan.

Tan.

.31356

4.70463
4.69791
4.69131
468453
4.67786
4.67131
4.66458
465797
4.65138
4.64480
4.63835

23087

4-33148

24933

231 17

4.32573

24964

.26826

33148

4.33001

24995

4.01078
4.00582
4.00086

33179

4.31430

3.99593

,36888

33309

4.30860

399099

P
.26930 3-71476

33340

4-30391
4.39734
4.39159

35149

3-98607
3.98117
3.97637

ii
.26951 3-71046

33371

35026
35056
35087
35118

4.28595
4.38033

35180

3-97139

25311

3.96651
3.96165

3.69761
:27044
:'
,27076 3-69335

1386

.31316
21347
21377

.3x408
31438
31469
.31499
31529

31560

.23301
23332

23363
23393

4.37471

.35343

.23424

4.36911
4.26352

35273

,31631

4.63"7i
4.62518

31651

4.61868

425795

31683

4-25239

.31713

4.61319
4.60573

23485
23516
23547

4.24685

31743

4.59927

21590

.31773

4.59283

.31804
.31834
31864

4.58641
4.58001
4.57363

3189s

.33047

4.56726
4.56091
4.55458
4.54826
4.54196
4.53568

33078

4.52941

33I08
32139

4.52316
4.51693

.32169

4.51071

31935

31956
31986
.33017

23455

25366

394232
3-93751

^5
3.6721/
37232
^5
27263 3.66796

.25428

3-93271

27294

.25459

3-92793

^
.37326 3-65957

4.23030

25490

4.33481

25521

23700

4.21933

25552

23731

4.21387
4.30843
4.30398
4.19756

25583

3-92316
3-91839
3.91364
390890

35614
35645

4.19315

25707

23762
23793

23823
23854
23885
23916
23946
24008

4.18675
4.18137
4.17600
4.17064
4.16530

23977

35676
25738
25769
25800
.25831
35863
35893
25924

,33261

4.49215

24100

4.14934

25955

,33292

4.48600

24131

4-14405

,22323

4.47ij86 .24162 4-13877

25986
26017

22353

4.47374

24193

4.13350

26048

22383

4.46764
4.46155
4-45548

24223
24254

4.12825

26079

4.12301

26110

24285
.24316

4.11778
4.11256

26141

24347
24377

36173
26203

,22597

4-43735
4.43134
4.42534

.24439

22628

4.41936

24470

22658
,22689

4.41340
4-40745

.24501
.24532

4.10736
4.10216
4.09699
4.09182
4.08666
4.08152
4.07639

22719

4.40152

24562

4.07127

.26421

22750

24593

4.06616

,22781

439560
4.38969

24624

4.06107

26452
26483

22811

4.38381

4-05599

4-37793

24655
24686

4.05092

26515
26546

4-37207

,24717

4.04586

26577

22903

4.36623

,24747

4.36040

24778

4.04081
4-03578

.26608

-22934

32964

4-35459

403075

22995

4-34879

24809
24840

23026

4.34300
4-33723

24871

4.02074

23056

24902

23087

4.33148

24933

4-01576
4.01078

22842
22872

Co-TAN.

770

Tan.

^
3.66376

4.24132

4.15465

4.44338

*'
3-67638

4.23580

23578
33608
23639
23670

4.15997

33505

3-68909^?

,27107

25397

24039

.22536
22567

I-1
3.7018S

.27013

.27201

24069

4.44942

iM
.26982 3.70616

3-94713

25304
.25335

4.49832

22475

'

*"
,27138 3.68485
If
.27169 3.68061

450451

22444

1."
3-7190:

3.95680
3.95196

.32231

,22414

?
.26857 3-72338

24408

4.02574

Co-TAN.

Tan.

76"

.26235
.26266

26297

26328
26359

26390

26639
26670
26701

3.90417

3-89945
3.89474
3.89004
3.88536
3.88068
3.87601
3.87136
3.86671
3.86208
3-85745
3.85284
3.84824
384364
3-83906
3-83449
3.83993
3.83537
3.82083
3.81630
3-81177
3.80736
3.80376
3-79837
3-79378
3.78931
3.78485
3-78040

.37419

^
3.65121
1
3-64705

27451

3.64289,.'

37388

'

I.
.37482 3.63874
3.63461
"

27513
.27545

i
3.63048

37576

l
3.62636

.37607

J
3.62224

I
37638 3.61814
-"
.27670 3.61405
J'
3.60990
.37701
-

3-60588
27764 3.60181

.37732

3-59775
37826 3-59370"
27858 3.58966
.27889
37795

27920
27952

.27983
.28015

28046
28077
.38109
38140
.38172
,38303

38334
38266

28297

3-77595

.28339
38360

3.77152

38391

3.76709
3.76268
3.75828
3.75388
3.74950

26733
26764
26795

*^
3-65538

.37357

3.74512
3.74075

38433

,38454
.38486
.38517
.38549
28580
28612

3.73640

28643

3.73205

.28675

Tan.

Co-TAN.

Co-tan.

75"

Tan-

74""

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO-TANGENTS

37S

376

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO-TANGENTS

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO-TANGENTS

377

378

NATURAL

TANGENTS

28"

CO-TANGENTS

AND

29^

31*

30O

Co-tan.

Tan.

Co-tan.

53x71

1.88073
1 .87941
1.87809
1.87677
X. 87546
1. 874^5
1.87283
1. 871 52
1 .870aI
1. 86891
1.86760

55431

A"405

57735

"73305

55469

.8oa8i

57774

.73089

55507

.80158
A"34

57813

"72973

57851

.73857

"799"

.57890

.73741

.79788
.79665

57939

.73625

.60245
.602S4

.57968
.58007
.58046
58085
58134

.73509
"73393

.60324
.60364

.72278
.73163

.60403
-60443

53"o8
53*46
53283
533*0

53358
53305
5343a
53470
53507

55545

55583
55621
55659
55697
55736

.79419

55774

.79396

.79542

55813

"79174

1.86630
1.86499
1.86369
i.86a39
1.86109
1.85979
1.85850
i.857ao
1.85591
1.85462

55850
55888
55936
55964
56003
.56041
56079

.79051

1.85333
i.85ao4
1.85075
1.84946
1 .84818
1.84689
1 .84561
1.84433
1. 8430s
1.84177

.56333

.77834

.56270

"77713
"77592

1.84049
1.83922
1-83794
1.83667
1.83540
1.83413
1.83286
1.83159
1.83033
1.82906

.56616
56654
56693
56731
56769
56808
56846
56885
56923
.5696a

1.82780
1.82654
1.83528
1.82402
1.82276

57000

54748
54786
54824
5486a
S4900

1. 82 1

54938

57232

54975

1.82025
1.81899

55013

1.

81 774
1. 8 1 649

53545

53S8a
536ao
53657
53694
5373a

53769
53807
53844
5388a
539ao
53957
53995
5403a
54070

54107
54145

54183
54220

54258
54296
54333

54371
54409

54446
54484
54523

54560
54597

54635
54673
547"

55051

SS089

1.81524
1.81399
1.81274
1.81150
1.8025
1.80901
1.80777
1.80653
1.80529

55127

55165
55203
.55241
55279
55317
55355
55393
SS43I

Co-tan.

50

1.80405
'

61*

Tan.

56117

.56156
56194

56309
56347
56385
.56424
56462
56500
56539
56577

"78939
.78807
.7868s
.78563
.78441
.78319
.78198
"78077

Tan.

,58163
58201
58240
58279
.58318
58357
58396
58435
58474
58513

.7ao47

.60483

.7193a

Uk"522
.60562

.71817
.7170a

.60602

.71588

.60642

"71473

.60681

.71358

Jk)72i

.60761

58553
58591
58631
58670
.58709
58748
58787
58836
58865
58904

.70787
.70673

.60921
.60960

.70560

.61000

.70446

^^1040

.70333

.61080
.61120
.61160
.61200

.76630
.76510
.76390

58944
58983

.76371

.59061

.76151
"76032

59101
59140

.75913

59179

.69653
.69541
.69438
.69316
.69303
.69091
.68979

.75794

59318
59258

"77955

"77471
.77351

.77330
.77110

.76990
.76869
.76749

.75675
.75556

59033

59397

5941s
59454

57271

.75082
.74964
.74846
.74738
.74610

57309

"74493

57348

.74375

59613
59651
59691

57193

.60165
.60205

.60801

.75300

"571SS

.60086
.60126

.71139
.71015
"70901

59336
59376

57078
,57116

Tan.

.71344

.75437
.75319

57039

Co-tan.

59494
59533

59573

57386

.74257

59730

.74140

59770

"57464

.74032

5980P
59849
.59888
59928
59967

5.503
57S4I

.73905

57580
57619

"73671

57657
57696

73438
73321

.60037
.60046

57735

7320s

.60086

"73555

Co-TAN.I Tan.

.70106

"6999a
.69879
.69766

Co-tan.

59"

.60841
.60881

.61240
.61380

.61330
.61360
.61400
.61440

.61480
.61520

.61561

.68866

.61601

.68754
.68643

.61641

.68531
.68419
.68308
.68196
.68085
.67974
.67863
"67753
.67641
.67530

"57425

.73788

.70319

.67419
.67309
.67198
.67088
.66978
.66867
"66757
.66647

.66538
.66438
Tan.

CO-tm.

Tan.

.6x681

.61721

.61761
.61801

.61842
.61882

.61922

.61962
.62003
.62043

.62083
.62124

^^2164
.62204

.62245
.62285
.62325

.62366
.62406
.62446
.62487
Tan.

Co-tan.

68"

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

34"

320
Co-tan.

Tan.

CO-TANGENTS

Tan.

Co-tan.

.42815

.70064

.42726

.70107

.42638

.47977

.70151

.42550

.67620

.47885

70194

.42462

.53497

.67663

.47792

.42374

"S3400
.53302

-67705

.47699
.47607

70238
70281

X.59S26
1.59723

.65065

"53693

.67493
.67536
.67578

1.59620

.65106
.65148
.65189
.65231

.53595

"65272

.53205

"65314
.65355

.53107

"65397

.52913

.65438
.65480
.65521
.65563
.65604
.65646
.65688
.65729
.65771

59930

59517
1. 59414
I -593 1 1
I

X.

59208

1-59105
1.59002

1.58900
158797
1.58695
158593
1.58490
1.58388
1.58286
1.58184
1.58083
1.57981
1.57879
1.57778
1.57676
1.57575
1-57474
1.5737a
1.57271
1.57170

1.57069
1.56969
1.56868
1.56767
1.56667
1.56566
1.56466
1.56366
1.56265

1.56165
1.56065
1.55966
1.55866
1.55766
1.55666
1.55567
1.55467
1.55368
1.55269

53791

"67451

70325

.42286
.43198

.47514

70368

.42110

"47422

,70413

.43033

.47330

70455

.41934

.47238

70499

.41847

.52816

.67917
.67960

.47146

70542

.41759

.52719

.68002

"47053

.53622

.68045

.46963
.46870

.70586
.70629
70673

.41673
.41584

"46778

70717

.41409

.46686
"46595
"46503
.46411
.46320
.46229
"46137
.46046

.70760

.41322
.41235

.45955

.53010

.67748
.67790
.67832
.67875

"52525

.68088

.52429

.68130
.68173
.68215
.68258
.68301

.52332

.52335
.52139
.52043

.65813
"65854
.65896
"65938
.65980

.51946
.51850

.66031

.51466

.68343
.68386
.68429
.68471
.685x4
.68557

.66063
.66105
.66147
.66189

"51370

"5127s
"51179

.66230

.50988
.50893

.66272

.66314
"66356
.66398
.66440
.66482
.66524

Co-tan.

,70021

.53986
.53888

Tan.

.48256
.48163
.48070

.64941
.64982
.65023

1.60033

350

Co-tan.

Tan.

379

,70804
,70848
.70891

"41497

.41148
.41061

70935

-40974

70979
71023

.40887
.40800

.71066

.40714

.40627

.45864

.71110
71154

.68600

.45773

.71198

.40454

.6864a
.68685
.68728

.45682

,71342

-45592

.71285

.40367
.40281

-45SOI

71329

.40195

.68771
.68814
.68857
.68900
.68942
.68985
.69038
.69071
.69114
"69157

-45410

71373

.40109

.45320

,71417

.40023

.45229
"45139

,71461

71593

39936
39850
39764
.39679

71637
71681

39593
"39507

7172s

39421

.69200
"69243
.69286
.69329

.44508
.44418

71769
.71813
71857

.39250

.44329

,71901

39079

.44239

,71946

.69372

.44149

,71990

.44060

72034

.43970

,72078

.49378
.49284

.69416
.69459
.69502
"69545

.43881

.72122

.43792

.72166

38994
.38909
.38824
"38738
38653
.38568
.38484

"51754

.51658
.51562

.51084

.50797
.50702

.50607
.50512

.50417
.50322

.66566

.50228

.66608

.50133

.66650
"66692
.66734
.66776

.50038
.49944

.49849
.49755

.45049

.44958
.44868
.44778
.44688
.44598

.40540

7150S
71549

39336
39165

.66818
.66860

.49661
.49566

.66902
.66944
.66986
.67028

.49472

.49190

.6j"588

.43703

.72211

.67071
.67113

.49097

.43614

7225s

.43525

1.54675
1-54576
1.54478

.67155

.43436

72299
72344

.43347

72388

1.54379

.67282

.67324
.67366
.67409

.43258
.43169
.43080

72432
72477

1.54281
1-54183
1.54085
1.53986

.48909
.48816
.48722
.48629
.48536
.48442
.48349
.48256

.69631
.69675
.69718
.69761
.69804
.69847
.69891
.69934

.42992

.37807

.69977

.42903
.428IS

72565
72610
72654

37638

1.55170
1.55071
1.54972

1.54873
1-54774

Co-tan.

57^

Tan.

.67197
.67239

.67451
Co-tan.

"49003

Tan.

.70021

Tan.

Co-tan.

55"

72521

38399
.38314
38229
3814s
.38060
37976
37891
37722

Tan.

Co-tan.

54"

380

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO-TANGENTS

NATURAL

TANGENTS

AND

CO-TANGENTS

381

382

NATURAL

NATURAL

TANGENTS

SINES

AND

CO-TANGENTS

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

383

384

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

386

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

387

388

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

390

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINKS

AND

COSINES

39"

39^

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

393

394

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

395

386

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

387

NATURAL

388
210

Cosine

Sine

.35837

.93358

.35H64
"35"9l

.93348

.35918

.93327

.35945

.93316
.93306

.35973

.93337

.93295

"93285

.3"J027
.3""o54

"93274

.3to8i
.36108

.93253

.93264

.36135
.36162
.36190
.36217

"93243

"36244
.36271

"93201

.36298

.93180
.93169

"93232
.9322a
.93211
"93190

.36325
.36352
.36379

"93159

"93148

.36406

"93137

"36434
.36461

"93127

.36488

"93116
.93106

"365 1 5
.36542
.36569

"93095

"36596

"93063

.36623
.36650

.93042

.36677
.36704
.36731

.93084
"93074
.93052

.93031
.93020
.93010

.36758

.92909

.36785
.36812

.92988
.92978

.36839
.36867

.92967
.92956

.36894

.92945

.36921

"9293s

.36948

.92924

.36975

.92913

.37002

.92902

.37029

.92892

.37056

.92881

"37083

.92870

.37110

.92859
.92849
.92838
.92827

.37137

"37164
"37191

.37245

.92816
.92805

.37272

.92794

.37218

.37299

.92784

"37326

"92773

"37353

.92762

.37380
"37407
.37434

"92751
.92740
.92729

.37461

.92718

Cosine

Sum

68"

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

39"

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

391

39"

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

393

394

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

395

396

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

397

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

399

400

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

401

402

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

403

394

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

395

396

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

397

NATURAL

398
Sec.

I
160
Co-sec'

.0405

3.6279
36243
3.6206

.0406

3.6169

.0406
.0408

36133
5.6096
36060

.0409
.0410
.0411
.041a
.0413

"0403
.0404

SECANTS

CO-SECANTS

AND

ir
Sec.

Co-sec.

Sec.

Co-sec.

"0457

3-4ao3

X-051S

3. 3361

.0576

.0458

3-4170

xx"5i6

3.2332

.0577

"04S9

3-4138
3.4106

1-0517

3-2303

.0578

1.0518

3-2274

.0579

3-2245

3.4041

1.0s 19
1.0520

.0580
.0581
.058a
.0584
.0585
.0586
.0587

3-4009

1.052X

3.2316
3-2188

36024

.0460
.0461
.0461
.046a
.0463

3-3977

z.o52a

3-2159

35987

.0464

3-3945

1.0523

3-2131

3 5951

3-3913

1.0524

3.210a

3S9"5

.0465
.0466

3-3881

1-0525

3-2074

3.5879
35843
3.5807

.0467
.0468
.0469

3-3849
3-3817
33785

1.0526

3 -204s

1.0527

3.2017

1.0528

.0470

3-3754

1.0529

3-1989
3-1960

.0590

3.5772

.0416

3-5736

-0471

3-372a

1.0530

31932

.0592

.0417

3.5700

.0473

X.0531

3-1904

.0593

.0418

3.566s

.0473

1^532

.0419

35629

.0474

.0595

1.0534

3-i8r
3.1848
3.1820

I.OS35

3.179a

3x764
3.1736
3.1708
3.1681
3-1653
3.1625
3.1598

.0599

3.1570
31543

.0606

3-1515

.0608

.0407

.0413
.0414
"04 1 5

Co-sec

Sec.

34073

.0588
.0589
-0591

.0420

35594

.0475

.0420

35559

.0476

3-3690
3-3659
33627
3-3596
3-3565

.0421

3-5523

.0477

3-3534

1.0536

.0432
.0423

3.5488

.0478
.0478

3.3502

1.0537

3-3471

1.0538

-0479

3-3440

1-0539

3-3409

1.0540

3-3378

1.0541

3.3347

1.0542
10543

.0429

3.5244
35209

.0480
.0481
.048a
.0483
.0484
.0485

3-3255

1.0544
1-0545

.0430

3.5175

.0486

3-3224

X.0546

35140

.0487

3-3194

1.0547

3.1488
31461

.0609

.0431
"0432

3.5106

3-3163

1.0548

3.1433

.0612

3-3133

1-0549

3.1406

.0613

X.0550

3.1379

1.0551

3.1352

.0614
.0615

3-5453

.0426

35418
3.5383
35348

.0427

3.5313

.0428
.0428

3-5279

.0424
.0425

3.3316
33286

X.0533

.0594

-0596
-0598
x"6oo
.0601
.060a

.0603
.0604
.0605
u36o7

.0611

"0433

3-5072

.0488
.0489

.0434

3.5037

.0490

"0435

3.5003

.0491

3-3102
3-3072

-0436

3.4969

.0492

3-3042

1.0552

3.1325

.o6z6

3-1298

.0617
.0618

.0437

3.4935

"0493

3.3011

I.05S3

.0438
.0438

3-4901

.0494
-049s

3-2981

1.0554

3.1271

3-2951

1.0555

3.1244

.0619

3.I2I7

.0630
.0622

3.4867

"0439

3.4833

.0496

3.2921

1.0556

.0440

3.4799

-0497

1.0557

3.1190

.0441

3.4766

.0498

1.0558

3-II63

.044a

3.4732

-0499

10559

3x137

"0443

3.4698
3-4665

.0500
.0501

3-2891
3.2861
3.2831
3.2801

1/5560

3.XI10

3-4632

.0444
"044s

3-2742

3-10S7

.0637

3-2712

ix"s62
1.0563

3.1030

.0638

1.0565
1.0566

3.1004

.0639
.0630

1.0567
1.0568
1.0569

3.0951

.0446

3-4598
34565

.0504

.0448

34532

.0505

32683
3-2653

.0448

3-4498

.0506

3-2624

.0449
.0450

34465

.0507

3-2594

.0508

3-2565

.0509
"0510

3-2535

34366
3-4334
3-4301

.0456

34268
34236

"04S7

34203

Sec.

^:o-s

73"

3-2506

.0511
.0512
.0513
.0514
"05 1 5

Co-sEc.

1.0570
1.0571

3.0977
3.0925

3.0898
3.0872
3.0846
3.0820

3-2477

X.0572

3-2448

10573
1.0s 74

30793

1-0575

3.0741

1.0576

3.0715

Co-sEC.

Sec.

3-2419
3-2390

3-2361
Sec.

72"

.0626

.0447

3-4432
3-4399

1083

3-2772

.0502
"0503

.0451
.0452
"04S3
"0454
"045s

.0561

.0623
.0624
.0635

71"

3.0767

.0633
"0633
.0634
-0635
.0636
.0637
.0638
.0639
.0641
.0643
Co-sec.

70"

Sec-

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

399

388

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

389

400

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

401

392

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

393

394

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

395

386

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

387

388

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

389

390

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

39"

392

NATURAL

SINES

AND

COSINES

42""

4r
Sine

COSINES

AND

SINES

NATURAL

43""

Cosine

Sine

"75471

.66913
.66935

4314
429s

.68200
.68221

.66956
.66978

4276
4256

.66999
.67021

4217

.68242
.68264
.68285
.68306
.68327
.68349
.68370
.68391
.68412

"75433
.75414
.75395
.75375

^4198
4178

.75318

.67043
.67064
.67086

.75356
.75337
.75299

.67107

4139

.67129

4120

.75261

.67151
.67172

'4100

.75241

.75184
.75165

"75146
.75126
.75107

.75088
.75069
.75050

4080
4061

.67215
.67237

'4041
4022

.67258
.67280
.67301
"67323
.67344

4002

3924

.67366
.67387

3904

.68645

2717

3885
3865
3846
3826
3806
3787
3767

.68666
.68688

2697

.74973

.67473

.74953

.67495

.74934

.67516
.67538
.67559

.74915

.74896
.74876
.74857
.74838
.74818
"74799

.74780
.74760
.74741
.74722

.74703

.74683
.74664
.74644
"7462s

.74606
.74586
.74567
"74548
"74528

3983
3963
3944

3747

3728

2917

2897

2877
2857

2837
2817
2797
2777
2757

2737

Cosine

Sine

.69466
.69487
.69508
.69529
.69549
.69570
.69591
.69612
"69633
.69654
.69675

71934
,71914

.69696
.69717
.69737
.69758
.69779
.698*30
.69821
A)842
.69862
.69883

7171X

71894
71873
71853
71833
71813
71792
71772
71752
71732

71691
71671

71650
71630
71610
71590

71569
71549

71529

71508
71488
.71468

2637
2617

.69904
.69925
.69946
.69966
.69987
.70008

.68772

2597

.70029

.71386

.68793
.68814
.68835

2577

.70049

71366

2557

.70070

7134s

2537

.70091

7132s

.68709
.68730
.68751

2677
2657

71447
71427
71407

3570

.68857
.68878
.68899
.68920
.68941
.68962
.68983
.69004

3551

.69025

2357

.70277

3531

.69046

2337

.70298

71 141
.71121

2317
2297

"70319

.71100

"70339

,71080

2277

71059

2257

.70360
.70381

3432

.69067
.69088
.69109
.69130
.69151

2236

.70401

71019

.6/901

3413

.69172

2216

.70422

.67923
.67944

3393

"69193
.69214
.69235
.69256

2196
2176
2156
2136

.70443

70998
70978

.70463
.70484

70957
,70937

"70505

70916
70896
70875
70855
,70834
,70813

.67580
.67602
.67623
.67645
.67666
.67688
.67709
.67730
"67752
.67773

3708
3688
3669
3649
3629
'3610

.67795
.67816
.67837
.67859
.6^J^

351

'3590

3491

3472
3452

.67965

3373
3353

.74509

.67987

3333

.74489

.68008

"74470

.68029

3314
3294

"74451
.74431

.68051
.68072

3274
"3254

"74412

.68093

3234

"74392

.68115

3215

"74373
"74353

.68136

319s

"74334

.68157
.68179

.74314

.68200

3175
3155
3135

Sine

2957

2937

.67194

.74992

.75011

3135

3116
3096
3076
3056
3036
3016
2996
2976

.68434
.68455
.68476
.68497
.68518
.68539
.68561
.68582
.68603
.68624

.67409
.67430
.67452

.75030

48"

4159

.75280

.75222
.75203

Cosine

4237

44^

Cosine

Sine

Cosine

"75452

393

Sine

Cosine

470

2517

.70112

.71305

2497

.70132

2477

"70153

71284
71264

2457

.70174

71243

2437

.70195

.71223

2417

.70215

.71203

2397
2377

.70236

,71182

-70257

71162

71039

.69277

2116

.70525

.69298
"69319

2095

.70546

207S

.70567

.69340

205s

.69361
.69382

2035
2015

.70587
.70608
.70628

.69403
.69424
.69445

1995

.70649

70772

1974
1054

.70670
.70690

70731

.69466

1934

.70711

70711

Sine

Cosine

46"

70793
70752

Sine

Cosine

45"

394

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

395

396

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

397

160

CO-SECANTS

AND

SECANTS

NATURAL

398

ir

]|

Co-sec.

Sec.

C("h:.

Sec.

Sec.

Co-sec.

Sec.

Co-sec.

"0403

3.6279
3-6243
3.6206
3.6169
3-6133
56096
3.6060
3.6024
3-5987

"04S7

3-4203
3.4170

1.051S

3.3361

JOS76

X.0516

3-3333

"0577

3-4x38
3.4x06

1-0517

X.0518

3.3303
3.3374

-OS79

3-4073

1-0519

3-3245

3-4041

X.0520

3-4009

i.o5ax

3.2ai6
3.2188

3-3977
3-3945

X.0522

3.2159

1.0523

3.3131
3.2102

"0404
.0405

.0406
x"4o6

.0458
.0459

.0460

.0411

3-5951

.041a

3-5915

.0461
.046X
.046a
.0463
.0464
.0465
x"466

.0413
.0414

3-5879
3-5843
3-5807

.0415

3.577a

.0407

.0408
.0410

"0413

"0578
.0580
.0581
4)582
.0584
.0585
.0586
.0587

3-3913

1.0534

3.3881

1-0525

3-3074

.0467
.0468
.0469

3-3849
3-3817

1.0526

3-304S

ix"527

3.3017

.0588
.0589

3-3785

1.0528

.0470

3-3754
3-3722

1.0529

3.1989
3-1960

.059X

1.0530

3-1933

.0592

1.0531
1053a

3-1904

-0593
-0594

10534

3-i8r
3.1848
3.1820

1.0535

3.x 79a

.0604
.0605

.0590

.0416

3.5736

.0471

.0417

3 -5700

.047a

.0418

.0473

.0419

3-5665
3.5629

.0430

3-5594

.0475

.0420

3-5559

-0476

3-3690
33659
3.3627
3-3596
3-3565

.0421

35533

"0477

3-3534

X.0536

.043 a
.0423

3-5488

.0478
.0478

3 -350a
3-3471

1.0537

.0434
.0435

3-5418
3-5383

.0479

3.3440
3-3409

1.0539
X.0540

.0436

3-5348

3-3378

1.

.0427

3-5313

3.3347

1.054a

.0438
.0428

3-5279

3.3316
3.3286

1.0543

3.1570

J0606

1.0544

3.1543

.0607

.0429

3-5209

.0480
.0481
.0482
.0483
.0484
.0485

3-1764
3.1736
3.1708
3.1681
31653
3.1625
3.1598

3-3255

I-OS45

3.1515

.0608

.0430

3.5175

33224

1.0546

3-5140

3-3194

I-OS47

3.1488
3.1461

.0609

.0431
"0433

3.5106

3-3163

1.0548

3x433

.0612

.0613
.0614
.0615

3-5453

3-5344

.0474

1.0533

X.0538

0541

.0595

.0596
"0598
.0599

.0600
.0601
.0602

.0603

"0433

3-5072

.0486
.0487
.0488
.0489

3-3133

1.0549

3.1406

"0434

3.5037

-0490

3.310a

1-0550

3.1379

"0435

3.5003

.0491

3-3072

1-0551

.0436

3-4969

.0492

3-3042

1.0552

3.1352
31325

"0437

3.4935

-0493

3-301

1.0553

31298

.0617

.0438
.0438

3.4901

-0494
-0495

3-2981

1.0554

3.1271

.0618

3.4867

3-2951

1.0555

3.1244

.0619

.0611

.0616

"0439

3-4833

.0496

3.2921

1.0556

3-I3I7

.0440

3-4799

.0497

1.0557

3.1190

.0620
.0622

1.0558

3-1x63

.0623

1.0559

3-1137

1.0560

3.1110

.0624
.0625

3.X083

.0626

.0441

3.4766

.0498

.0442

3.4732

.0499

.0443

.0500
.0501

3.2772

.0502

3.2742

-0503

3.2712

1.056X
1.056a
1.0563

.0447

3.4698
3.466s
3-4632
3-4598
3-4565

3.2891
3.2861
3.2831
3.2801

.0504

3.2683

.0448

3-4532

.0505

3-2653

.0448

3.4498

.0506

3.2624

.0449

3.4465

.0507

3.2594

.0450

3-4432
3-4399

.0508

3-4366

.0444
"0445

.0446

.0451
.0452
"0453
.04S4
"04SS

3-1057

.0627

3.1030

.0628

1.0565

3.1004

1.0566

3.0977

.0629
.0630

3.0951
3.0925

3.2565

1.0567
1.0568
1.0569

.0509

3.2535

1.0570

"0510

3.2506

1-0571

3-2477

1.0572

1 1

3-0793

3-0767

3-2390

I. OS 73
1.0s 74
I.OS75

3.074X

.0641

3-2361

I.OS76

3.0715

.064a

Sec.

Co-sEC.

Sec.

Co-sec.

OS

3 -4301

.0512

3.2448

.OS

3-2419

.0456

34268
3-4236

"04S7

3-4203

.0514
"0515

Sec.

Co-sec.

Co-sEC.

73"

72"

-0633
.0634

.0635
.0636
.0637
.0638
.0639

3-4334

3-0898
3.0872
3.0846
3.0820

.0632

71"

70"

Sec.

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

399

NATURAL

400

SECANTS

24^

Co-sec.

Sec.

2r

26^

25*"

ICo-sec.

Sic.

CO-SECANTS

AND

Sec.

Sec.

1.1126

a.38ia

X.1233

x.xiay
1.1139

3.3798
3.3784

1.1131

2.377X

1.1226
1.1228

1.1132

3.3757

1.1230

11134

2.2744

1.1231

1.1135

2.3730

a.4586

1.

a.4S7o

11035

a-4S54

1.1037

1-0951
i-095a

3.4538

X.1038

.45*2

1.X040

1-09S3

a.4506

1.X041

a.3662
a.3647
a. 3633
3.36x8
a.36o3
a.3588

1.09SS

a.

4490
a. 4474

1.1043

a.

1.1044

a.3559

1.1137

2.37x7

1-1233
1-I23S

1-0Q46
1.0948

X.0956
1-0958

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C(keci

Co-sec.

1.123$

a.4458

X.X046

a.3544

1.1139

3.3703

1.1237

1.0959

2.4442

X.X047

a.3530

X.XX40

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2.0961

2.4426

1.1049

a-3515

X.XX43

1.096a
1.0963
1.0965
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1.0968
1.0969

2.4411

1.X050

a.350x

1.1143

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X.1053

a.3486

1.1145

a.4379

1.1053

a.

347a

1.1147

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3457

X.1I48

3.3690
3.3676
3.3663
3.3650
3.3636
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X.X058

2.3443

1.1150

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X.1248

1.1151

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X.1252

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X.1156

3.3556

X.1064

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1.HS8

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1.1257

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1.0978

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1.1065
1.X067

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T.X159

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a. 4207

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Sec.

Co-sec.

1. 103

1.103a
1. 1034

Co-sec

65"

1.1305

X.1306
X.X308

X.XII3
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1.1317

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3.2090
3.3077

3.2853
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X.1218

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X.1220

2.3osa

1.1332

I.I223

3.3039

1.1324

3.3813

1.X333

2.3037

1.1336

Sec.

Co-sec.

Sec.

Co-sec.

63"

1.1319

62"

Sec.

"

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

401

402

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

403

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

NATURAL

SECANTS

AND

CO-SECANTS

405

DICTIONARY
This
the

names

MACHINE

OF

SHOP

TERMS

has been compiled to assist in a definite understanding of

used in
of tools,appliancesand shop terms
which
are

parts of the country, and

will,we

of value in
in many
and we
cases,
in finding the definition
believe that no trouble will be experienced
desired even
where
it may
not be under the letter expected.
Cutters
various

this way.

Cross

of all kinds

are

references

under

bearing this in mind

as

have

"cutters,"twist
no

delay

406

drills under

"drills,"and by
experienced. Practical suggestions
will be appreciated.

will be

to additions to this section

trust, prove

used

been

Ampere

The

"

which

Ampere
Ampere

flowing for

ampere
in

Used

"

of

the number

times

work

magnet

amount

of

of

ohm.

resistance

through a

force

can

One

"

Turns.

turns

to

one

with

the

represent

number

Usually

work.

at

of

amperes.

"

similar

current

hour.

one

Pieces, usuallycastings,for holding work at

of a lathe, the platen of a planer
the face-plate

Irons

Angle

volt

one

Hour.

The

electric current.

of

unit

TERMS

SHOP

OF

DICTIONARY

right angles

but

be

can

an

angle

or

other

anything

desired.
Plate

Angle

each

platewith

cast-iron

"

side is bolted to

other;one

surfaces

two

rightanglesto

at

table,the other carries

machine

the work.

Annealing

heat

low

Annealing

Boxes

with

packed
Anode

Softeningsteel,rolled brass or copper

and allowingto cool gradually.

"

The

"

or

Boxes, usually of

"

lime

sand

or

to

terminal
positive
where

the

current

of

which

in

as possible.
coolingas
of electricity
tery,
batas
a
bath.
a plating

any
into

Blocks

"

of iron

steel

or

hammered

are

have
fuller

bar

hold

to

worked

it is

while

work

or

shaft

and

holding circular

Arbor, Expansion
varied
sized

in

The

Annature.

the

passage

of

by

wise
other-

or

with

foot)to

per
friction.

Also

millingcutters,

current

"

These
shown.

are

spring sleeves

the

second

has

adjustedto

size.

the

space

across

which

Arbor

diameter

work.

design,as

"

hold

any

etc.

'

Arc

.010

inch

saws,

called mandrel.

Often

being turned

slighttaper (about

for

covers

Usually made

on.

drive into work

applied to

hole

square

holdinghardies,

"

or

ally
Usu-

blocks,etc.

A protecting
Apron
or coveringpiece.which encloses
mechanism, as the apron of a lathe.
Shaft

which

on

forged.

or

steel face.

is usuallyprovidedfor

""

is

source

metals

Arbor

steel

much

goes

Anvils

iron,

cast

retard the

by heating to

hold

to

407

dififerent

greatly

vary
The
first and
of

blades

in

last

different types,
which
be
can

between

points.
Usually the revolvingpart of a dynamo
movable
part of any magnetic device.
"

be

can

two

or

motor

rated
sepaor

4o8

BABBITT

BELT

"

B
Metal

Babbitt

A good mixture for bearingswhere

the load is oot
Consists of varyingproportions of tin,antimony,
and sometimes lead. Tin is the base.

"

heavy.

too

and copper,
Back-lash
Usuallyappliedto lost motion
in a nut.
screw

in gears,

"

to

behind

the cuttingedge to relicw

friction in taps,reamers, drills,
Also called "relieving."
etc.
Back
Rest
A rest attached to the lathe wa3fs for supporting
long,
slender shafts or other work beingturned.

Backing-off

metal

sometimes

Removing

"

"

Balance, Running

requirebalancing
High-speedpulle3r3
by running
vibration.
or
speed and seeingthat they run without tremor
This is called runningbalance.
has been balanced on
Balance, Standing When
ancing
the bala pulley
is
called
it
balance.
See Balance-running.
a standing
ways
"

at

"

Level stripson
which the
the
other
revolving
carrying
pulleyor
body is placed. If the pulleyis unbalanced
the heavy side will roll to bottom.

Balancing Ways

"

shaft

See Reamer, Ball.

meaning
appliedto a file,
regular. The term is usually
the rough and second cut, or to a thread,meanbetween
ing
a cut
that is not of the standard proportions.
one

Ball Reamer
Bastard

"

Not

"

Battery.
"

of chemicals

A combination

which

will

giveoff

an

electric

current.

tween
Made
balls beto reduce friction by interposing
made
in various
the shaft and the bearing.They are
action.
instead of a sliding
but all aim to have a rolling
ways
Similar to ball bearingsexcept rollers are used
Bearings,Roller
hollow
the rollers are practically
instead of balls. In some
cases
flexible
from
as
round springs
square stock. These are known

Bearings,BaU

"

"

roller bearings
(Hyatt).
of wood and leather for
producinga current of air for fanning
fires or blowingdust.

Bellows

"

Devices

pillowblocks or journalboxes.
supporting
Belt Carriers
Pulleysfor supportinga long belt between driving
not have flanges.
and driven pulleys. May or may
for
or
Belt Dressing
cleaninga belt or
preserving
Preparation
Plate

Bearing,Base

"

For

"

"

it

making
Belt
Belt

Fastener

Lacing
flexible

Belt, Muley
on

clingto pulleys.
Hooks

"

"

Methods

jointby
"

muley

means

or

of

other

device for

ends of
fastening
of leather

belt runningaround
shaft.

or
a

wire
comer

joiningthe
belt with

ends
more

of belt.
or

less

lacing.

guidedby

idler

pulleys

BOLTS

Polisher

^It

Strap

or

is driven

abrasive

belt covered with glue and emery or

pulleysand work held againstit.

"

409

over

other

belt or belts on countershaft or

for shifting
These
elsewhere, from loose to tightpulleysand vice-versa.
are
clutches are employed.
in many
made
varieties. Not used where
Loose
^It
Tightener
pulleysarrangedfor takingup stack of belts;
often called idlers.

^It

Shifter

Device

"

"

35 inches from floor to top of bench,

be 3 inches from
Should
width
wall to allow
about 29 inches.
chance
circulation of air,in order to give sprinklers
at a fire
a

^nch

Usual

"

hightis

to

34

underneath.

;enchy
laid

lending

Leveling

Bench with a level surface

of iron.
Made

"

Machine

For

"

by hydraulicor

bending rods,beams, rails,

plate,etc.

tool for
shown.
as

"

bevels

measuringor

be

sometimes

Ilocks, Differential
for

Slocks, Tackle

called

"

Sheaves

hoistingropes

or

pulleysmounted

or

chains
Blow

to raise

rinto

such

is

^j^T*

layingoff

at

45

in

degrees

miter.

shell

dififerential
case, used

or

heavy weights.

pipe for blowing a jetof air

flame for heatingwork
a
locally,
as
soldering.The upper picture
with an
for use
alcohol
plain one

Pipe

__________^^^^^

When
a

of
consisting

Hoistingapparatus
heavy loads.
lifting
"

Run

Also a surface not at

the main
surface;may

rightangles
be
angle.
any
to

with

can

other power.
Bevel

gears

that work

so

it to test.

on

"

the other

has

and an
air
Each
is regulatedby the small
tube.
valve so as to make
the hottest flame.

lamp,

gas

BOLTS

Agricultural Bolt.

Agriculturalbolts,as indicated by the

used

in

The

body
a

are

machines
and appliances.
of the bolt has a series of helical

lands and

by

name,

farm

grooves

which

are

formed

rollingprocess.

A. M. Bolt
This bolt is adopted by
the Association of Licensed Automobile
It has a slotted head
Manufacturers.
and castellated nut.
"

BOLTS

4IO

"

Continued

A bolt used in fastening

The
boilers.
patches
patch is courfor
the
tersunk
cone
head, and boiie:
shell tappedfor bolt thread.
The square
head is knocked off after bolt is screwed
in place.

Boiler Patch

Bolt

"

on

Bolts for shaft couplings

finished all over
and must be a
close fitin the hole reamed in the two
flangesof the coupling,so that tiie
secured to
sections shall be rigidly

Coupling Bolt

"

are

Expansion

Bolt

walls and

"

In

gether.
attachingparts to brick, stone

floors,
expansion bolts
"Star"

or

concrete

frequentlyemployed.

are

bolt

in

the

illustration

Tbe

has

ar.

threaded,splitsleeve which is
internally
slippedinto a hole made in the wall and
then expanded by running in the screv.
and the fact thatthe
the surface of the shell,
The projections
on
the denie
it is made
hole receiving
largerat the rear, assure
in
fast
when
is
the
expander
place.
holding
bolt is used for at-,
and
tachinghangers to woodwork
consistsof a lagscrew
at one end with
bolt
machine
thread
and nut at the
a
other.
i

Hanger

Oa"pi"

Machine

Bolt

Bolts

ngi
Hexagon

This

"

"("

Square Head

Head

jHBl

SquareCoimtersunk Head

Roun d Head

Miscellaneous

Bolts

mmrn^
Tire

Loom

"O
Joint

or

Carriage

aQtOval T-Head

BOLTS

"

CorUinued

411

jffiQtt

-^"~
""

J^JW
Eye

Step

ILl"

4".

mv^ pWlf
Deck

Bridgeor

Roof

i"

[jiiQi^^
Sink

Track

/^

jiii)

niBlliMt)
u

Hook

"North"
used

Bolt

The

"North"

bolt is
in agricultural
machinery and
and has a series of longitudinal
appliances
lands rolled on the body to
diameter as the bolt.
the same

Plow

Bolt

"

"

Several

cultivator

types of

bolts,are

shown

plow
in

and

the
t
he
forms
accompanying engravings,
illustrated being typicalof a variety
of bolts manufactured
for agricultural

apparatus.
A
B

C
D
E
F
G

so

H
I

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Large Round Head

Square Head
Round
Head, Square Shank
Kev

Head
Head

Tee

Head

Round

Head
Concave
Head

Button

Reverse

Key Head

Large Key

Head.

BOLTS

412

Continued

"

Stove

Bolt

sizes
is

no

bolts are made in

from
ranging
| to | inch. There
standard
form of threadfcr
Stove

"

these bolts to which

all makers *^makers ic
the same
here, and even
of
have a differentshape
cases
some
thread for different sizes of boks.
The heads commonly formed are the
round, or button head, and the flai
head.
or countersunk
Flat

Countersunk
Head

or

Tap

Bolt"

bolts

Tap

threaded
usually
body,whichisno:
runningon thedie.

are

of the
the full length

machined
priorto
the
Only
pointand the under sideof
the head are finished. They are noi
hardened and are
used as a rulefor
the rougherclasses of machine work.
heads are
widthas
The
the same
machine bolt heads.

Square Head
Planer
T-Head
Bolt
A
bolt with"
T-head
having oblique ends whicli
be
dropped into the T-slotofa
may
ita quarter
plwierand locked by giving
turn, until the slopingends strike
monly
againstthe sides of the slot. Comemployed for holdingworkon
the planertable.
"

11

Nl
T-Head

Planer Bolt

Bolt Cutter

Machine

"

Bolt Header

"

Machine

for

threads
bolts,cutting
threading

for

upsettingthe

bolt

body to

them.

on

form the

h^d.
Bolster

"

block sometimes called the die block, in which a punch

end.
It is attached to the bed by bolts at either

press die is held.

Boring

and

having a

Machine
Mill
table
horizontal
rotating

Turning

for the work

"

with one
vertical tools

Bolster

more

for

tionary
sta-

boring,

turningor facing;a turret isoften

providedfor holdinga number of
tools in

called "vertical mill."

"mills."

or

Horizontal

one

of the

boring machines

heads. Often
are

not

call"

BORING

"i

fO

"*

vjvC

r"00

0\

MACHINE

413

414

BORING

MILL

CUTTERS,

MILLING

Face

Face

Formed

and

Formed

Cutters

425

face cutter
of Brown
" Sharpe inserted
to the left,
tooth type is made
in large sizes and
cuts on the peripheryand ends of teeth.
The
formed
cutter
to the right may
be sharpened by grindingon
the face
without changingthe shape. For milling
wide forms several cutters are often
placedside by side in a gang.

Fish

rJ

Continued

"

Tail

Cutter

"

The

"

simple

cutter

in

for

a
millinga seat or groove
other
piece. Usually operated

rapidspeed and
Fluting Cutters

lightcut

shaft of

and

at

feed.

Cutter A is an
angular
mill for cutting the
teeth in spiral
mills,cutter B is for tap flutingand
flutes. In each
C for millingreamer
the cutter
with
one
is. shown
case
of the
face set radial to the center
work.

Arbor

Fly

"

are
simple formed
in
held
arbor like
cutters
an
may
The
that shown
at the top of the group.
arbor is placed in the miller spindle and
other
work
is
formed
the tool or
to be
slow
feed
the
cutter.
a
revolving
given
past
be held
After roughing out, the cutter can
stationary and used like a planer tool for
is fed past it
which
finishingthe work
and so given a scrapingcut.

Cutters

Fly

"

which

cutters

be

))
Gang

Cutters

Cutters

are

used in

gang
arbor for millinga broad surface
of any desired form.
The
cutters
shown
have interlocking
and overlapping
teeth so that proper spacing may
be maintained.
In extensive manufacturing

on

"

an

are

operation the
usuallykept set

and

never

removed

gangs
up

on

of cutters
their arbor

except for grinding.

CALIPERS

4i6

i
hardened and ground,used for locating
A steelbushing,
borti
be
have
to
in
similar
whkh
holes
pitce
jigplateor some

Button

"

Ti*
position.

in exact

button is attached
the work by a sn:.
and is thend
screw

justedby a

micromfsr

k5
otherwise until
the
esac
central at
pointwhere itis(lesri
to bore the hole.Ta
or

g:
is then placed
t
of
the face plate
dicator
inand witha tfst
lathe,

work

on
resting

the outside of the

button,the pieceis readflyst

fast to the face plate,

the button isifclam()ed
moved and the hole bored.
several buttons are usedc:
Frequently,
la
the same
piece of work, their relative positions
beingadjusted

central.

conform

It is then

to the center

distances
is then indicated true by each
after another bored.

requiredbetween holes. The work

and one bok
button
in succession,

CALIPERS
Firm

Joint Calipers
"

jointin place of
joint.This is an

fim|
large,
riwtefl
old styleplain
inside caliper.
Having

withtw
A caliper
Gear Tooth Caliper
beams
at rightangles.The vertical
fe
beam givestooth depth to pitch
1:
at
pit
and the other the thickness
in
have verniers. Used
line. Both
teeth
for accuracy.
measuring
"

"

one

leg of

ol
combination

Hermaphrodite Caliper

divider and

one

legofJ

work
centered
caliper. Used in testing
the
edge
from
distances
and in layingoff
of a piece.
an^l
leg
straight
Keyhole Caliper Has one
"

the other curved.

strument
inmeasuring
consistingof a screw s^^

Micrometer

Caliper
"

having its

barrel

parts

to

so

as

of rotation

divided intosraal

measure
degrees
slight
sandths,
Usuallymeasure to thou-

sometimes

to

ten-thousandths

CALIPERS

Continued

"

Odd

417

Calipershavingboth

Leg Caliper
"

legs pointing in

the

direction.
Used
measuring shoulder distances
flat work, boringhalf round, boxes
on
same

in

etc.

Outside,
Spring Caliper

Tool

"

for measuring

the outside diameter of work.

Controlled
Nuts
by spring and threaded nut.
are
sometimes
otherwise
splitor
designedto
allow rapidmovement
when desired,
final
made
screw.
adjustmentbeing
by
Slide Caliper

beam
slide.

made with
caliper
graduated
Generally made
small for carrying
in the pocket.
"

Square-micrometer Caliper
"

havingjaws square

per

and havinga micrometer

read to thousandths of

A beam caliwith the blade,

adjustmentto
inch.

an

Caliper Similar to outside calipers

except it has broad pointsto go over the
tops of several threads.

Thread

Transfer

"

Caliper. Caliperwhich

be

can

"

at

will,as

they
at

arm

and

recesses

moved

set

the
be

can

size,the
opened
calipers
given

reset

time.

any

the

to

Used

places where

get them

to

to

set, and

arm
auxiliary

they

iliary
aux-

caliper

to

be

must

out.

The
Barrel
drum
cam
the
the
roll
for
cut
around
path
a
nd
to-and-for
a
imparts
periphery,
motion
lever in a plane
to a slide or

Cam,

Brum

has

or

"

to the
parallel

these

with

plaindrum
Cam, Edge

"

axis of the

cams

Edge

or

are

cam

times
Some-

cam.

built up of a
platesattached.

cams
peripheral

(also

called disk cams) operate a mechanism

in one
direction only, gravity, or
a
hold
the
relied
to
being
spring,
upon
cam

roll in

contact

with

the

the cam
the cam.
shown,
the drop;" to c the dwell;c to
to a, dwell.
On

edge

of

b is
a
d, rise;d
to

CAM

4i8

CENTER

"

PUNCH

Face

Gun,

roll

or

Face

"

path

cut

lever or
tivelyin both
a

See

Clamp

"C"

Washer."

"

Carbonizing
will be
used.
Card

providegates

to

steel absorbs

or

cooled

in water.
bone, leather

with

several hours, then

Cat

on

gate

carbon

charcoal,or

to

as

to

or

pieceis

The
or

so

for the metal

hardeningby

surface

"

pieceof iron
box

Open.

made

Patterns

Case-hardening
when

the sides of the^

"

and

once

is
the roll

as
directions,

of steel so that the

The heat treatment
from
hard.
The
surface absorbs
carbon

"

groort

*'C."

Clamp

See Washer,

Patterns

in the face and ate

operother mechanism
po*

alwaysguided by

"C"

have

cams

be

saiface
the matenal

outer

all molded a:

flow.
skinof a
to hardec

which

the outer
carbonizes so as

usually packed in an iron

all three,and heated slowly

quenched.

which fitsloosely
shaft and is
over
a
for
Used
by set screws.
steady rest to nin c^
clamped to
it on the work.
where it is not desired to run
is also given to the head carryingcutters on boring
Same
name
Head

collar

"

sleeve

or

it

bars.
Cat

Head

Chuck

chuck

"

pieceis driven

by

number

the end of a shaft or other

in which
of set screws
tapped throughthe wall

of the chuck.
Cathode

Center, Dead

Center, Live
similar
or

The

"

the work
dead.
are

true

negativeterminal

The

"

back

The
machine.
"

it will

center

On

revolves.

Center

It is

the work

handle,

Automatic

which

battery.
on

which

both

centers

stationarycenter

grindingmachines

to

in

move

Punch

"

metal.

latheor

should

nic

path.
markingpoiots

eccentric

an

Punch
for
Made
of steel with a sha^)
hardened.
Often calleda

point and
prickpunch.

"

Punch,

or

revolvingspindleof
highly important that this

on

m^^^M
^

the

or

many

Center
^

electric bath

an

in the

center

cause

of

"

is released

Has
when

springactuated
the

handle

The

point

and

the blow

the hand.
be varied.

can

In

hammer

in the

pressed way down.

placed where desired
given by a pressureot
is

be

some

cases

the blow can

CENTER

PUNCH

Center

CHUCK

"

Bell

Punch,

punch

center

or

Self-centering
"

in
sliding

bell

or

cone

mouthed
casingso when placedsquare
the end of any bar it will locate
over
for
the center with sufficient accuracy
most

purposes.

Having an extra legwhich has a spring

The
is
and
springpoint is placedin the first
adjustable.
point
punch mark and so locates the next
punch mark at the rightdistance from
X
Punch, Locating

Center

Machines

Centering

the lathe
Chamber
Cliasers

See

of work

reamingcenter

for

Recess.

cuttingthreads by chasing. Usuallyhave

is sometimes appliedto a
rightpitch,but name

used

Tools

"

the first.
and
For drilling

"

grinder.
longrecess.

or

"

"

for

several teeth of
singlepoint tool used in brass work on a Fox lathe. Chasers
made circular or flatand in the old days many
used by
were
are
hand.
Chasing Threads
Cuttingthreads by moving a tool alongthe work
"

at the

rightspeedto givethe

between
proper pitch. Distinguishes
tool.
die and those cut with a threading
A slight
Chattering
jumping of the tool away from the work or
in same
direction as the
vice-versa, and which leaves littleridges
teeth. Occurs at times in any class of work and with any kind
of some
of tool. Due to springing
parts of the machine.
threads cut with

"

Cherry

See

"

Cutters,Milling.
Chisel, Blacksmith's

Hot

cuttinghot metal.

chisel for
handle so

"

Has

the
be used without getting
that it can
hand too near
the heated metal.

The
cuttingof metal with cold chisel and hammer.
used when a piece"chips"or breaks out of a pieceor punch.
blade for cutting
Chisel with a narrow
Chisel,Cape
keyways and
similar work.

Chipping

"

Also

"

Flat Cold

Chisel

Chisel,

Cold

chisel

The

"

for

usual

machinists'

cutting-or
"chipping"
a plaincutting
edge as in

with
illustration.
metal

Diamond

Chisel,Diamond
to

and
for

Cape

cape

or

Lozenge

chisel but

cuttingedge at

one

Similar
square end
Used
comer.
"

with

cuttinga sharp-bottomedgroove.

Round
round end chisel with the cutting
edge groimd
angle. Used for cuttingoil grooves and similar work.

Chisel,Round
back at

Chuck,

an

Draw

Used

"

in a taper
Operatedby moving longitudinally

"

on

work.
precision

ing.
bear-

CHUCK

,^o

Chock, Drill

chuck

"

machines.

Sizes

for holding
drillsin driLi:
especially

made

from

run

CIRCUIT

"

the smallest up to

inch.

one

For turningeccentrics or other work in vihi

hole is not concentric with outside. Usuallymade adjustable
i
suit varyingdegreesof eccentricity.
Eccentric

Chuck,

"

Chuck, Expanding
inside.

on

turninghollow

For

"

Jaws go

work

Devices

"

Usually

on

and gears in
is also
There
without gears
kind.
Has

jaws but

no

worifor holding

spindleand have t^^

three or four jaws. These may be inipendent or move
togetherby scre^onlv (in case
of two jawed) or screws
screw

"

be hi.

must

inside of work.

Checks,Lathe

Chuck, Magnetic

which

of

case

a
or

more

spiralor
screws

than

t^^

scroll chuik

of the

ordina.-;

holds iron and steel by magnetism.

body of a screw chuck which scmvs or.

of the lathe spindle
and which carries the sub- or screwthe nose
chuck for holdingthe work.
Mostly used in brabs work.
Chuck, Ripple For holdingshort pieceof pipeto be threaded.
Master

Chuck,

The

"

main

"

Chuck, Oval
tool

so

called

Chuck

"

as
an

designedto
oval

to produce an
chuck.
elliptic

Chuck,

the work to and from ibe

move
instead of a round.
Sometime

Planer

bed

or

"

For

platen

of

holdingwork

on

planer,shapcro:

a
Sometimes called
millingmachine.
vise. They are made with both plain

and swivel bases as shown, and usually

have lockingstripswhich hold the
the set screws.
piececarrying

Swivel Base
Chucks
made
has
been
which
into a master
chuck.

Chuck,

Screw

hold

work

screw

Chuck, Spring
Chucking
chuck
mg.
Circuit

"

"

"

See Screw

internal or external thread to

alreadythreaded. These very oftec
Mostly used in brass work.
with

Machine

Tools.

Machines
Usually have a turret for tools,a revolrji^
table for work, and generally
used for boringand rearn^
be
either
vertical or horizontal.
May
"

or

The

path

in which

an

electriccurrent

flows.

CLAMP

COMPOUND

"

REST

"C"

Clamp,
"C"

"

for

Are

421

Clamp shaped like a

holdingwork in various

sometimes

cast

but

letter
ways.

often

more

drop

forgedfor heavier work.

Clamps,
work

Clamps for holding

holdingjigsor templets
together,

Machinist

"

work, etc.

on

Gears which are thrown into mesh

by moving the
the
a
nd
sometimes
by sliding gears on parallel
together
teeth
full
shafts tillthe
times
bearing. The latter are someget a
called sliding
gears.
Gears

Clash

"

centers

permitsone shaft to engage and drive

either
be
friction
or
another, may
usually the former.
positive,
of all sorts of combinations
of cams,
Made
levers and toggles.

Clutch

"

Any device which

Clutch, Friction

device

"

whereby

to shaft to be -driven.

all depend on forcing

some
that one drives the other.

of loose

motion

mitted
pulleyis trans-

methods are employed but

kind of friction surfaces together
so
Various

Devices for connecting

machines
to a constantly
running shaft
will. There
at
to
or
one
another,
part
both
tion.
are
kinds,
positiveand fricmany
The illustrations
of
show two
the
of the positive
clutches.
most
common

Clutches,Positive

"

Square Jaw Clutch

in proper
loose pulleys,
Collar
A ringused for holdingshafting,
them
tools
to
for
to boring
or
prevent
goingin
fastening
position
too deep.
or
Collar,Safety
Having a clampingdevice instead of set screw
catch
covered
not
surface
to
as
set
below
so
or
screw
having
anythingbrought in contact with it.
"

"

Commutator

"

The

Rest

to swivel so
or with cross

dynamo

or

which

motor

takes off

or

into the machine.

leads current

Compound

part of

"

as

An
to

tool slide on
auxiliary
turn

slide.

at any

desired

lathe

anglewith

Usuallygraduatedinto

carriagearranged
the lathe centers

degrees.

COTTER

422

Also called

Cotter,Spring
"

MACHINE

COPING

"

splitcotter,split
pin,etc.,isused ina
hole drilled crosswise of a stud,shah
similar member, and itsends
or some

keep

Has

"

"

Countershaft

by

The

"

the main

or

by tb"

fit a hole alreadydrilled,

or driOed
and reamed, and its body with cutting
the
edgeson the end is used to enlarge
c*:
head or body
hole to receive a screw
similar purpose.
for some

pilotto
p.
^

and
place

carried
o
ff.
slipping
member

some

shaft from
Coimt"rbore

to retain it in

spreadapart

"~^

drivec
which isitself

shaft for driving

a machine
line shaft.

Coupling, Clamp
two

Couplingsmade

"

parts, clampingaround

more

or

bolts. HoW
the shafts by transverse
either by friction or have dowelsin
called compressioa
shaft. Sometimes
this
is
confusing.
although

:^

bf
Gripsshafting
Tbis
drawing togethertaperedparts.
forces them
againstshaft and holdsii
with shaft dra^
firmly. Bolts parallel
parts together.

Coupling, Compression

flangeis keyedto each

bolted together.
and these flanges
are
called "plate"coupling.

Coupling,Flanged
shaft

Also

"

"

depend on frictionalcontact
Coupling,Jaw or Clutch
Positively
engagedby jaws or projections
the
face
of
on
opposingparts.
so
ends of shafting
Devices for fastening
Coupling,Shaft
together
Coupling,Friction

Couplingswhich

"

"

"

that both

be

may

driven

great varietyof ways, from

as

one

shaft.

plainset

screw

made ina
couplingto elaborate

These

are

compressiondevices.
Coupling, Wedge
Coupling that clamps the shaft with a wedgicg
closed
enaction.
like a compression coupling.Generally
Practically
"

in

Cope

"

The

upper

Coping Machine
and

sleeve.

Also

part of

called vise

For cutting
away
the
ends.
bending
"

coupling.

flask.

the

and
flanges

comers

of beams

COUNTER

MILLING

CUTTERS,

"

Counter, Reyolution

"

the revolutions of
with a worm
made
teeth so that one
100
revolutions.
100
^untershaft'

clutch

Shaft

"

423

Device for counting

shaft.
a
Generally
and a gear having
of dial

turn

equals

tightand loose pulleys(or friction

stoppingmachines or reversing

carrying

and
starting

pulleys)for

their motion.
rane,

Gantry

mounted

Travelingcrane

"

posts

on

legsfor yard

or

use.

Crane

rane,

Jib

rane,

Locomotive

"

with

swingingboom

mounted

Crane

"

on

arm.

or

with

car

engineso

as

be

to

rane,

on
a track.
self-propellmg
Pillar
Having the boom or moving

an

fastened

arm

"

to

pillar

post.

or

rane,

Portable

Hoistingframe

"

the work and

other machines,

used

to

rane,

Post

rane,

Swing

rane,

Traveling

at each

See

"

end

as

be

can

around

run

of lathes and

out

Jib Crane,
with

Crane

"

so

wheels which
work in and

on

handle

Crane, Pillar,

Same

"

to

it

be

can

run

bridgeor

beam

cross

overhead

on

tracks

having wheels
any point in

to

the

shop.
rimping
Fluting,corrugatingor compressingmetal

ring to

"

duce
re-

its diameter.
ross-rail

which

"

The part of
the tool heads

a
or

planer,boringmill
slides

Cut

and

move

Meter

wheel

moving

illflue sheets

or

"

for
in other sheet metal or

Angular
for

pressedagainstthe
speed is shown

the

minute.

Specialcutters

CUTTERS,

is

surface and

in feet per
Sheet

for measuringthe
either in lathe or

speed of work

planer. A

holes as for
structural work.

making

flues,

MILLING
Cutters

Such

"

cutters

and
milling straight

spiralmills,
for

ratchet teeth,etc.
mill

commonly

grooving
an
angle

side and

40,

the other.

48

are

of

12

or

53

used

are

Cutters

with

on

supported.

Instrument

"

surface

utters, Flue

similar machine

or

are

spiral
made

one
degrees
degreeangleon
on

CUTTERS,

424

Cherry
"

form

of

MILLING

"

Continued

formed
which is more
a
strictly
the
for
out
interior
finishing
reamer,
similar
tool. The
of a die or some
cherryshown is for a bullet mold.

millingcutter

and

Convex

and

Cutters

Concave
cutters

concave

"

used

are

half circles. The

Convex
ling
for mil-

convex

cutter

for flutingtaps and

is often used
all other formed
other
tools. Like
is
the
not affected by
cutters
shape
the process of sharpening.

hand
Cutters
Left
of
this
and righthand
cutters
rounded
used for finishing
type are
and
The
comers
edges of work.
of
is
the
cutter
not
altered
by
shape
grindingon the face of the teeth.

Comer

Rounding

"

double

Cotter

MiU

type of mill is used

This

"

cuttingkeyseatsand

for

other

slots

and grooves.

Dovetail

Cutters
are

edgesof

End

Male

work

and

tails
female dovethese tools,and
beveled.
conveniently
with

This

mill sometimes
called
used
is
for
mill,
machining
slots,millingedgesof work, cutting
Mill

"

butt

cams,
Left Haud

"

milled

etc.

Bight Hand

End

MiU

(with

center

cut). This

end

mill has clearance on

the inner side
of the end
teeth and is adaptedto
L"ft Hand
Mill
into the work
cut
to a
depth equal
to the lengthof the end
teeth and
then feed along,dispensing
with the
of
first
a
necessity
hole,which
drilling
has
be
the
to
done
when
inner sides
Left Uaud
Bight Hand
of the teeth are not relieved.
The mills are often used for heavycuts particularly
in cast iron.

MILLING

CUTTERS,

Face

and

Face

%=

Formed

425

face cutter
Sharpe inserted
in largesizes and
tooth type is made
the peripheryand ends of teeth.
cuts
on
formed
The
cutter to the rightmay
be sharpened by grindingon
the face
without changingthe shape. For milling
wide forms several cutters
often
are
placedside by side in a gang.

Fish

Cutters

Fonned

to the

Continued

"

left,of

TaU

Brown

Cutter

millinga
other

seat

or

simple
in

groove

for

cutter
a

shaft of

piece. Usually operated

rapidspeed and
Fluting Cutters
mill

"

"

The

"

lightcut

and

at

feed.

Cutter A is an angular
cutting the teeth in spiral

for

"

mills,cutter B is for tap flutingand

C for millingreamer
flutes. In each
the

case

face set
work.

Arbor

Fly

Cutters

is. shown

cutter

radial to

the

with
of
center

one

the

Fly cutters are simple formed

be held in an arbor like
which
cutters
may
The
at the top of the group.
that shown
arbor is placed in the miller spindle and
other
be formed
work
is
to
the tool or
slow
feed
the
cutter.
a
revolving
past
given
be held
After roughing out, the cutter can
stationaryand used like a planer tool for
which
is fed past it
the work
finishing
and

"

given a scrapingcut.

so

2
Gang

Cutters

on

an

Cutters

"

arbor

for

have
teeth

gang

millinga broad

face
sur-

so

In extensive

operation the
are

usuallykept
never

The

cutters

and
interlocking
ping
overlapthat proper spacing may

be maintained.

and

used in

desired form.

of any
shown

are

removed

set

gangs
up

on

turing
manufac-

of cutters
their arbor

except for

grinding.

MILLING

CUTTERS,

426

Continued

"

(Involute).In the Brown

Sharpe system of involute gear
are
cutters, eight cutters
regularly
for each pitch,
follows:
made
as

Gear

Cutter

"

No.

will cut

55 teeth

wheels

from

35 teeth

4 will cut

wheels

from

26 teeth

34 teeth.
No. 5 will cut

wheels

from

21

134 teeth.
3 will cut

54 teeth.

to

No.

6 will cut wheels

cut

wheels

from

17 teeth to
14 teeth to

No.

8 will cut

wheels

from

12

cutters

without

from

teeth

teeth.
16 teeth.

20

13 teeth.

to

are
always accuratelyformed and
the shape of the teeth.
affecting

Cutters,Puplex
duplex cutters are

Gear

the

more;

teeth

25 teeth.

to

No.
No.
Such

135 teeth

from

No.

7 will

wheels from
wheels

No.
to

to

will cut

rack.

to a

"

number

depending on
gear to be
the number

in

cutters

of

number
The

cut.

ened
sharp-

The Gould
" Eberhart
used in gangs
of two or
of

the

be

can

the

teeth

in

followingtable

gang
the

gives

of cutters which
be used in j
may
of teeth.
cuttingdifferent numbers
teeth
Under
cutter
i
30

Stocking

Gear

stocking cutters
teeth

in

amount

object of
is to rough out
the
smaller
leaving a

Cutter

gears,
of metal

"

to

The

be

removed

by

the finishing
cutter.
They increase
with
the accuracy
which gears may
be
the finishing
cutter
as
cut, and save
well.
In

all

where

and
smooth
the
running
necessary
gears should
first be roughed out.
One
stocking
for all gears
cutter
of the
answers
cases

are

same

pitch.

accuracy

CUTTERS,

MILLING

Hob

Continued

"

"

427

of

form

millingcutter with
spirally
arrangedlike* a thread

teeth

and

with flutes to give

indicated.
Used for
cuttingedgesas
cutting the teeth of worm
gears to
on

screw

suit the worm

Hobs
gear.
off so
that

are

is to operate the
formed
and backed

the

faces

ground

be

may

which

of

without

the

teeth

changingthe

shape.
Inserted

Tooth

Cutter

"

Brown

Sharpe inserted tooth

taper bushings and screws
"

blades

the

Inserted

in

tooth

most

cases

and

generally

There

are

or

many
and
in

cutters

moved
readilyre-

are

replaced when

broken

or

out.

worn

Inserted

is

bodies.

6 inches

cutters

blades

the

holding

the

construction

of inserted tooth

types

for

positionin

for
recommended
largerin diameter.

have

cutters

Tooth

Cutter

Whitney).

(Pratt "

this type of cutter

the teeth
blades
or
secured in positionby taper pins driven

holes between
head
cutter
the metal

other

every

being slotted
each

at

side of

In
are

into

pair of blades; the

shown

as

allow

to

the taper

pin

to be

pressedfirmlyagainstthe inserted blades.

Interlocking Side

Cutters

These

"

cutters

and

overlappingteeth

have

be
definite

may

adjustedapart to maintain a
for millingslots,etc., by using
the inner faces.
packing between
width

Plain

Cutters

These

"

millingflat surfaces.
inch

wide

spirallyat
15

the

teeth

relative

When
to

of

are

slabbingmills.

over
f
usually cut

from

easy

considerable

diameter

for

are

When

angle of

an

degrees,to give an

cut.

cutters

they

are

10

to

shearing
length
called

428

MILLING

CUTTERS,

Continued

"

hemisphericalcuttei
of a large
one
as a
for
forms
varietyof
employed
working
dies and other parts in the profiler.
out

Rose

Cutter

The

"

known

mill is

rose

Cutters of this form

are

seats
making spherical

also

used

for

for ball joints,

etc

Screw slotting
cutters
have
pitch teeth especiallyadapted
of screw
heads and similar
for the slotting
the
The
not ground on
cutters are
work.
various
made
of
nesses
thicksides. They are
of the
to the numbers
corresponding
Wire Gage.
American

SlottingCutter

Screw

"

fine

Shank milling
Cutter
cutters are
Shank
forms
in
with shanks
all sorts of
made
be conveniently
held true in
which can
while in operation.
miller or profiler
"

Shell end
Cutter
do heavier work

mills are
designed
than that for
which the regular
type of end mills are
suited. They are made to be used on an
in the
arbor and are secured by a screw
end of the arbor. The end of the cutter
is counterbored to receive the head of the
and the back end is slotted for
screw
drivingas indicated.

Shell End

"

to

Side

Side

or

Straddle,and

Slabbing Cutters

"

Side cutters like that to the left cut on

and sides,are suitable
the periphery
used
in
for millingslots and when
mills.
straddle
be
called
May
pairsare
packed out to mill any desired width
faces of a piece of
of slot or opposite

Slabbing

thickness.
frequentlymade with nicked teeth to
givean easier cut than would be possible
any

Slabbingcutters

are

break up the chipand

with a plaintooth.

so

SlittingSaw,

Metal

Metal

"

thin

millingcutters.

true

and
by grinding,

outside

edgethan

near

sav"rs
slitting

are

sides are finished

thicker at the
little
a
the center, for proper

The

teeth are best adapted

Coarse
for brass work and deep slots and fine teeth
for cuttingthin metal.

clearance.

CUTTERS,

MILLING

Continued

"

429

Cutter
Cutters for millingthe
Sprocket Wheel
teeth on sprocketwheels for chains are formed
"

the necessary
outline and admit of grinding
the face like regular gear cutters,without

to
on

changingthe

form

of the tooth.

Straight Shank
cutters

in

Cutter

Straightshank

"

of small size

used
extensively
vertical millers for die

and
profilers

are

sinking,profiling,
routing,etc. They
held in springchucks or collets.
are
T-Slot Cutter"
Slots for bolts in miller
and
other
tables are
milled
with
T-slot cutters.
to
They are made
standard dimensions
to suit bolts of
various sizes.
The
narrow
part of
the slot is first milled in the casting,
then the bottom
portion is widened

3
Lvfk

Hand

with

out

Woodruff
.

the T-slot

Key Cutter

cutter.

The

"

Whitney Mfg.

Co's keys are semi-circular in form and

in the shaft to
for cuttingthe seats
receive them
a
cutter of the type shown
These
is used.
cutters
of
made
are
and
thickness to suit
right diameter
all the diflferent sizes of keys in the
WoodrufiF system.

commercial
For cuttingdesired lengthsfrom
tools
bars of iron,steel or other material,usuallyhas stationary
The
and revolves the work.
latter is gripped by the rotating
chuck; and as the tools are fed toward the center, the spindle in
is driven at an accelerated speed so that
some
types of machines
the diameter of the cut is reduced,the speed of rotation is increased
as
uniform surface speed of work.
to maintain a practically
In cold-saw cutting-off
machines, the work is held in a vise and a

Cutting-offMachine

"

circular cutter
rotating
not

and

is fed

againstit. Such machines

but also for

bars, rails,I-beams, channels
rectangular
steel

only for

severinground

stock

are. used
off
cutting
square
and other structural

^apes.

CuttingH"ffTool Post
turret

lathe

or

"

The

tool block used

other machine

for

on

the

carryingthe

cross

tool for

slide of

cuttingoff

the completedpieceof work from the bar of material held in the

chuck.
The tool post may be made to receive a straighttool or
a cirtular cutter.

PRESS

DIES, PUNCH

430

Planer

Daniels
Dead

Center

which

to

Dial

The

"

does

in the tail

center

spindleof

lathe

grinder

or

revolve.

not

of a fixed uprightand an arm

Structure consisting
hinged
bottom, which is raised and lowered and usually
swings around
handle heavy loads.

Derrick
at

See Planer.

"

"

Feed

and

punch
Diamond

"

Hand

revolving disk which

carries blanks

between

the

die.
Tool

Used

"

dressinggrindingwheels after they

been roughedout with the cheaper

for

have
"

'-m JL^
Chasers
bolts and

"

Threaded

diamonds
are
better than those

usually considered
held by hand.

"

Die

Fixed

of cutters.

forms

|-p|r|^'ir^

^
"^

sections inserted in

die head

handle

Plate
for

or

Stock

"

handles

of

are

Die, Spring or Prong

portionsin the end
"

of

adjustedsomewhat
togetherwith
prongs
outside.
"

Dies for cutting

bolts.

die stocks

or

Some

are

platesbut

or

times
Some-

piece.
with cutting

Die

be

for hand

frame

die.
a threading
holding

die and

Some

cutting

screws.

Die, Screw

Dies,Bolt

for

one

prongs;

can

by springing
collar

on

others adjustable.
solid,

mostlyfor

machine

bolt

cutters.

DIES,
Bending Dies, Compound

"

PUNCH
In

PRESS

compoimd bendingdies
shown

the
down

by punch
there

while

B
fingers

of the type

is carwork
ried
into the die
-4, and held

the beveled

act

upon

the

them
slidesC and cause
forward in the
to move
top of die D and bend
the material to the outline
of the punch. Upon
the
the up-stroke of
punch the slides C are

pressed outwardly by
their

springs and

the

pieceof work is removed by the punch from the die. It will

be seen
that the holder for punch -4,upon which depends the interior
form of the piece being bent,is not positively
secured in its
holder,but is instead adapted to slide up and down
in its seat.

bent

DIES, PUNCH

PRESS

Continued

"

431

althoughpreventedfrom turningby a small pin at the upper end

of the shaiik which is engagedby a slot in the punch carrier. The
springsshown above the punch proper tend to hold the punch in
time after the punch has passed
positionand at the same
into the die allow the punch carrier to descend stillfurther
B into operationagainstslides C which bend the
to press fingers

its lower
down

work

to the outline of the

punch.

1^^
Dies, Plain

Bending
^"*

In

dies

with the upper face of

the die and the bottom of the punch
shaped to conform to the bend it is
desired to givethe blank.
A common
type is shown in the engraving.

simplebendingdies

the desired form

Simple bending

"

made

and the

are

the upper

face of the die is

pieceof work

down
by being presseddirectly

into the die

Blanking
the

formed

Dies

out

to

requiredshape
by the punch.

Blanking dies

"

cut

to

commonly

used

are

of

about

the
varieties of press tools. A simpleform
in the illustration. The
of die is seen
most

all

stripof sheet metal is fed Under the

ber
stripperand is preventedby that memfrom
with the punch upon
lifting
the
the punching
up-stroke,following
out

of

the

blank.
combined

punches are
blanking as many
they are
blankingtools.

Where
in

one

several
hole for

ously,
pieces simultaneknown

as

multiple

The "before and after"

sketches show the character of the
in bulgingdies. The
work handled
after
shell
being drawn
up straight
mushroom
is placedover
plungerA
in the bulging die, and
when
the
rubber
disk
the
B is
punch descends
forced out, expandingthe shell into
the curved chamber
formed by the
and
die.
Upon the punch
punch
the rubber returns
to its
ascending,
form
and
the
expandedwork
original
is then removed.

Bulging

Dies

"

Burnishingdies are made a littlesmaller at the

bottom than at the top and when the work is forced down throug
the die,the edge of the pieceis givena very high finish makir

Burnishing Dies

"

FRESS

DIES, PUNCH

432

"

Continued

The
hand finishing
operationsunnecessary.
method
also.
sizing
process forms a very accurate

nishing
bur-

and
polishing

Coining Dies

"

Coiningdies

are

operatedin

very powerful presses

of the embossing type
similar to those used
for

forming designs
medals,
silverware,

on

The
ix"of
the
work,
retaining coller
the dies are
cated
indi-

etc.
jewelry,

sition

the
and

A, B,

2Lt

In the latter section the coin is shown

die.
Dies

Combination

and

C.

delivered at the top of the

in singleacting
used
dies are
stroke
cuttinga blank and at the same
the
down
turning
edge
and drawingthe piece
into
the
required

Combination

"

presses for such work

as

In

shape.

most

cases

the work

is pushed out
dies by the action
of a spring. Such
set of dies is shown

of the

in

the

engraving,for

making

box

cover

and body. The

work
is blanked by cuttingpunch A, and formed
to the rightshape by
and
B
C, the former
holding the piece by

spring pressure

to

the

block C while punch A,

continuingto descend,
acts
draws
the box to the requiredshape. Ring D
an
as
the
rubber
is
and
shedder
or
compressing
presseddown,
ejector
and upon the up-strokeof the
at E duringthe drawing operation,
the work
from the dies.
ejects
actuated punch or die inside the
a spring
blanking
regularblankingtool,are often used for simultaneously
and
and piercing,
etc.
bending,
blanking

punch, ascends

and

of this type, with

Dies

It will be noticed that the lower view in the group showing the
work
at the right-hand side of the sectional illustration of the die,
and body as theyappear when
assembled
represents the box cover
after the
in

metal
superfluous
a

trimming

die.

in the
This

flangeor

imder
is shown

on

page

439.

fin " has been removed

the piece when coming

fin as left on
in the

the combination
die is shown
A trimming die for
the blank.

from

"

view

such
finishing

immediately
work

evenly

DIES, PUNCH

VRESS

"

CofUinued

433
Dies

Compound

"

dies have

Compound
die
a

the
punch
upper
and
a
punch in the
lower die. The ferrulemaking tools shown have
a
blanking and outer
drawing punch A, with
central die B, to receive
a
lower
punch C
which cuts out the center
of the ferrule blank
and allows the metal to
down
inside
be drawn
well as outside of the
as
D,
bevel edged member
is drawn
As
the work
down
ring E descends
rubber cushion
compressing
F
below and upon
the
movement
the return
from the
ferrule is ejected
die.
in

Cupping
Same

Curling

Dinking

Dies
as

Dies

Dies

Used

for drawing up
drawing dies.
"

Curlingdies

"

"

cup from

disk

or

planchet.

used for producinga curled edge

around
the top of a piece drawn
up
the top is to
When
from
sheet metal.
wire
be stiffened by a
ring around
which the metal is curled,
a wiringdie
is
is used, the construction of which
the
d
ie.
the
as
same
curling
practically
The
illustration shows
a
curling die
of
and
shell at
the appearance
a
various
the
operation
stages during
grams
diaof curlingover
the edge. The
A, Bf C, Dy show the progress
in the curlingprocess as
the punch
the edge
down
on
descends,pressing
of the straight
drawn shell.
are

Dinking dies,or

hollow cutters,althoughnot usually

classed with regulardies are used
so
commonly as to entitle them to be
listed in that class. They are adapted
to
punching out all sorts of shapes
from

cloth,or
leather,

edges of

the dies

(a

few

paper.

The

specimensof

shown in the engraving)are

usuallybeveled about 20 degreesouf
for press use t^
side.
made
Where
As a surface i
handle is omitted.
which

are

PRESS

DIES, PUNCH

434
the

cuttingedge of the
seasoned rock maple, set

Continued

"

die to strike on, a block

endwise
of the grain.

of

is built up

has
Dies
Action
This type of die is used in a press which
Double
inside the
one
a double
actingram; that is,there are two slides,
have
different
strokes.
which
other,
"

To

slide is fastened

the outer

cuttingpunch
Ay

which

by the

slide.

inner

bined
com-

holder

The

blank

the stock

from

beingcut

upon

the

blank

vance
operated slightlyin adB
ated
actudrawing punch

is
the

of

and

by A^

drops into the top of the die at C and

is kept under
pressure by the flat end
cutting punch A to
wrinkling, while punch
of

the pressure

Dies, Plain

Drawing
shown

can

Dies

"

used

be

blank

its

on

wrinkling

the

die

fits the

by

recess

die

face of the

the die itselfwhich

the

the type
ing
draw-

pressure

into

blank

in the upper

is made

no

prevent
down

The

punch.

the
A

to

forced

when

of

for shallow

only, as there is
the

continues

metal

from
drawing
into the shape required.

and

surfaces

the

downward
between

its

prevent

and

is slightly
tapering

diameter

of

the

ptmch

plus twice the thickness of the wall

requiredfor the shell. The bottom
the shell from
edge B of the die strips
the latter ascends.
the punch when
Re-drawing dies are used for drawing
shell or
out
a
already formed
cup
metal.

the sheet

from

ready

shell
in

is shown

the

In
for

positionin the

re-drawing
dies,which

littleexplanation. The

need

tration,
illus-

work

is

located in the upper plated, and after

being forced through the die B, is
strippedfrom the punch by edge C.
shell which

Ordinarily, a
given considerable

is
elongation,

passedthrough

number

is

to

of

be
drawing
re-

dies.

Re-drawing dies are

although the latter, as
page 436,
in the case

what

are

of

smaller

used
a

referred

sometimes

explainedimder
down

drawing
cartridgeshell,which
for

in diameter

than

the

the

the
end

is made

body.

to

reducing dies^
heading on
proper
as

shell only, as
with a neck somfeof

DIES,

PUNCH

PRESS

Fluid

Dies

for

CorUinued

"

Water

"

fluid dies

or

used

are

hollow

artistic

forming

435

other soft metals, in

reproductionof chased work.

silver,and
die

shown

as

from

is

carved

and

exact

The

mold

hinged

models

of

ware

cast

finished

with

and
all details clean
sharp. The
worked
shell to be
is filled with
liquidand enclosed in the die and

the press
the
causes

plunger in

and

into the

the metal out

Dies

Follow

dies

in

Follow

"

punch

one

fluid to

the die.

designin

tools consist of two

or
more
punches and
these being arranged in
and die l)ody,
fashion

operationthe
point and
which

is for

that after the first

is fed to the next
second
operation performed;
so

stock

and

so

In the die

on.

shown,
strip
beneath stripper

far

to

be

enough
drawn

to

allow

at

the

the first shell

first stroke

shell drawn

and

the

at

located

by

metal is
space and the
The

C and die D,
moved
along one

punch
then

the

making piece Ay

of metal is firstentered

first stroke
the

within

is

tered
cen-

locating

the
is piercedwith punch jP,and
in the center
in the stock by punch and die C and D.
fed forward
and the blanking
another
space

portion of piercingdie

E.

At

stroke the hole

second
shell drawn

next

The

stock is then

punch
a

scends
de-

force

holder

tandem

then

ram

third

cuts

out

the

piece from

piece is being formed

hole

pierced.

the metal.

three

the

stroke

same

and

of the stock

the end

on

Thus

At

ond
sec-

carried

operations are

on

simultaneously.
Gang

Dies

"

Gang

tools have

two

punches

more

or

holder

for

making

as

dies in

and

one

openings

many

stroke of the press.

dies
which
Sometimes
ber
perform a numof operations on
a
piece which is
in

blank

at

one

under
one
punch
along successively
called "gang" dies;
after another
are
strictly
speaking,however, such tools

fed

are

"

follow

of

called
of

quite small

diameter

punches.
perforating

for

"

dies.

punches
a

are

Where

multiple punch, or

piercing are

ber
largenum-

combined

sometimes

if

they are
they are

known

as

PRESS

DIES, PUNCH

436

Continued

"

and
Heading dies strike up the heads on cartridges
in
horizontal
and are generally
heading
operated a
shells,

Heading

Dies

"

other
machine.
Index

Dies

certain classes of work

For

"

such

as

notchingthe edges

of largedisks or armature
punchings,an index die is sometimes
used consisting
of a rotary index plateadaptedto carry the work
step by step past the punches which cut out one notch or a series
of notches at each stroke of the press.

Perforating Dies

tools consist
Perforating

"

of a number
tools in one
be
and may

of

piercing

of dies
called also
multiplepiercing tools.
In the example shown,
which
punches a large
number
of holes in a
the
work
is held
disk,
by the spring-controlled
set

A against
pressure-pad

the face of the die B

the
while
punches at
down
forced
C
are
throughthe sheet metal.
In this case the punches

easily
replacedwhen
broken, by unscrewing
are

the holder from

the back.

the shank

the
slipping

and

punch

out

from

punching small holes

arranged
punching a large
through sheet metal.
number
of holes simultaneously
they are often called perforating

Piercing Dies

Piercingtools

"

are

used

small

for

Where

for

dies.
tion
Compound piercingtools have, in addiholder
in
the
the
carried
regularpunches
by
ram, a
set of horizontal punches for making holes through the sides of
These
side punches are
the work.
operatedby slides moved
the
inward
by wedge-shaped fingers,
arrangement being the
of the compound bendingdies,-an illustration
same
as in the case
of which is givenunder that head.
Reducing Dies
Reducing dies are re-drawingdies for reducinga
portionof the shell only, whereas the regularre-drawingdie
the whole
reduces
length. Reducing dies for cartridgeshells

Piercing Dies,Compound
to

"

the

"

form

the

familiar
with

which

"bottle neck"

largbody

for the

the bullet is secured.

for

dies

cartridgemaking

often

used

In

shell

now

powder

commonly

so

and

dial feed presses

operations,two

factured,
manu-

smaller neck
or

into

ployed
ordinarlyemmore

reducing

neck of the shell to the required

dimensions,each die operatingin turn upon the shell as it
is carried around
mittent
step by step under the press tools by the interof
the
movement
rotary
feedingdial.
are

for

shaping the

DIES, PUNCH

PRESS

Riyeting

Continued

"

Dies

437

Riveting dies for the

ties
are
providedwith cavi-

"

punch

press
in the working faces to suit the
shape of the head it is desired to produce
on

the ends of the rivets.

Sectional Dies
dies of complicated
Frequently
outline are built up in sections
enable
them to be more
to
easily
constructed and kept in order.
This
form is resorted to often in the case
of largedies where a break
at one
would
considerable
mean
pense
expoint
die.
for a new
culties
Also the diffiof hardeningare reduced with
the sectional construction.
As shown,
the various
secured to a
parts are
base or holder.
common
"

Shearingdies are
and are
operations,
cutting-ofiF

Shearing
for

Dies

tools so

"

combined
with
that after certain

other

used
quently
fre-

press

on
operations

be severed from the end

a pieceit can
of the stock. The
shearingtools in
the engravingare arrangedfor simply

cuttingup

stock

into piecesof the

and
the punch itself
requiredlength
is of the inserted type secured
by
in
holder.
its
pins

Splitdies

the simplest;
form one
type of sectional die
ening,
they are made in halves to facilitateworkingout to shape,hardand economical maintainance.

SplitDies

"

Sub-press Dies

"

sub-pressand

"

its tools

are

on
represented

the

tools are used for small parts which have

in watch
and typeaccuratelyand are very common
writer
The
tools
held
in
are
positively
shops and similar places.
is maintained
line in this press and as a result their efficiency
The
bodilyinto the regularpower
indefinitely.
press is slipped
press with the base clamped to the press bed and the neck of the
plungerconnected with the ram of the press.
sub-press

following
page.
to

be made

Such

438

DIES, PUNCH

PRESS

"

Continued

"
d

"5

J)
CO

DIES, PUNCH
Dies

Continued

"

439

sired
Swaging operationsare resorted to where it is deof
round
work alreadyblanked
the edges
to shape up or
over
in watch
the arms
Thus
wheel work
and inside edges of
rims are sometimes
rounded
to
form subsea
quently
nicely
swaged
to the blankingout of the wheel in the sub-press. Swaging

Swaging
out.

the

"

dies for such work

which
the

PRESS

correspondto
blank

are
a

of

course

splitmold

made

with shallow

between

the two

impressions

halves of which

is

properlyshaped.
from the bullet
swagingdies receive the slugas it comes
and shape the end to the requiredcone
point.
Trimming Dies
Trimming dies remove
the superfluous
metal
the
left around
edges or ends of various classes of

Bullet

mold

"

drawn

formed

and

shown, the

box

work.

In the

case

has been
fin left all the way
A

body

up and a
this
is droppedinto the
round;

drawn

die B and

throughthe

the

trimming
carryingit
the edgeoff evenly,

punch

die trims

in

Work
of
indicated.
the nature
as
in this illustrationis blanked, drawn
and
shown
formed
ready
up
of combination
for trimming,by means
tools,a typicalexample
die heading on
of which will be found
under the combination
The
illustrated
box
here
it
before and
as
body
appears
page 432.
is
shown
in
with
the combination
connection
after trimming
dies
in the blank, after it is formed, and after assembling
as it appears
with its cover.

Triple-actionDies

"

These

dies

are

used

in

triple-acting
presses,

where

in

addition to
the double-action slides
which take the placeof
the regular
single-acting
there
is also a
ram,
third slide or plunger
which
operates under
die bed.
the table or
Thus
a
piece like that
which has to be
shown
and
blanked, drawn
embossed, is operated
above
from
by
upon
the cutting and drawing
punches A and By
the latter
and
upon
the
drawn
carrying
down
work
to the face
of the embossingdie C, that die is forced upward by the plunger
D beneath
and givesthe piece the desired impression. On the
of the punch the work is stripped
from it by edge E and
up-stroke

fallsout of the press.

DIES, PUNCH

440

VRESS

Caniifmed

"

Wiring

Dies"

dies

are

same

in

Wiring
much

the

constraction

as

plain curlingdies.

In

the

the
engraving,
ringis shown at

wire
A around the top of
the shell to be wu^
and in a channel at
the top of the spring-

supportedringB.
ilKthinr

As

indicated in the" lower

the punch
illustration,
it descends, depresses
as

the ring B
and curls the edge of
the shell aroimd the
wire ringA.

^^ma-M^^

Disks,Reference
and
calipers

Accurate disks of standard dimensions for setting

measuringwith. Usuallyof hardened steel.

Divider,Spring
the

by
Doctor

Local term
be
lathe can
one
**dutchman."

Dog

"

for

used

"

The

pointsapart and
the nurled nut on

springtends to
are
adjustments
the

adjusteror adapterso
on

another.

Sometimes

force
made

screw.

that chucks from

used same
as

given to any projecting

piecewhich strikes and moves
other part, as the reversing
dogs or stops on a planer or
machine.
Sometimes
milling
appliedto the pawl of a ratchet.
"

Name

some

Dog, Clamp

Grips

"

There

dog.
Dog, Lathe

are

work

many

by clamping with
types both

home-made

the two
parts of the
and for sale.

clamping on work so that it can be

by face-plate.Straighttail dogs are driven by a stud
face-plate.Curved tail (usualway) dogs have the end bent

go into

"

Devices

slot in

for

face-plate.

Bent Tail

volved
re-

on

to

DRAG

Drag
Draw

The

"

bottom

part of

DRILLS

"

441

sometimes
fiask,

called the nowell.

from rods, beingdrawn

Place where wire is drawn
with
bull
smaller openings.
blocks
successively
through platesor
Bench

Drift

tool for

"

"

through with

the sides of

cuttingout

an

openingwhile

driven

hammer.
DRILLS

short drills used for cenThe

"f=^^^!"0 teringshafts before facingand turningare
\
drill and reamer
drills. The
called center
j)^
60
for
countersink
the
or
degreecenter hole
allow the centerwhen
combined
shown
as
r^^
be
done
than when
to
more
readily
ing
71
Combination
used.
tools
are
separate
The
Drill
drill is a hollow tool which cuts out a core
Core
core
of chips. Such
instead of removing the metal in the form
u
sed
drills are
to procure
a
generally
from
of castings
the center
or
core
forgingsfor the determination of the
of the metal.
other
tensile strengthor
physical
properties

^
^

Drill

Center

^"r^^

"

^^

"

Barrel

Gun

under

Drill

very

barrel drills are

Gun

"

at

run

high speed and

feed,oil beingforced through a hole in the drill

light

clear the chips and cool the cutThe drill itself

tingpointand work.
f
^
is short and fastened to a shank of
suitable length.
like a boringtool. Mostly used for boring
More
Hog Ifoee Drill
be very stiff to be effective but when
cored holes. Must
out
does lots of hard work.
used
made
to advantage,
rightand
to

"

Drill

Hollow

"

hollow

The

drill is for
an

i,-|
^--^-

It has
deep-holedrilling.
opening through the body and is

attached
/'v^-5=::^:::d'=:^^r=^

to

shank

ia^^^^^^^^^=a-^ length for

Oil-drill

(Morse)

"

These

of

Drill

"

The

of these drills are

^
Flat

-x

the necessary
hole to be

the depth
drilled.
lubricant to the point,
drills convey
throughholes formed in the solid metal.
the drills are
Where
largerthan 2 J
inches an inserted copper tube is employed
oil
to the drill point
to carry the
and wash out the chipsand keepthe drill
cool. The oil enters throughthe hollow
shank or through a connection at the
side as shown.

Ratchet

'p^(

of

for

square taper shanks

made to fita ratchet

holes by hand.
drilling

DRILLS

442

Continued

"

Shell Drill
Shell drillsare fitted to a taper
shank and used for chuckingout cored
holes and enlargingholes drilled with
two-flute twist drill. The
a
angle of
is
the spiral
about
lips
15 degrees.
"

StraightFlute

Drill"

-The

or
flute,
straight

frequentlycalled after its

the

as
^

i\^

and

""

does

Three

spots as
brass
drilling

is

well

stiffer,

follow

or

soft

or

drill. It is also better for

metals.

twist

does, but

"run"

not

it is

as

clear itself as

not

drill

twist

drill

"Farmer"

inventor,does

holes
blow-

readilyas
and

other

the
soft

Where
Four-groove Drills
solid
be
in
holes
made
to
stock,
are
large
it is advisable to use
three or four
a
drill after running the required
groove
two-flute drill throughthe piece. These
drills will enlarge the hole to the size

oroove

rour

and

requiredand

Drill

with

Usually made

"

I}

Wood

O^N"^50"^
Bit Point

^N^
XI^
SingleFlute

^..^

Device
drill in many
ratchet drill into use.

Drill,Chain

running

grooves,

or

the

This

of the hole

beingdrilled.

Drill

Bits for wood

(Bit)
"

"

breast

made

drilling

forms.
The
pod
drill is cut out hcfUow
at the working
end; the double flute spiraldrill has a
regularbit point; the singleflute drill
is full diameter
for a short,distance only
and is cleared the rest of the lengthas
indicated.
are

Po^j
( (

boring

furnishes cutbody.
follow
the flutes
tingedgesand the chips
out

^
"

in

castings.

flutes

two

around

^^^^V.^v^S.^N

also useful

are

cored holes in

out

Twist

"

in various

used in connection with

placeswhere it is not convenient

to

be

brace

to

or

bringa

and gears up the

Device which goes on drill spindle
on
speed of drills so that small drills can be used economically
drill
large
presses.

Drill

Speeder

DriU Vise

"

"

See Vise, Drill.

Drill,Radial

"

Parts

of

1.

Vertical

6. Vertical

drivingshaft.

2.

Center

7. Column

sleeve.

3.

driving-shaftgear.
driving-shaftgear.
Elevating tumble-plate segment.

4.

9.

Elevating-screw
gear,

5. Column

8.

cap.

shaft.
Elevating-lever

Elevating screw.
girdle.'

10.

Arm

11.

Arm-binder

handle.

DRILLS

"

Continued

443

DRILLS

444

DRILL

PRESS

"

Continued

"CINCINNATI
TOOL

COMPANY

MACHINE

DRILLS

DriU
1.

Main

drivinggears,

2.

Back

3.

Upper

4.

Yoke

bevel.

pulley.

cone

frame.

to

gears.

18.

Feed-changehandle.

19.

Slidinghead.

20.

Face

of column.

21.

Back

brace.

22.

Belt shifter.
for

23. Rack

Counterweightchains.
shaft.

7. Feed

445

Parts of

Press"

gears.

5. Feed
6.

CofUinued

--

24.

Table-arm

table.
elevating
clamping screws.

Spindle.
Back-gear lever.

25. Pulley stand.

26. Lower
cone
pulley.

10.

Column.

11.

Automatic

27.
28.

8.

9.

stop.

Belt-shifting
fingers.
Tight and loose pulleys

29. Table.

13.

Spindlesleeve.
Feed-triplever.

30.

14.

Hand-feed

31. Table

12.

wheel.

Table-damp

Table-adjusting
gear.

15. Quick-returnlever.
16. Feed gearing.

32.

17. Feed

box.

34. Ball-thrust

Drive

Force

or

Sand

Dry

ovens

Fit

33. Base.

bearing.

See Fit.

"

Molds
made
of green sand and
otherwise dried out before pouring.

Molds
or

Dutchman

screw.

arm.

"

Local

"

term

for

wedge

or

liner to make

baked

dry

in

piecefit.

A round
Used
a
key or pin fitting
poor job useable.
endwise in a hole drilled half in a shaft and half in the pieceto
be attached thereto.
to make

An ejector
on
punch press work is a ring,collar or disk
actuated by springpressure or by pressure of a rubber disk,to
blanks from the interior of compound and other dies. It
remove
is often called a shedder.

Ejector

"

EUiptic Chuck
Emery Jointer
"

See Chuck, Oval.

Grinder for making

board of steel plows.
"

and

close

jointbetween

the share

GrindingWheels and Diamonds.

similar to
Measuring Rod
Arrangedfor internal measurements
the internal cylindrical
gages.

Emery
End

mold
Wheel

Dressers

"

See

"

Expanding Arbor

or

Mandrel

"

See Arbor.

for extracting
Machine
oil from iron and metal
Revolves rapidly
and throws out the oil by centrifugal

Extractor, Oil

chips.

"

force.
F
Face

Cam

See Cam, Face.

"

The plateor disk which screws

the nose of
on
work
be
drives
bored.
carries
turned
and
to
or
or
spindle
appliedto table of vertical boringmill.

Face

Plate

Face Reamer

"

"

See Reamer, Face.

lathe
Sometimes

FEATHER

446

"

FORCE

sometimes called a spline.

key
Might be called a sliding
other
Used to prevent a pulley,
or
part, from turningon the
gear
it
in the feed shaft used
to move
shaft but allows
as
lengthwise
lathes and other tools. Feather is nearlyalways fastened
most
on
to the sliding
piece.

Feather

Field

"

Files

"

"

"

across

Usuallythe stationary
part of a dynamo or motor.
Tools of hardened steel havingsharpcutting
pointsor
their surface. These are forced up by a chisel and
Runs a file by power,
kinds of small work.

FilingMachine
in many
The
Fin

"

teeth

mer.
ham-

Useful
usuallyvertically.

edge or mark leftby the partingof a mold or die.

this is called the "flash."
In drop forgework
a shaft to a hole by making the
Fit,Drive or Force or Press
Fitting
hole so the shaft can be driven or forced in with a sledgeor some
tons pressure.
many
power
press, often requiring
Fit,Running or Sliding Enough allowance between shaft and hole
slide without sticking
to allow it to run
or
or
heating.
Shrink
hole
shaft
to
a
a
Fit,
by making the hole slightly
Fitting
smaller than the shaft^
then heatingthe piecewith the hole tillit
When
cool the shaft is
expandsenough to allow shaft to enter.
if
the
allowance
is
seized
right.
very tightly
A smaller allowance
than for nmning but so that
Fit,Wringing
thin

"

"

"

"

"

the shaft
to

some

Flask

be twisted into the hole by hand.

Usually applied
such w^ork as a boringbar in a horizontal boring machine.
Sometimes
used in connection with twisting
two
flat surfaces
togetherto exclude the air.
can

The

"

Includes

frame which holds the sand

the cope and drag.

Flat Reamer

See

"

Shop

"

for the

casting.

Reamer, Flat.
Round
face. A
blacksmith's
the work
tool which is held on
and
struck by a sledge. Used to take out
hammer
marks and smooth
ing.
up a forg-

Flatter

^3)
Flute

mold

both

for

name

groove.

"

Appliedto taps,reamers,

drills

and other tools.

Heavy wheel for steadyingmotion of machinery. On

engine it carries the crank past the center and produces a

Fly-wheel
an

"

uniform

rotation.

Follower Rest
A back rest for supp)orting
long lathe work ; attached
arid
the
to
carriage
immediatelybehind the turningtool.
following
"

Foot
Force

Stock

"

The

tail stock

or

tail block

of

etc.
lathe,grinder,

A master
punch which is used under a powerful press to
form an impressionin a die.
Forces are commonly employed in
the making of coiningand other embossingdies.
A similar tool
used by jewelers
is called a "hub."
It is sometimes referred to
"

as
a
icorrectly

"hob."

FORGE

Forge

Press

dies

etc.
welding,forging,

by fan or bellows.
for shaping metal
Heavy machine
by forcinginto
of
instead
sudden
blow
in drop
a
steady pressure
as

by

"

forging. Similar
Center

"

in hand

used

to

center
or

bulldozer.

for

in the lathe. Also

drivingwoodwork
work.
drivingspecial
brass workers having a "chasingbar" for

fox lathes for

Lathe for
and often has
threads
cutting
Lathe

"

An

turret

alloyhavingzinc

on

as

the tailstock.
in
base, used for casting

molds.

metal

Blacksmith's

"

nose

"

Metal

Franklin

Fuller

for

forced draft

Forging

Fox

447

for heatingmetals
Open fireplace

"

Has

Fork

GAGES

"

for

tool

spreadingor

somethinglike a hammer, havinga round

blowers.
the iron under hammer
fulling

Hand

Anvil Fuller

Fuller

Furnace for heatingsteel

the flame does not
to harden, in which
with the metals.
in contact
come

Furnace,

Furniture

In machine

"

Muffle

"

tool

shopsappliesto

racks,lathe pans,

tote

boxes, etc.
Fuse

"

and

melts when

pieceof metal which

valve.
a safety

too

much

current

passes

acts as

GAGES

Depth

(SP

Gage

"

tool for

measuring the

The body
depthof holes or recesses.
while
the rule
the
hole
placedacross
ured.
slippeddown into the hole to be measIn many
a

wire

and

not

cases

is
is

the rod is simply

graduated.

Flat steel platedrilled with diflFerentsize drillsand each

Drill Gage
with correct size or number.
hole marked
"

GAGES

448

Continued

"

Has blades of
Gage
of
i
n
thousandths
different thicknesses,
an
inch, so that slightvariations can

Feeler

Thickness

or

be felt

"^

or

"

measured.

A gage for measuring

of
teeth.
Requires
depth
gear
a different gage for each pitch.
A plugor other gage having
Limit Gage
end largerand the other smaller
one
size. If the small
than the nominal

Gear

Tooth

Depth Gage

"

the

"

G^uTBg

the large
the two
and within the limits of
end does not, the size is between
of a female limit gage, if the large
in the case
the gage.
Similarly,
and the small end
the piece of work
end of the gage goes over
is
the
within
established limits.
does not go over
the
work
it,
"
end of a limit gage is marked
Go," and the
one
Ordinarily,
"
other end
Not Go," or else they are stamped + and
of the

end

plug goes

in but

"

Plug

and

Ring Gage

"

Gages

for

measuringinside and outside

in setting
use
calipers.

use

work

in
or

for

feeler or thread gage but has

end and inside
each blade with a given outside radius on
one
radius on the other for gaging small filletsor round edges.
Scratch
For scratching
line at
Gage
a
distance
from
side
of
_^^3E
a
one
given
^
"^
'''''*'
for
different
a
piece. Adjustable

Radius

or

Curve

Gage

Made

"

like

"

lengths.
Snap Gage

"

solid

used
caliper

for either

outside
This
inside or
measurement.
combined
for
shows
outside
a
gage
and inside work.
be the same
Sizes can
for any kind of fit
or give the allowance
desired.

Spliningor Key-seat Gage

"

Gage for layingout key-seatson

Surface

Gage

between
table

or

a
a

the work.
any

other

shafts.

tool for gaging the hight

flat surface such as a planer
surface plateand some
pointon
This can then be transfered to
"

point.

GAGES

GEARS

"

449

of
with a number
number
blades, each having the same
of notches per inch as the thread it represents.
for different kinds of
Made
threads and in various forms.

Thread

Gage

Gage
Gage for measuringsizes
the
The
wire fits between
of wire.
in
holes.
of
the
the
sides
opening,not
of a
in the form
made
Sometimes
circular disk.
threads
For grinding
thread tool for worm

Wire

Thread Tool Gage

Worm

"

degreeangle.

29

"

"

Tool

"

A holder
Gang Tool
used
tools,generally
"

with

number

planer but

in the

sometimes in the lathe.

a little
deeperthan the

of

Each tool cuts

ahead of it.
one

GEARS

Sometimes
appliedto bevel gears and also to spur
teeth.
See those terms for definition.
with
helical
skew
or
gears
Annular
Gear
lar
Toothed ringfor use in universal chucks and simiplaces. Teeth can be on any of the four faces althoughwhen
inside it is usually
called an internal gear.
Gears

Angular

"

"

Bevel

Gears

Gears cut on conical surfaces to

power with shafts at an angle to
each other. When
made for shafts at right
with
both
and
size
angles
gears of the same
often called "miter"
Teeth may
are
gears.
skew or herring
be either straight,
bone.
"

transmit

Gear
A gear with teeth on the side of rim. Used before
facilitiesfor cutting
bevel gears existed. Seldom
found now.

Crown

"

Eccentric Gears
Gears in
the shaft is not in the center.
be of almost any shape,oval,

or
Elliptical

"C)Helical

Gears

give

"

more

called "skew"

which

"

May
heart-shape, etc. Printing presses
usuallyhave good examples of this.
the face to
Gears having teeth at an angle across

pull. Also giveside

constant

thrust.

More

often

teeth.
Gears
Gears
double
angle. Made

Herring-bone
at

helical
Does

or

away

"

having teeth cut

by puttingtwo
gears together.

tooth
"skew"
with side or end

thrust.

GEARS

4SO

Continued

"

Gears

Intermittent
not

are

Gears

"

where

between.

the

On

the teeth

have

but

continuous

plain

faces
sur-

driven

gear
fit

to
concave
plain surfaces are
of the driver
the plain surface
and
wheel
is stationary while
driven

these

plain surfaces

Internal

Module

Gears

Metric

or

of teeth

Gear

"

pinion.
used

Quill Gears
Skew

Also

formed

Gears

See

"

system

of

making

by pins

work

skew

presenting
Worm

Gears
worm.

"

Teeth

so

Made

"

that

continuous

Spur
are

gears

Spur

the

as

metric

by

the

old

knobs

lantern

and

only

"

with

gears

together at

of bevel

spiral teeth
angle and do the

an

gears.

Wheels

cylinders

or

whose

across
parallel,having teeth
be
helical
can
straight,
herring bone.

are

Teeth

face.

Gears

"

run

shafts

gears,

with
gears
divided

or

Gears

Spur

set

on

Helical.

which

teeth

such

short

Spiral Gears

Staggered Tooth

ring or

millimeters

in

teeth

shell.

projectingpins
by
feeding devices.
or
pinions cut on a quillor sleeve.

some

Gears

"

gear.
teeth formed

with

in

of

in the

Gear

now

having

inside

diameter

Pitch

measurement.

number
Pin

French

"

Gears

"

the

in contact.

are

Gears

the

the

or

up

teeth

of

and

two

more

or

or

straighttooth spur
joints instead of

spaces

break

cut

angle

pull.
with

usuallycut

teeth
out

with

on

hob

to

be

driven

to fit the

worm.

by

GEARS

"Continued

Gears

Sprocket

Gear

Teeth

positivemotion.
using

angle.

pressure
"teeth.
Pitch

Gears,
of

of
in

next

tooth

from

Silver

"

sal.
univer-

sides
straight

to

tooth to

one

from

of

center

tooth

one

inch

of teeth per

Motion

the

center

center

of next

which

gives

to

of diameter.

positivebut
driven

An

"

but

driver

or

number

as

to

copper

moving

the

driver.

tooth

one

if desired.

prevent

to the

its

without

have

may

as

shown

made

Also

so

of

resolution

complete

motion

prevents

direction

The

alloy of

intermittent

wheel

in either

device

"

wheel.

parts, zinc

60

"

piece located alongsidea slidingmember

A cylindrical
pieceenveloping a stem and
to make

Sand

molding

parts, nickel

20

Molds

and

to

used

"

not

dried

out

or

that

of sand

made

Molds

baked

emery
grooves
emery

Dresser

up
a

wear.

stuffing-

"

grindingmachine

ing
hav-

covered

with

"

tool

Some

cloth.
to

for

pouring.

before

are

disks have

give cushions

under

spiral
the

cloth.

of pointed or
consisting

disks of hard

in

is moistened

steel disks which

Wheel

take

tightjoint.

Grinder, Disk

Grinder

parts.

20

Green

almost

now

of

center

the driven

box

only.

way

pitch line.

CO
Gland

is

has

rack

tooth

Geneva

Gib

one

for chain

B is a hook

direct line.

Diametral, number

German

regularand

running

curve

Chordal, distance

"

wheels

are
14^ degree pressure anglebut some
"stub"
with
as
a
20
tooth,
degrees

involute

An

Circular^ distance

along the

has

tooth, known

shorter

for

involute

The

older form

The

is the

which, meshing together,transmit

projections

The

"

Toothed

"

driving.A
tooth

451

metal

which

corrugated
reallybreak

of the grinding
pry off small particles
wheel
when
held against its rapidlyrevolving
or

surface.

452

GRINDING

MACHINE

GRINDING

MACHINE

Grinding Machine

"

"

Continued

Parts

453

of

Common
of
types of grindingwheels made
and
the
carborundum
are
alundum,
disk,ring,
emery, corundum,
saucer,
cup and cylinder. Disk and ringwheels are used on the
and
wheels
the thin edge; cup
on
periphery; saucer
cylinder
used
wheels
latter
The
the
end.
for surface
on
are
commonly
Wheels

Grinding

"

grinding.

Disk

mmm.
Cup
Ring

Saucer

Cylinder
Gripe

Local

Ground

joint

"

"

with
Ground

"

Gudgeon
from

for machine

name

Dish

clamp.

jointfinished by grindingthe two

and oil or by other abrasives.
A

emery
A connection
"

or

Local

pieceas

name

a cannon.

between
for

the

electric circuit

trunnion

or

parts together
and

bearingwhich

the

earth.

projects

GUIDE

454

LINER

Guide

Liner

tool for

"

for

work

HAMMER

"

in

use

liningup guides and

locomotive
heads.

cross

H
Half

Hut

"

nut

half is used
splitlengthwise. Sometimes
both halves clamp around
as
screw
lathe carriage.
is

which

in others

rides on screw,
in the half nut of a
and

Hammer

The

"

hammers
and

the ball peen,

are

cross

peen
so-called

ists*
types of machin-

common

as

peen,

The

the

riveting

engineer's and
have

hammers

cross

straight

shown.

peens.

Ball Peen

Cross

StraightPeen

Hammer,

Flatter

Blacksmith's

faced hammer

used

Peen

to

forgings. Is held on
struck by a helperwith
of

and

Bumping
Hammer,
buckets, etc.
Hammer,

by

hand

board

Drop

"

Homing

or

power
attached
to

pulleys. Others

and

use

falls

top of
a

For

closingseams

on

the
the
a

flatfaces
sur-

work

sledge.

large cans,

or
"monkey" or "drop" is raised
raised by a
by gravity. Sometimes
hammer
head
and running between

head

Hammer

or

"

"

smooth

belt.

HAMMER"

Helve

Hammer,

and

Lever

Hammer,
allows

Trip

Spring

the

the

Trips

"

is

there

the back

work

on

end

an

pivoted

arm

the hammer

while

anvil.

an

hammer

by

small

Comparatively

"

variety in the
Hand

in which

455

cam

lever

or

and

it to fall.

Hammer,
foot

TOOTH

applied at

power
and
strikes

the other

is at

hammer

Power

"

in the center

HUNTING

force

of

blow.

This

hammer

giving

is controlled

great

by pressure

of

lever.

on

Wheels,
clutch

Clutched

which

accidental

wheels

thrown

be

can

Hand

"

of wheel

movement

milling machines

and

by

out

connected
knob

similar

shaft

otherwise

or

disturb

will not

to

by

that

so

setting. Used

on

places.

Shaft hanger to be fastened

Hanger, Drop
to ceilingwith bearing held in lower end.
"

Post

Hanger,

to

Hardie

fits

bed

The

"

hole

of

charcoal

will soak
Worm

Hindley
for

Not
,

ing
fasten-

structures.

cutting chisel which

the

anvil

and

forms

the

cutting off work.

steel

adapted

plates by using

armor

then

and

work

vertical

turned

gas
small

to

on

so

it

work.

Worm.

chain

with

used

passing through pulley block

hoisting.
Prill

Holder,

revolved

anchor
A

"

Device

"

lathe

by

Twin

Hooks,

or

and

be

Hunting
than

for

load

various

face

or

Double

"

punch

master

holding

chuck,

Sister

allows

and
to

the top.

Hoist

"

the

over

See

"

Chain

Hoist,

Hub

in from

in

tool in

hardening of

surface

other

or

Blacksmith's

lower

Harveyizing

posts

"

for

Shafting hanger

"

to

be

drill

stationary while

place.

Not

hook

crane

carried

on

used

in

making

forms

to

which

work

is

drill chuck.

which

resembles

an

either side.

jewelry dies

articles of

for

gold

fancy

and

silver

bossing,
em-

are

struck.
Tooth

"

its mate

togetherall

An

extra

in order

the time.

tooth
to

in

prevent

wheel
the

to
same

give

it

teeth

one

more

from

tooth

meshing,

IDLER

4S6

Idler

or

Idler

Incandescent
a

See

Pulley
"

"

"

JIG

Pulley,Idler.
heated to white heat

substance

as

in the bulb of

lamp.

of
Indexingby combination of two settings
Indexing,Compound
index,either by addingor subtracting.
Indexingwith the index plategearedto the
Indexing,Differential
"

"

thus givinga differentialmotion that allows the indexing

spindle,
circle of holes and with the index crank
be
done
with one
to
turned in the same
as in plainindexing.
direction,
head of
Indexingwork by direct use of dividing
Indexing,Direct
"

millingmachine.
Indicator,Lathe Test

with multiplying
levers which
Instrument
of
truth
Used for
work.
variations in the
revolving
slight

shows

"

in lathe

work
setting

or

face-plate.

on

Plain Indicator
Watch
Motor

Induction

"

A motor

which

the air without contact.

Jack, Hydraulic

"

pumping

Device

oil or other

runs

Dial

by the magneticpullthrough

motor.
Usuallya constant-speed

for raising
weightor exertingpressure by
liquidunder a pistonor ram.

screw
Jack, Leveling Small jacks(usually
jacks)
for leveling
and holdingwork
on
planer beds
and
similar
places. Practicallyadjustable
blocking.
for elevatingweights by
Device
Jack, Screw
"

"

means

of

Shaft
Plates

screw.

See Shaft,Jack.
Old name
for screw
platesand in
the
thread
one
as
was
a true
cases
jammed instead of cut.
many
while drilling,
ings
A device for holdingwork
having bushJig,Drill
rectly
through which the drill is guided so that the holes are cor-

Jack
Jam

"

"

"

located in the piece. Millingand planingjigs(commonly

hold work
while it is machined
called fixtures)
in the milling
Parts
machine
in
and planer.
produced
jigsand fixtures are

interchangeable.

JOINT

KEY

"

457

Joint,Universal

"

freedom

allows

stillconveys
of them can
any

Journal

Box

Kerf

The

Key

"

The

"

part of

Shaft connection which

in any direction and
Most
motion.
positive

transmit

angleup

to

bearingin which

cut
slot or passageway
pieceused to fasten any

by

power

through

45 degrees.
the shaft revolves.

saw.

hollow objectto a shaft or rod.

to shafts;or
fasteningpulleysand fly-wheels
wheels
locomotive
axles.
to their
driving
Keys may be square,
round or other shape and fasten in any way.
Are
rectangular,
and
of
shaft.
run
usuallyrectangular
lengthwise
"

The

Usually appliedto

Barth

invented
key was
several years ago by Carl G. Barth.
It is simply a rectangular
key with

Key,

This

"

one-half of both sides beveled off at

key need not fit
45 degrees. The
the
a
s
tightly,
pressure tends to drive
it better into its seat.
As a feather
angular
key this key has been used in a great many cases to replacerectfeather keys which have given trouble. It has also been
used to replace
keys which were sheared off under heavy load.
for removing
with taperedsides,
A flat pieceof steel,
Key, Center
"

taper shank

drillsfrom

similar work.

drillspindle
or

Key,

Lewis

Lewis

key invented by Wilfred

Its posi20
tion
years ago.

"

about

is such that itis subjected

to

pression
com-

only.
End
Is fittedinto a shaft by
Round
end millinga seat into which the key is
Where
secured.
a key of some
lengthis
fixed in the shaft and a member
arranged
it is called a feather or
to slide thereon
feather key.

Key,
^

C
L

Key Seater

"

pulleysor

Cz

Machine

for

"

cuttingkeyways

in shafts

or

hubs

of

gears.
The taper key is made with
without head.
The taper is commonly
foot.
inch
or
i
^:j
per

Key, Taper
and

"

semi-circular key
used in various kinds of shafts,studs,
It is fitted in place by merely
etc.
sinkinga seat with a shank mill such
the Whitney cutter.
as

Key,

Woodruff

"

KEYW

458

AY

"

PARTS

LATHE

in which the key

square or rectangular,
groove, usually
in which a "feather" slides. The groove in both the
is
shaft and piecewhich is to be fastened to it,or guided on it,
called a keyway.

Keyway

"

is driven

Knurling

Land

or

See

"

Nurling.

flutes or

Space between

"

grooves

in

drills,
taps,

reamers

or

other tools.

lap each other. To the distance a

before opening its port when
valve is central
valve must
move
of lead,iron or copper
To
tool usuallyconsisting
seat.
on
a
with abrasive for fine grinding. See Lap, Lead.
chai^ged
For preparingthe ends of band-saws
with bands for
Lap Cutter
brazing. Uses millingcutters.
This prepares the laps of band-saws
by grinding.
Lap Grinder
Lap, Lead
Usuallya bar of lead or covered with lead,a triflesmaller
the
fine abrasive is used
than
hole to be ground. Emery or some
which givesa fine surface.
Laps are sometimes held in the hand
held stationary.Also
and
the work
in a machine
or
are
run
of
consists at times
lead-covered disk, revolvinghorizontally,
a
which is used for grindingflat surfaces. Very similar in action
to a potter's
wheel.
located that
Lathe, Double Spindle Has two working spindles,
so
one
givesa much largerswing than the other,and both can be
used to advantage. Especially
good for repairshops.
The
Lathe, Engine
ordinaryform of lathe with lead screw, power
feed,etc.
Lap

"

Appliedto

seams

which

"

"

"

"

"

Lathe,Engine
1.
2.

3.
4.

Rear

bearing.

20.

Back-gear case.
Cone
pulley.
Face-gear guard.

5. Front

"

bearing.

Parts of
Cross-feed

21.

Cross-powerfeed.

22.

Half-nut

handle.

23.

Regular

power

6. Face

plate.

24. Feed
25. Gear

7. Live
8. Dead

center.

26. Hand

center.

9. Tail

reverse.

feed.

27. Front apron.

28. Rear apron,

10.

29. Lead

screw.

II.

Tailstock slide.

30.

Feed

rod.

12.

Locking bolts.

31. Feed
32. Feed

box.

14.

Tailstock

15. Tailstock
16.

Steady rest.

,17. Tool
18.

pinion.
hand

post.

Compound

19. Cross-slide.

rest.

wheel.

feed.

stud.

spindle.
lock.
Tail-spindle

13. Tailstock base.

screw.

gears.

Change gear handle.

Compound gears.
35. Change-gearhandle.
36. Change-gear handle.
37. Change-gearhandle.
33.
34.

38. Bed.

LATHE

"

ENGINE

459

"
o
pq

"

12;
t"

O
w

"

46o

LATHE

APRON

Lathe

461

SPINNING

LATHE,
Apron,

Reed

Parts of

-^

1.

Cross-feedscrew.

16. Clutch

2.

Cross-slides.

3.

Wing

17. Clutch levers.

18. Pinion.

4.

Cross-feed

of saddle.

5. Cross-feed
6. Cross-feed

7. Rack.
8. Power

pinion.

19. Gear

gear.

20.

handle.

20A.
-

cross-feed and control.

ring.

in train.

Feed-clutch
Clutch

handle.

spreader.

21.

Hand

22.

Carriagehandle.

pinion.

in train.
Pinion for cross-feed.

23. Lead
24. Rack

1 1.

Main

drivingpinion.

24A. Rack

pinionknob.
pinion.

12.

Bevel

gear.

25. Feed

rod.

pinion.

26,

9. Gear
10.

13. Bevel
14. Feed-

Upper-halfnut

nut
27. Lower-half
28. Half -nut cam.

worm.

wheel.

15. Feed-worm

screw.

Cross-feed is from bevel pinion13, throughgears 12, 11, 9,

wheel 15,
Regular feed is through worm
14, worm
4.
10, and
is through
clutch 16,pinion
18,gears 19 and 24A. Hand movement
handle 22, pinion21, 19 and 24A.

Note:

"

So made that bed can be lengthened

or shortened.
there is a gap near
the
bed is made longer,
head,increasing

Lathe, Extension
When

"

work.
swing for face-plate
Brass workers' lathe havinga "fox" or chasing
bar for
cuttingthreads. The bar has a "leader" which acts as a nut on
short lead screw
"hob"
of the desired pitch (or half the
or
a

Lathe, Fox

"

hob is geareddown
the rightfeed for the thread.
back head.

pitchif the

to

i) and carries a tool alongat

Sometimes

has

turret

on

the

Has V-shaped gap in front of head stock to increase

work.
face-plate
Gun
For boringand turningcannons
and rapid-fire
Lathe,
gims.
For
and
o
ff
steel
turning
Lathe, Ingot
boring,
cutting
ingots.
Bench
made
for
Precision
lathe
small
and very
especially
Lathe,

Lathe, Gap

swing

"

for
"

"

"

die,jigor model work.

Lathe, Projectile. Simply a heavy lathe for turningup
accurate

"

has attachment

Sometimes

for

projectiles*

pointingthem.

Especially
designedfor turningpulleys,can turn
them crowning or straight.
For turning
mill,steelmill and calendar
rolling
Lathe, Roll Turning
Lathe, Pulley

"

"

rolls.

Lathe, Screw

Cutting
"

Having

lead

screw

and

change gears

for

cuttingthreads.
For turning
Lathe, Shafting
longshafts or similar work.
A simple lathe with no mechanically
actuated
Lathe, Speed
"

"

or

riage
car-

attachments.

For
forming sheet metal into various hollow
Lathe, Spinning
Done
all
circular.
by forcingagainsta form of some
shapes,
ended
roimd
kind (witha single
tool)while it is revolving.
"

LATHE

462

Lathe, Stone Turning

similar

or

"

MOLD

LOAM

designedfor turningstone
Specially

"

columns

shapes.

multiple tool holder which revolves.

This is the turret.
Usuallytakes placeof tail or foot stock but
not
always. Usually has automatic devices for turningturret
Turret

Lathe,

Having

"

work.
feedingtools against

for

and sometimes

Name
given one type of BuUard boringmill on
of a side head which acts very much
like a lathe carriage
account
of work that would ordinarily
and does a largevariety
be done on
lathe.
of
the face-plate a

Lathe,

Vertical

"

Lathe, Watchmaker's

"

very small

lathe.
precision

advance made by one turn of a screw.

Often confused
imless in the case of a
pitch of thread but not the same
singlethread. With a double thread the lead is twice as much

Lead

The

"

with
.

Level

pitch.

the

as

with

a
glass tube or vial containinga liquid
it. The tube is usuallyground on an
fill
quite
that bubble can
Alcohol is geneasilyget to the center.
erally
used as it does not freeze at ordinary
temperatures.

Instrument

"

does

which
so

arc

not

Level, Engineers'
"

Level

distant
leveling

for

Level,Pocket

mounted

on

tripodand having telescope

objects.

Small level to be carried in

"

Level,Quartering
"

A tool for

pocket.
wheels to
driving
testing

see

if crank-

level
90 degreesapart. The
has a forked end and with the anglesshown.
the
Placingthis on the crank-pinand lining
edge with the center of axle should bring

pins are

set

If the
the bubble of level in the center.
obtained
the
other
wheel
result
is
on
same
the crank-pins
are
apart.
90 degrees

f-

""'"

""'

"

"*''*'*

^
-^

levers

"

crum

and
has

'LLine

^.1

Shaft

Liner

"

"

Weight

pivotedor

bearing on

pointscalled fulcrums.
three classes as shown.

V"ight 1

Til

Arms

Divided into
First has fulor
bearingpointbetween power
tween
weight, second has weight beand
third
fulcrum and
power
crum.
between
weight and fulpower

Shaft,Line.
piecesa desired distance;also called
piece for separating
-

See

shim.
Live Center
Loam

make

of

Center, Live.

Made
with a mixture of coarse
sand and loam into a
which
is
brick
other framework
to
over
or
plaster
spread
Used
the mold.
on
largecastingsto produce a smoother

Mold

sort

See

"

"

finish than

is to be had

with

green

sand.

MACHINE

MILLING

463

Machinists'

Clamp

Electro

Magnet

"

"

See

Clamp.
Usually a bar of

iron

having coils

of insulated

Permanent
wire around it which carry current.
magnets
hardened steel with no wire or current around them.
Mandrel
See Arbor.

are

of

"

Marking

Machine

For

"

stamping trade-marks,patent dates,etc.,

Stamps are usuallyon rolls and

rolled into work.
A die made
standard and used only for reference
Die
Master
purp"oses or for threadingtaps.
Plate
Master
See Plate,Master.
Master
A tap cut to standard dimensions and used only for
Tap
dies.
reference purposes or for tappingmaster
Match
Board
The board used to hold patterns,half on each side,
while being molded on some
types of molding machines.
sired
a
Practically
largebench caliperof any deMeasuring Machine
form to measure
work such as taps, reamers, gages, etc.
See End Measuring Rods.
Measuring Rods
on

barrels,etc.

cutlery,gun
"

"

"

"

"

"

MiUing

Cutters

MILLING

"

See

Cutters,Milling.

MACHINE

"

UNIVERSAL

"

MILWAUKEE

MILLING

464

MACHINE

MillingMachine^

Universal

1.

Column.

34.

2.

Knee.

2$.
a6.

3. Saddle.
4. Swivel

5. Work
6. Over
7. Arm

Continued

"

carriage.

27.
28.

Uble.
arm.

Parts of

"

Elevatingshaft.
Elevatingscrew
(telescopic).
levers.
Saddle-clamp
Knee-damp levers.
Fixed vertical feed trip.
blocks.
Vertical feed-trip

29.
30. Door.

brackets

10.

(arborsupports.)
Arm
braces (harness).
Knee clamp (for arm
braces).
head.
Spiraldividing

11.

Tailstock.

33. Change gears.

34. Index plates.

12.

lever.
Starting

35- Vise.

8.
9.

18.

38. Driving pulley.

39. Feed

box.
Cross and vertical feed handle.
41. Table-feed handle.
42. Clutch-drive collar.
43. Interlockinglever to prevent

rod for arbor.

Arm-damp

32.

37. Universal chuck.

Speed-changinglever.
Feed-changinglever.

17. Draw-in

Dog

Change-gear bracket

36. Swivel base.

13. Oil tubes.

14. Cutter arbor.
15.
16.

40.

screws.

19. Table stops.

Table-feed tripblock.
20.
21.

Fixed table-feed

22.

Steady

the engagement

trips.

rest.

23. Cross- feed

driver.

31.

feed at

one

of

more^than

time.

screw.

MillingMachine

Has table
cutter.
revolving
to feed againstcutter.
as
carryingwork and moving
Has
table and feeds so arranged
MillingMachine,Universal
that all classes of plane,circular,
index,or other milling
helical,
with
be
done.
index
Equipped
centers, chuck, etc.
may
Has a verticalspindle
for carryingcutter.
MillingMachine, Vertical

Operatingtool

"

for

"

is a
it so
work

"

MillingMachine
1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

Spindledrawbar cap.
Back-gear pullpin.
pulley.
Spindle-driving
Spindlehead.
pinionand
Back-gearsliding
stem

box.

Spindleupper

6.

Spindle lower box.

Spindle head bearing.

8. Head-feed

9. Idler
10.
11.

12.

13.
14.

-5.
1.
'.

Vertical
18.

"

Parts of

dogs,rightand
Feed-trip

21.

Feed-dutch

22.

Carriage.

24.

gear.

25.
26.
27.
28.

pulleys.

Rotary attachment
Rotary attachment
Rotary attachment
cone.
Feed-driving

29. Feed

Spindle.
Rotary attachment.
Rotary attachment
dog and lever.

30. Universal

Rotaryattachment
Rotary attachment

31.

feed gears.
hand
wheel.
feed rod.

bracket.

joint.

Telescopicfeed shaft.

feed-trip32. Drivingcone.
feed clutch.
base.

table oil pans.

Rotary attachment binder.
and

lever.

dutch.
Table-feed screw.

Standard.

Table

left.

19. Feed- tripplate.

Cross-feed screw.
20.

23. Feed

gear.

6.

7.

"

33.

Drivingpulley.

34.

Knee-elevatingshaft.

35.

Knee-elevating
telescopicscrew.

36. Face of standard.

37. Base.

MILLING

MACHINE

"Continued

,r^

MILLING

MACHINE

"

VERTICAL

"

BECKER

465

MITER

466

PAWL

"

A bevel of 45 degrees.
mold consists of the cope and the drag or nowel,with
sand
inside
the
molded to pattern and ready to pour.
Board
flask to keep sand
Mold
The
board used to put over
a
used to clamp
when being handled and sometimes
from falling
when
molds
on
together.
fastening
Ovens
MufflerB
of clay,where direct heat is
or
furnaces,usually

Miter

"

Mold

The

"

"

"

required.

not

Belt

.Muley
Muley

See Belt,Muley.
See Shaft,Muley.

"

Shaft

"

N
Tool

Recking
work.
Rose

end
Rowel

turninga groove

or

neck

in

pieceof

shop work appliedto the business end

threaded

The

for

In

"

Tool

"

of

"hog

nose

Same

"

end

of tools or things.
lathe or milling-machine
spindleor the
drill'* or similar tool.
of

Drag.

as

of
of depressions
rolling

various kinds into metal

by
pressedagainstthe
revolvinghardened
The
work.
designon the nurl will be reproducedon the work.
used
to give a roughenedsurface for turninga nut or
Generally
hand.
screw
by
The

Hurling

"

the

of

use

Hut, Cold

steel wheels

Punched

punched from flatbar stock. The hole

size before tapping.
A nut formed hot in a forging
machine.
Castle
the face to admit
A nut with slot across
A nut

"

is usuallyreamed

Hut, Hot Pressed

Hut, Castellated
cotter

Hut

or

"

pin for

Machine

"

For

lockingin place.
and tappingnuts
drilling
cutting,

from

bar

rod.

or

Hut

"

to

Tapper

"

For

hole
tapping

in nuts.

Hut, Wing

"

nut

operatedby

commonly used
quick clampingaction

where

very

Huts

hand

and
lightand

is required.

See Bolts.

"

O
of a reverse
finish or beadingconsisting
curve.
Appliedto work of any class,wood or iron.
One
volt will force one
Ohm
The unit of electrical resistance.
ohm.
of
one
through a resistance
ampere
but
curved
not
round, as a circle which has
Oval
Continuously
flattened.
less
been more
or

Ogee

"

Name

given to

"

"

Pawl

"

for

hingedpiecewhich engages teeth in

moving it or for arrestingits motion.
A

gear, rack

Sometimes

or

ratchet
used

to

tEENING
a piecesuch
designate

as

PLANER

"

467

reversing
dog on

planeror milling

machine.

Peening

The

"

of
stretching

Used

surface.

metal by hanmieringor rolling

the
babbitt to fit tightly
in a tearing,
to
the short or concave
stretching
side,etc.
stretch

to

bars by
straighten

Dipping into

acid solution to soften scale and

Solution of three or four parts of water to one of
sand.
remove
is
a
cid
used for iron. For brass use five parts water to
sulphuric
of
acid.
nitric
one

Pickling Castings
"

Pin,

Collar

"

member

and

collar

pin is driven tightinto

adapted

roll,gear,

to carry a
end.
outer

a
or

machine
other

frame

part

at

or

the

It differs from the collar stud

in not havinga thread at the inner end.
drilled throughthe end for a cotter
When
it
pin is known as a fulcrum pin,as it is
then especially
suited for carryingrocker
etc.

arms,
Screw

Pin, Dowel,

plaintaper

Dowel

"

and

or
customarilymade straight,
holes.
When
appliedin such
that it is impossibleto remove
them

pins are

fitted into reamed

positionin a mechanism
by drivingout, they are

threaded

sometimes

and

screwed

into

place.
Pin,Taper

Taper pinsfor dowels and other purposes

"

manufactured

with

taper of i inch

to the

6 inches long,
the diameters
end of the sizes in the series

about

regularly

are

foot and

from

f to
large
rangingfrom
at the

for
-^V^o ii inch. The reamers
so
proportionedthat each
by about i inch.

these pins are

size "overlaps"the next smaller size

Pickling Forgings
Puttingin bath
to remove
water
2$ parts boiling
"

minutes.
Pitch

Rinse in

distance from

The

"

tooth
screws

not

water
boiling

of one screw
thread,or gear
In
the center of the next.
but
thread the pitchis the same
as the lead
single

serration

or

with a
otherwise.

the

of i part sulphuricacid to
be done in 10
scale. Can
and they will dry before rusting.

of any

center

kind

Pillow

to

Blocks

"

Low

shaft

foundations,or
supports.
on

connectingrod;term used
with agricultural
implements.

Pitman

"

Planchet

Blank

"

beingfinished
coins
Planer

"

table
is

piece of metal punched

Such as
by further work.

commonly in
out

the

or

other

connection

of a sheet
blanks from

before
which

made.

are

producingplanesurfaces on metals. Work

platenwhich runs back and forth under the

For
or

more

ing
restbearings,

floors

stationary.

is held on
tool which

468

PLANER

"

Continued

FLANER"Conlinued

469

:7S

U-^^

r^lnuiii. J^^ I 111

cSc3"G

c"

vo

"oo

t^oo

6^ 6

"

eo

4"

"oo

"i.o6

o^

"

eo

4"

"o

PLANER

470

Cotainued

"

index centers
for planing. Similar to
to hold work
m
plainmillingachine centers.

Planer

Centers

"

pairof

planerwith a table for carryingwork under

from
vertical spindle.
two-arme"l knife swung
a
a
horizontally
of the planer
machine
Very similar to a vertical spindle-milling
of
Excellent
for
wind
lumber.
out
or
takingwarp
type.
A
Side
Planer, Open
planer with only one upright or housing,
which takes the place of the
supportingan overhangingarm
Planer,Daniels

Wood

"

"

usual

rail. Usefiu in

cross

planingwork

wide

too

to

go in the

ordinaryplaner.
circles such
stationary
enginevalve motion.

Planer,Radius
or

planingparts of

For

"

as

links for locomotive

Planer,Rotary
Reallya largemillingmachine in which
is carried past a rotary cutter by the platen.
"

Planer

Tools

See

"

Tools,Planer.

Planer,Traveling Head
tool

over

moves
"

faced hammers

Plate,Master

in which

work

is

and
stationary

it.

or

"

Planer

"

of sheet metal by hammering with smooth

finishing

The

Planishing

the work

their equivalents.

steel

plateservingas

model

fixtures and
jigs,

by which

other

tools

holes in
are

rately
accu-

located for boring. In the illustration

the pieceto be bored is shown
do welled to the master
plate which is
mounted
the face plateof thp lathe.
on
In the master
platethere are as many
holes as are to be bored in the work,
and
distances are
the center
correct.
The
is
plate located on a center plug
the lathe spindle,and after a
fitting
hole
is bored in the work, the
given
master
plateand work are shifted and
relocated with the center plug in the
hole in the plate and the correnext
sponding
hole in the work is then bored out.
This is one
of the
methods employed by the toolmaker on precision
accurate

most

work.
Platen
Plumb

"

work

holdingtable

Bob, Mercury

weight in

small

"

Plumb

on

miller,
planeror drill.

bob

filled with

mercury

to

secure

space.

Potter's Wheel
Consists of
Probably the oldest machine known.
vertical shaft with a disk mounted
a
at
horizontally the top.
The potter puts a lump of clay in the
center, revolves the wheel
with his foot or by power,
and shapes the
de"

-.ired. See Lap, Lead

ork.

for modern

revolvingclay as
of this in machine
application

PRESS

"

for
cleans
Usually
A

"

metal work.
round.

Press,

Cabbaging

Press, Coining

press

forcingbroaches
out

or

forms

through holes
holes that

compressing loose sheet metal

handlingand remelting.
making metal planchetsfrom which

are

scrap

in
not

into

for

For

"

471

For

"

form

convenient

PUNCH

heavy punching or swaging.

For

T^esa, Blanking
Press, Broaching

"

coins

are

stamped.
Action

Press, Double

"

driven

other, each

Has

by

ram
telescoping
independent cam

or

one

inside the

ram

that

motion
and
f
or
follows the other
performstwo operations each revolution
of the press.
Fit
See Fit.
Press
For forcingone
Press, Forcing
pieceinto another,such as a rod
brass into a rod.
metal by subjecting
For forging
it to heavy pressure
Press, Forging
formers
between
dies.
or
For closing
side seams
on
Press, Homing
piecedtinware.
Inclinable
One
be
in vertical or
that
used
inclined
can
Press,
an

so

one

"

"

"

"

"

position.
is

'

Heavier work is done

foot
hand
or
by
press.
with perfectlystraight
sides so as to
Press, Straight-sided Made
work.
for
and
rigidity heavy
givegreat strength
Foot
Press, Pendulum
press having a pendulum like lever for
applying power to the ram.
Has
Profiling Machine
rotary cutter that can be made to follow
outline or pattern in shaping small parts of machines.
Practically
vertical
machine.
a
milling
semicircular
Graduated
Protractor, Bevel
protractor having a
for
off
measuring
angles.
pivotedarm
A means
of lockingor unlocking two parts of machinery.
puU-pin
slides gears in or out of mesh
and at others operates
Sometimes
a
slidingkey which engages any desired gear of a number on
stud.
Loose
Pulley, Callow or Guide
pulleymounted in movable frames
to guide and tighten
belts.
Idler
A
Pulley,
pulleyrunning loose on a shaft and drivingno
as
a "loose
same
machinery,merelyguidingthe belt. Practically

Press,

Screw

Pressure

"

appliedby

screw.

than

in this way

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

pulley."
Pulley running looselyon shaft doing no work.
Carries belt when
not drivingtight(or fast,or working) pulley.
is
Used on countershafts,
machine
planers,grinders,
etc., where
Belt is then on
idle paort of time.
the loose pulley but when
shifted to tightpulleythe machine
See Belt Shifter,
starts up.
Friction Clutch.
A piece cut out of sheet stock by punch and die; the
Punching

Pulley, Loose

"

"

same

Punch,
belt

blank.

as

Belt

"

Hollow,round

lacing.

or

elliptical
punch

for

holes
cutting

for

QUADRANT

472

REAMERS

"

Q
A pieceforminga quarter circle. A segment
Quadrant
The swinging plate
carryingthe change gears in the
"

of

circle.

feed train

the end of the lathe.

at

Return

Quick

give

return

"

table,ram

mechanism
employed in various machine tools to
other member
or
a rapid movement
duringthe

non-cuttingstroke.

or

hollow shaft which

pulleysor clutches. When
shaft revolve together.

revolves
clutches

Quill
"

on

are

solid
closed

shaft,carrying
the

quflland

R
Rack

with teeth so that a

mesh with it to convert
gear can
rotary
motion
into reciprocating
vice versa.
or

Rack

"

stripcut

Cuts r^Iarly
line.
spaced teeth in a straight
mil
tool is either a
hug cutter or a singlepoint tool.
Cutter

Ratchet

"

"

gaged by
ratchet or
otherwise.

Cutting

with triangular
shaped teeth adapted to be en"
either
which
pawl
imparts intermittent motion to the
else locks it againstbackward
when operated
movement
gear

Ratchet

Drill

when

the

"

Device for
handle cannot

revolution.

pawl

ratchet wheel
be turned
that it can
so
teeth.

drops into

drill

turninga

make
a
plete
comthe handle
the barrel
on

on

one

or

more

A groove below the normal surface of work.

On flat work
slide to run
allow
to
tool
to
into
run
as
a
o
r
a
planer,
groove
cross-head
In
over
a
as
on
a guide.
boring a groove inside a

Recess

"

hole.

If

longit is often

called

chamber.

"

or
removed
to
Relieving The removing of,or the amount
reduce friction back of cuttingedge of a drill,
etc.
reamer, tap,
Also appliedto other than cuttingtools. See "backing off."

Relief

"

REAMERS
tool to enlargea hole alreadyexisting,
whether a cast
cored hole or one
made
or
by a drill or boringbar. Reamers
of many
kinds and shape as indicated below.
are
Usually a
the
t
ouch
hole.
to a
reamer
finishing
gives

Reamer

"

"

for making the

reamer
-Usually a fluted or rose
portionof a ball joint. It is considered advisable to space
the teeth irregularly
this tends to prevent chattering.
as
used by boiler-makers,
A reamer
Bridge Reamer
bridgebuilders,
has
a straight
ship-builders,
etc.,
body from A to B and tapered
Ball

Reamer

"

female

"

end

from

taper shank
drill.

to

and

C.
can

This

has

reamer

be used

in

an

air

REAMERS

Continued

"

473

cz(C"
Reamer
Center reamers, or countersinks
the ends of shafts,
for centering
etc.,are usually
60
made
degreesincluded angle.

Center

Flat

(=1^

"

Fluted

Chttcking

cn:

Reamer

"

Chucking

reamers

The
used in turret machines.
Fluted
relieved
has
teeth
fluted
plain,
type
the whole
length;while the rose
the end as there
cuts only on
reamer
Rose
Where
clearance.
is no
peripheral
in
used in the turret snould be mounted
possiblereamers
floating
holders which allow the reamer
to line up
to play sidewise sufficiently
with the hole in the work which may
be so drilled or bored as not to
true priorto the reaming operation.
run
perfectly
are

Chucking
with

Reamer
three

(Three-groove) Spiralfluted chucking reamers

four grooves
are
employed for enlargingcored
"

and

They are also made with

"^* passages through them and in this
form
are
adapted to operatingin
holes, etc.

?T^^^?^"C^""

Lk^JJ^J^^^O^h^

steel.
Flat

A reamer
Reamer
made of a flat pieceof steel. Not much
used except on brass work and then usuallypacked with wooden
used
not much
are
stripsto fit the hole tightly.Flat reamers
except for taper work.
"

Half-round

Reamer

"

Used

considerablyin

classes of work,

some

when
in small sizes and taper work
particularly
taper is slight.
much
used in largesizes. Somewhat
Not
resembles the "hogdrill" in generalappearance
nose
except that this is always quite

short

on

cutting
edge.
Hand

Straight

Threaded

enlargeand
finish a hole produced by drilling,
boring,etc. The cut should be light
Reamer

"

Reamers

and
the reamer
for hand
reamers
held straightto avoid
ruiningthe
has
threaded end reamer
hole. The
in
fine
thread
assist
to
a
drawing the
into the work.
The
reamer
spiral
is cut left-hand to prevent its
reamer
drawing into the hole too rapidly.
Reamers
taperedat the
are
slightly

End

Spiral

point to enable them to enter.

to
Pipe Reamer
(Briggs) Pipe reamers
of
the Briggs standard taper
J-inch
out
foot
used
for
are
reaming
per
the
work
with
pipe
priorto tapping
"

^3"

tap.

REAMERS

474

Continued

Shell reamers
Shell Reamer
have taper
holes to fitthe end of an arbor on which
they are held in the chucking machine.
and
They are made with both straight
f
lutes.
spiral
"

Shell Reamer
on

the

(Rose)
ohly as

Rose

"

end

cut

reamers

there is

no

eral
periph-

clearance.
curate
They are very acholes.
The
tools for finishing
with taper
shell* reamers
made
are
holes to fit an arbor for holdingthem
in the turret machine.

Taper

For finishing
reamers
are
taper holes two or more
used.
The
is often providedwith
roughing reamer
nicked or steppedteeth to break up the
also made
are
chip. Taper reamers
the taper is
with spiralteeth. Where
the spiralshould be left-hand to
slight
Roughing
from
drawing in too
prevent the reamer
fast;where the taper is abrupt the teeth,
if cut with right-hand
spiral,will help
Finishing
the
hold the reamer
to the cut and make

Reamer

"

sometimes

Taper

Reamer

Pin

"

satisfactory.
operationmore
made
Standard taper pin reamers
are
size

and each
series will overlap the next
by about one-half inch.

Taper
e3s

Reamer

-j^inch

Reamers
have
a taper
taper pins

(Locomotive)
"

for locomotive
of

J-inch
in

the
size smaller

foot

taper per

per foot.

Detachable rests capableof beingclampedto brass lathe

to
any desired point and usuallyarranged to give motion
tool in two ways; across
diameter
the bed to reduce
or
cut-ofif,
and with the bed for turning. Invented by Henry Maudsley.
Rheostat
An adjustable
resistance box so that part of the current
of
the motor.
be cut out
can
Riddle
and
Name
given to a sieve used in foundries for siftings

Rests,Slide
bed

"

at

"

"

for the molds.

Riffle

Name

"

given a small

fileused

by die

sinkers and

on

similar

work.
Rivet
A pin for holdingtwo or more
platesor piecestogether. A
head is formed
end when
on
one
made; the other end is upset
after the rivet is put in placeand.draws the riveted members
close
"

together.

RIVETS

475

SAW

"

D:

Rivets

0=

A
B
C

D
E

It

F
G

dx

Head
Machine
Cone
Head
Wheel
Head
Oval Countersunk
Globe
Head
Head
Round

"

"

"

"

"

"

Flat Head

H"

a
^

Roller

Head

Bevel

"

Wagon-Box Head.

Machine

Rivet

Head

Countersunk

"

K"

(t

Head

Truss

"

Head

Bearing

making rivets
Bearing.

For

"

See

"

metal rods.

from

the
holes
end for measuringthroughpulley
and in similar places.

Rule,

Hook

Rule

"

with

hook

on

layingout key-seatson shaft or in hubs.

in casting. Used
Graduated
to allow for shrinkage
Rule, Shrink
be
metal
varies
with
to
cast.
and
by pattern-makers
dency
Run
or
reaming when the tool shows a tenApplied to drilling
direct path. Caused by one
to leave the straight
or
lipor

Rule, Key-seat

For

"

"

"

cuttingedge being less sharp than

lip leads the other,or from uneven

the

other,beingground so one
of material being

hardness

drilled.

Running

Joint

Rust

SlidingFit

or

See Fits.

mixed
of cast-iron turnings
jointmade by application

"

"

with sal-ammoniac
and
become
a solid body.

sulphurto

cause

the

turningsto

rust and

S
of iron leftin the hearth when
The mass
for repairs.

Salamander
blown out
"

Sand Blast
desired.

Sanding

Machine

and

Saw,

Belt

"

sand.

Band

guided

"

"

in which
machine
wheels covered with

woodwork

hose

is finished

as

by

sandpaper.

Endless belt of some

strong fabric,chargedwith glue
For sandpapering
wood held in hand or by clamps.
metal
Continuous
edge and
band, toothed on one
sionally
rolls. Mostly used
on
woodwork, but occain
metal work, especially European shops.

between
on

furnace is

is blown by compressedair througha

to clean castings,
stonework,etc.

of rolls or

means

Sanding

Sand
Used

"

SCREW

476
Saw

Bench,
for

saw

Saw, Cold

Uniyenal

Bench

"

which

on

is

lumber

broughtto

the

etc.
dadoing,mitering,
ripping,
cross-cutting,

generallyused
beingoccasionally
employed.

For

"

Uiough not

sawing metal.
always,band saws

Circular

are

saws

for cutting
Close-toothed saw
in
hand
metal. Usually held
a
frame but power hack saws
now
are
in
common
shops.
becomingvery

Saw,

/L
Scaif

TOOLS

MACHINE

Hack

"

r4ltt:::3i
"

The

bevel

edge formed

on

pieceof

which

metal

is to be

lap-welded.
SCREW

MACHINE
Box

TOOLS

The cutters
in this
Tool, Bushing
tool are placed with edges radial to
the stock and may be adjustedto turn
the required diameter by the screws
"

in the

in

rear.

turned
cutters

Tool, Roughing
over

the work

"

and

also

are

well

on

priorto

^^

rest

supported

material

supported

jaws and

in and
adjustable

the tool

the
out

body.

inverted
This tool has one or more
cutters
the
material.
with cuttingedges tangent to
the size
The
back rest is bored out
the screw
other piece is to be turned
or
and the cutter
the end
of the
turns
piece to size before it enters the back
serted
Sometimes
rest.
a
pointing tool is inend
in the shank for finishing
the
of the work.
"

The

by which
the drill.

collar

"

The
tool is

"

of
lengthwise

as

is split
and

Tube

as

in this box

Drill Holder

Feed

therefore be
to size.

Finishing

back
by adjustable

Box

is

must

and accurate

Tool,

as

stock

bushing and

very true
Box

The

der
end of the drill hol-

providedwith
the

holder

clamp

is closed

screw-machine
feed tube or feed finger
is closed
hardeningand maintains at all times a gripon the stock.
The
end is threaded and screwed
rear
it is operated.
into the tube by which
It is drawn
the stock and
back over
ward
forthe chuck
is moved
when
opens
the
stock
tance
the
feeding
rightdisfor the next piece.
The

SCREW

MACHINE

TOOJJS

Dovetail

Mill

Hollow

Usuallymade

"

477

Circular forming cutters

below
cut
center
to
are
generally
give proper clearance and the tool
amount
post is bored a corresponding
above center to bring the tool on the
center line. Dovetail cutters are made
at an
angle of about lo degreesfor
clearance.

Forming

Circular

CotUinued

"

Tools

"

with 3 prongs or cuttingedges and

with a slighttaper inside toward the
A clamp collar is used on mill
rear.
like a springdie collar and a reasonable
tained
of adjustment
be obamount
may
mills
by this collar. Hollow
are
frequentlyused in place of box
in the screw
tools for turning work
machine.
.

Nurling Tool
are

The

"

nurls in this box

eters
suit different diam-

two

to
adjustable

of work.

The bushingin this tool

receives and supports the end of the
round stock and the cutters carried in
the frame form and pointthe end.

Pointing Tool

Revolving
which

Die
is

Holder

"

The

used
generally

"

type of revolvingdie holder

springdies,has a pair of driving

common

with

the head

pins behind

and

in the

flange

of the sleeve which fits into the turret

end of the sleeve is
hole. At the rear
surface
which engages a pin in
cam
a
the die
of the head when
the shank
die is run
to the
is reversed. The
on
with
the driving pins engaged.
work
the pin
at the rear
the work is reversed,the cam
When
engages
in the shank and holds the die from turningso that it must draw
off the work.
"

"^

'

SpottingTool

"

This

tool

spots

center

in the end of the bar of stock to allow

and also
drill to start properly,
times
Somefaces the end of the piecetrue.
"
called "centeringand facing tool. It is desirable to have
the included angleof the cutting point less than that of the drill
start true by cutting
which follows it in order that the latter may
the

at the

comers

first.

SCREWS

478
Spring Collet

chucks

Springcollets or

"

are

made

to receive

round,

stock
other
hexagonal
square,
in
the
The
worked
machine.
screw
is closed in
and
collet is hardened
operation by being pressed into the
into which
conical
it fits. When
cap
to
released it springsopen
suflSciently
free the stock and allow it to be fed
throughthe collet.
or

Spring

and

Die

Extension

Spring dies

"

dies are
or
providedwith a
prong
for adjusting
and
collar at the end
are

easilysharpened by

in
grinding

the flutes.
Screw

Plates

Dies

screws.

for dies for

Holders

"

piecewhich

cuttingthreads

usually separate but sometimes

are

forms

bolts or
cut in the

on

the holder.

SCREWS

"
Hexagon Head

SquareHead

Flat FillisterHead

Button

Cap

Screws

"

Cap

Oval

Head
screws

FillisterHead

Countersunk
are

machined

Head

from pointto head,

straight

have finished heads and up to 4 inches in length are usually

threaded three-fourths of the length. When
longerthan 4 inches
is measured
which
under
they are threaded one half the length,
head screws
of countersunk
which
the head, except in the case
all. Cap-screw sizes vary by i6ths and 8ths
measured
over
are
made
and are regularly
while machine
up to i or i J inch diameter,
which
with
screws
they are frequentlyconfused are made to the
machine-screw

gage

sizes.

heads
fillister
on
cap
heads are
^eads; oval fillister
Flat

often called "round"

as "fillister"
frequently
designated
screws

are

SCREWS

"

Continued

479

heads, and countersunk

heads as "flat" heads.

When
a countersunk
flathead has an oval top itiscalled a "French"
head.
Fillisterheads are also made with rounded comers
well
as
as with
the oval head shown above.
in
Fillisterhead screws
known
are
cheese-head
The
included
of
the
as
screws.
England
angle
countersunk or flathead is 70 degrees.
or

Collar

Screw

screws

Collar or
collar
used
the
for much

"

are

regularcap

purposes
in fact,are

as

"collar"

screws,

head
same

and,

sometimes
designatedas
"collar head"
or
cap
cap

screws.

Screw

Lag

have

Lag

"

screws,

thread like

coach screws,
or
wood screw
and
head.
They
countershaft
for
joists

heavy wood

screw

is

often

they are
square

or

used

are

for

hangers to
machines
fastening

floors and

where

as
a

for

many

other

called,

hexagonal
attaching
over-head
to wood
purposes

required.

Screws
Machine screws
are made
to the sizes of the machine-screw
gage
instead of running like cap screws
in

Machine

even

"

fractions of

an

inch.

Head
Fillister

Counter

Set

Sunk
Head

or

Flat

Button

or

Round

threaded the full lengthof body and

the head.
not be necked under
or
They are usually
may
may
flats and
case-hardened.
Ordinarilythe width of head across
The
the lengthof head are equal to the diameter of the screw.
in England as a "grub" screw.
headless set screw
is known
Screws

"

Set

screws

are

B
Flat Point

Round

Point

Cone

Point

Hanger Point

CofUifUied

SCREWS"

48o

QUKKKUKl

QmUM
Cup

Low

Point

Heat)

""mm

QHMti
Flat Pivot Point

I iffmiicflp

e
Cone

Pivot Point

Round

Q
SingleShoulder

Screw

"

the latter to work

easilywhen
is set up tightagainst the
the screw
With
of the shoulder.
double
bottom
be mounted
shoulders two members
may
dependen
side by side and left free to operate inof each other.
to

Shoulder

allow

with a wingedor
A screw
knurled head which may be operated
by
hand when
a quick and
clamping
light
effect is desired.

Thumb

Headless

Shoulder screws
are
monly
comused for carryinglevers and other
machine parts that have to operate freely.
The
screw
body is enough longerthan
the thickness of the piecepivotedthereon

Shoulder

Double

Point

nMM

Screw

"

The washer formed on

enables
it
to be used for holding
screw
pieces with large holes without applying

Washer-head

Screw

"

this

Wood
a

in

Screws

Wood

"

number

of which

size from

gage

and

are

Generally the
of the
of head

screw.

of 82

No.

loose washer.

screws
are
o

are

shown

to

No.

on

30
regularlymade

thread
The

is cut
flat-head

degrees.

in

made
the

endless

varietyof forms,
followingpage.
They range
an

by

the American

in

lengths from

about
wood

seven
screw

Screw

Company's

\ inch to 6 inches.
tenths of the total length
has an included angle

WOOD

SCREWS

481

^tJmwtm^)izmwtt^
Oval Head

Flat Head

(t^iMttMw
dmawiittji
Round

Head

IZBWWi^
Oval

FillisterHead

Head

Piano

JC3Wmtt"^
Countersunk

FillisterHead

[juamstt*
Clove

Felloe

Head

\ttffitttttt"

Headless

Hexagon

Head

Grooved

Square Bung Head

Pinched

Round

Bung

Head

Head
Dowel

Winged

Winged

Drive

Winged

Head

432

THREADS

SCREW

Screw

Thread,Acme

*^

'^

depth

"

Standard

"

threads per inch

no.

d
f
The

degree

29

}p

+ .010.
of thread

"=

flat on top
p x .3707
thread is practically
Acme screw
the
the
thread
much
and
as
same
depth
square
for lead
stronger. It is used extensively
screws, feed screws, etc.
=

Screw
p=

Thread, British

Association

Standard"

pitch

d=depth=px
r=

radius

.6

"

II

This

The

thread has been adopted in England

for small screws
used by opticians
and
in telegraphwork, upon
mendations
recommade
by the Committee of the British Association.
in this system are in millimeters.
diameter and pitches
Screw Thread, Buttress

pitch

p=

"

threads per inch

no.

d=depth=Jp
The

buttress thread takes a bearingon

side
one
only and is very strong in that
ratchet
direction. The
thread
is of
form but sharper.
the same
practically

Screw

Thread, Intemational

p=
d"

Standard(Metric)

pitch

depth=p

.6495

Intemational thread is of the same

the Sellers or U. S. Standard.
as
recommended
gress
This system was
by a Conthe same
held at Zurich in 1898, and is much
the
as
metric system of threads generallyused in France.
The
sizes
in the system are in millimeters.
and pitches
The

form

Screw
^

Thread, Square
^
no.

"

threads per inch

d=depth=^p
/=
s=

width
width

While

of

flat=ip

of space

=i

p.

theoretically
depth, width

each
space and thread are
the pitch,
in practice
the groove is cut slightly
wider and

one

of
half

deeper.

SCREW

THREADS

Screw

Continued

"

Thread,United
pitch

p=

483

States Standard

"

=-

threads per inch

no.

d"=dcpth~p

.6495

._P_

f=flat=

This thread was devised by Wm.

Sellers,
and recommended
by the Franklin Institute
in 1869. It IS called the U. S. Standard, the Franklin Institute,
and the Sellers thread. The advantages
of this thread are, that
will
and
retain
their size longer,
dies
it is not easily
tap
injured,
with this thread are
and bolts and screws
stronger and better
has
been
The
adopted by the United States
appearing.
system
Master
Car Builders* AssoMechanics
and
Master
ciations,
Government,
Bolt Makers, and
Machine
by many
manufacturing
establishments.

Thread, V,

Screw

60

-p.-_J
d

depth=p

"

threads per inch

no.
=

degree Sharp

.8660

While the sharp V form

the
thread than
S.
U.

givesa deeper
Standard,

the

urged againstthe thread are,

objections
that the sharp top is injured by the
and, in the case of taps and dies,the fine edge
accident,
slightest
is quickly
lost,causingconstant variation in fitting.
Thread, Whitworth

Screw
K

Standard

"

J
^

threads per inch

no.

d=

depth=p

.64033

r=

radius =p

.1373

thread is the standard in

It was
devised by Sir
in
the
then
Whitworth
1841,
Joseph
system
proposedby him
in
1861.
and
modified
beingslightly
1857
Whitworth

The

in

use

Worm

England.

Thread,

"

Brown

Sharpe

29

gree
de-

"

pitch

threads per inch

no.

depth

flat on

This
thread
for
America

-^4/K-

.6866

top of thread
is

commonly

worms.

than

"read

of the

same

deeper
angle,namely 29 degrees.

p x .335
used
in

ably
It is considerAcme
screw

the

484

SECTOR

SHAPER

"

A device used on an index plateof a dividing

head for
Sector
indicating the number
of holes to be included at each advance
of the index crank in dividing
circles. The sector can be opened
as
or closed to form
largeor small an arc as necessary to cover
of holes for each movement
of the crank.
the desired number
"

Set

"

bend

The

Set Screw

to one

saw.

See Screws.

"

Shaft-bearingStand
Shaft

side of the teeth of

Coupling

"

See

"

Shaft

bearingwhich

Coupling.

Shaft made of
in a leather
confined
usually
in varyingdirections.

Shaft,Flexible

is fastened to floor.

"

a
or

helical springor of jointedparts,

fabric casing,to transmit power I
I

A secondaryor auxiliary
shaft,driven by the engine j
Shaft,Jack
and in turn drivingthe dynamos or other machinery. Jack
shafts are often introduced between
machine
shaft
countera regular
the
and
line shaft.
"

Shaft, Line

shaftingdrivingthe machinery of
and belts.
of pulleys
shop by means

The

"

section of

shop

or

'

Shaft,Muley
a

A verticalshaft

"

belt around

comer.

To

carryingtwo idler pulleysfor carrying |

be avoided where possible.
1

Work
is held on table or knee and tool moves
it, 1
across
Table adjustable
for depth I
held by-a tool post on the moving ram.
of cut, etc.

Shaper

"

Shaper, Crank
Shaper, Draw
toward

together.

Ram

"

Cut

"

frame

is driven

by

crank

motion.

Cutting stroke

takes

place when

of machine.

This

tends

to

tool is moving
draw
the parts

SHAPER

SHAPER

Shaper, Friction

"

"

Continued

AND

POTTER

485

JOHNSTON

Ram is driven by rack and pinionthroughfriction

clutches. Ram
is reversed by simultaneous release and engage*
of these clutches. These are driven by open and crossed
ment
belts in oppositedirections.

Shaper, Gear

"

by usinga hardened cutter,shaped

the face of the gear with
moving across

Planes gear teeth

"

like
a

a piniongear, and
planingor shapingcut.

Shaper, Geared

Ram
is driven by
stroke
and
cutting
a quick return
belts the same
as
a planer.
on
"

Shapers,Traverse

or

TravelingHead

"

rack and

pinionwith

by shiftingopen and
Ram

feeds

act-oss

slow
a
crossed

work, which

is stationary.
Shear

"

givento
used

cuttingmetals between two blades. The name

the way or V of a lathe or planer. A hoisting
apparatus
wharves or docks,consisting
of two heavy struts like a

Tool
on

for

longinverted

V.

SHEARS

486

SPRING

"

and tail stock move

the lathe carriage
called "shears" by some,
"ways" by others. They may bfi
are
either V, flat or any other shape.
given to machine where moving knife or
Shears, Alligator Name
Shears

The

"

which

on

ways

"

works

cutter

on

Shears,Squaring
Shears, Slitting

pivot.

Has

"

Arrangedfor

"

guided at
sheet
slitting

bar

cutter

both ends.
metal.
Rotary cutters

usuallyemployed.

are

cuttingofiFrods,bars or plates.
plate ring operatedby springsor by a rubber pad
ejecta blank from a compound die. It acts as an internal
Machine

Shearing
Shedder
to

For

"

"

or

and is sometimes
stripper,
The

Sherardizing
"

of any

given to

name

as
a

ejector.

an

new

process of

dry galvanizing

product.

iron

Forlcs

Shifter

known

Arms

"

to

guide belt from

loose

tightto

vice versa, by pressing the sides.

A liner or pieceto placebetween
Shim

surfaces to

"

pulleyor

secure

proper

adjustment.
Fit

Shrink

See

"

Fits.

Open Washer.
Slotted Washer
See Open Washer.
Slotter
A machine
for planing vertical surfaces
Tool travels vertically.
Slip Washer

See

"

"

"

cuttingslots.

or

device for drivingdrillsand other tools with either

a straight
or
taper shank.
In foundry work, the gate or central channel which feeds iron
Sow
into the pigs when
making pig iron.
for a chuck for holdingwork, such
Sow
Local name
or Sow-block
dies. A ball chuck.
as
The forming of sheet metal by rollingit against forms
Spinning
for this work.
such as lamp bodies.
Lathes are made
especially
in others the
and
in
sections
in
Used
some
Spline
place of "key"
"feather."
See Key and Feather.
same
as

Socket, Grip

"

"

"

"

"

Nut split
SplitKut
lengthwiseso as to open for quick adjustment.
Spot or Spotting
Spotting is making a spot or flat surface for a
"

"

pointor

set-screw

Spring,Helical

Often

thread.

Spring,Leaf

springor

"

"

to

layout

from.

springcoiled lengthwiseof its axis

called a spiral
spring.
incorrectly

like

of flat stock like

A built up springmade
locomotive drivingspring.
"

Spring,Spiral
"

coil

over

spring wound

the other

as

in

Usually of flat stock,but

screw

carriage

with

clock
not

one

spring.
always.

SPRING

Spring,Tension

mMMMm

487

SQUARE

"

springwhich

A helical

Spring, Torsion
operates with
"

action

helical

"

lengthenin actbn.

tends to

as

Spring,Valve

door

helical

"

springwhich
coilingor uncoiling
spring.

springused

on

similar places;each
valve stems
coil being smaller than the one
below,
close up
in order that the springmay
into a very small space and then have
a considerable
range of action.
and

Spring Cotter
Sprue Cutter

"

-See
A

"

Cotter.

cuttingpimch for trimming sprues from soft metal

castings.
Square, Caliper
"

square

with

caliperadjustmentfor layingout

work.

Square,

Combination

"

combining

protractor in

level and

square,

tool

one

tool.

Square,

Center

findingthe

For

"

center

the
bar by placingacross
of a round
end and scribinglines in two different
positions. Also used as a T-square.
Not

T-Square
on

"

the

much

so

used

as

formerly.

edge with a head at one end commonly used

straight
for drawing straightlines. It forms
board
a
drawing
A

which
trianglesare slid. Generally made of
of metal
and
often provided with a
sometimes
wood, although
graduatedin
swivelinghead which serves as a protractor when

guide also,along

degrees.

Square, Try
work

as

"

to

Small
its

being

at

for

testing
rightangles.

square

STAND

488
Stand, Vila

"

STUD

in
Stand,usuallyof metal,for holding a vise firmly
vise.
it
a
shop, making
portable

"

any desired part of the

Steady Rett

"

attached

rest

to the lathe ways

for

supporting
long,

slender work.
A name
givento steels which do not lose their
hardness by being heated under high speed cuts.
Alloy steels
which depend on tungsten,chromium, manganese,
molybfdenum,
hardness.
for
tneir
etc.,

Steel,High Speed

Stocks,Ratchet

"

Die

"

A
scrapedflat and

Straight Edge

"

^c""

"

"

-r

T"

stocks with ratchet handles.

metal having one
edge groimd and
Small ones
sometimes
made
of steel
are
but laige,straight
edges are usuallyof

piece of
true.

cast

xp.,.,^

/^|o|0[0|o|o]^

to resist bending,
iron,proportioned

and are used for

surfaces such as

the truth of flat

testing

planeways.

See Belt Polisher.

Strap

"

of buffingby the use of a flexible strap or

of cloth and covered with abrasive held in
Runs
two
over
pulleysor one pulleyand a rod

Strapping A method
belt,usuallymade
"

placeby glue.
or plateat highspeed.
Fixture for holding
of pieces to be milled or planed.
a row
StringJig
Stripper A thin plateplacedover the die,in a punch press, with
beneath to admit the sheet stock and an openingto allow
a gap
"

"

up-strokeof the punch it

with the punch.
prevents the stripof metal from lifting
outline as the
Strtpping-plate A platecontainingholes of the same
the

punch

to

pass

freely;upon

the

"

the patterns when

pattern and used to prevent sand following
m
achines.
drawn out on some
molding'

Stud, Collar

The

"

collar stud forms

device
satisfactory

for carrocker
etc.
rying gears,
rolls,
levers',
It is often providedwith a hole at the
end for a cutter pin or is slotted for a
splitwasher, to retain the gear, or other
part in place.
a

cam

A stud of this form is used for mounting levers and

Stud, Shoulder
other parts which could be operatedon a plain,unthreaded
stud,
"

which

be
constud, however, cannot
removed
when necessary.
set or
veniently
It is also a form of post or guide sometimes

employed
for

Stud, Threaded
and

carryingone

in machine
or

construction

sliding
parts.
ends to lengthsrequired

more

Studs are threaded on both

screwed tightinto place. A nut
end.
They are
"

is

run

on

commonly

the outer

used

for

holdingcylinderheads in place and

for other purposes where it is desirable
^^^^ ^^^
shall remain stationary
lilllllllllllllilll] screw
-**^^^^*^^*^^
to prevent injuryof threads tapped in
the main piece.

SURFACE

PLATES

Surface
4"

J
=^

TAP

"

Plates

489

Cast-iron plateshave surfaces scrapedflatfor use in testing

work.
Should be made
in sets of three and
has a perfect
that each one
so scraped
bearingwith the other two.
"

Changing the sectional shape of a pieceof metal by

to change
hammering, rollingor otherwise forcingthe particles
shape witm"ut cutting.

Swaging

"

Swaging

Blocks

Blocks of cast
to assist blacksmith
in swaging and bending
iron to various shapes. A is for
in the hardy hole in the
use
anvil,B can be used anjrwhere
but is usuallyon or beside the
anvil.
or

Swaging

"

wrought iron

Hammer

A connection with the

block
metal to the
to swage
swaging
desired size and shape.
"

wire or tubing
For reducing
or pointing
tapering
dies
with
either between
or
by hammering
rolling
rapid blows
between
dies of suitable shape.

Swaging Machine

Sweating

"

"

Another

name

for

soldering.

In the United States the swing of a lathe means

of the work
be swimg
that can
diameter
the
over
largest
it
the
In
shears.
distance from lathe
or
means
England
ways
half the U. S. measurements.
to the ways
center
or
one

Swing of

Lathe

"

the

Name
givento device for takingup slack in belt Or rope
drives.
Hardened
and tempered steel tool for cutting
internalthreads.
Tap
Has a thread cut on it and flutes to givecuttingedges.
Tap, Bit-brace
Tap of any kind, usually
on allbolt taps,with shank made
square
to be driven by bit-brace.
This form of tap has every other thread cut
Tap, Echols Thread
each land, but these are
on
gered
stagaway
land has
that a space on one
so
land.
it on
the next
tooth behind
a
This
is done for chip clearance.
Bolt tap
Tap, Hand, First or Taper
for
The
hand
first or
usually
i^.
has
the
front
end
tapered
taper tap

Take-up

"

"

"

"

"

g:

to enter

easily.

TKV

490

Continued

"

Second
The second
or Plug
with
small
only a
taper to the
tap
tet
threads.
two
Usually this tap
is the last that need be used.

Tap, Hand,

"

Third

Tap, Hand,

Bottoming

or

full thread clear to the end.

with

cuttinga thread clear

of

"

to

Tap
For

the bottom

hole.

hob tap for

in pipe dies.
cuttingthreaids
Taper
inch
foot.
\
per

Tap,

Tap,
*-^

Hob

for Solid Dies

"

"^

spsga.

Hob

^B!!!!!!!!!!!^
^

Pipe

Dies

"

Used for cuttingthe threads in a solid

about
three
die. It is best to remove
fourths of the stock with a' leading tap
but is not necessary.

Tap, Hob,
F=?

for

Sellers

Has

"

flutes.

numerous

threads in center

For

hobbing

dies

and
and

chasers.

Tap,

Machine

Nut

or

Tap with long shank small enough to allow

it. After tap
tapped nuts to pass over

"

is full the tap is removed

from
and nuts slid off the shank.

Tap,

Machine

Screw

"

Taps

machine

made

with

threads of machine
screws.
Made
with shank the size of screw
and pointedends on small sizes.
sizes and

Tap,
Tap,

Master

Tap

"

for

and open

cuttingsolid

dies.

in patching boilers.
from
sixteenths
\ inch
Y^^y ^y
35H55K5S55?"
All threads are
to
to ij uiches.
12
^n..""."nf.w#nr/
^-xmxmxxmr
inch and taper is i inch per foot.

Patch-bolt

"

Tap

for

boiler-makers

use

^^^^,

Tap, Pipe

p=f_J

"

foot for

Taper tap, } inch taper per

pipe fitting.

Tap, Pulley
fti*

CH

reach

"

Tap with

the hub of
holes.

long shank to
pulleyfor tapping
a

set-screw

Tap

Remover
prongs which
"

Device for removing broken taps. Usually have

go down in the flutes and around the central portion.

Tap, Staybolt Tap

the hole,B
reams
"

5^5-^-^^^^
^-^^^^^asBSi

for
is

sheets for staybolts.A

taper thread, C is straightthread of right
size. D square for drivingtap. All stand^^^ staybolt
taps have 1 2 threads per inch.

threadingboiler

TAP

Cofdinued

"

491

Tap made with "steps" or varyingdiameters. Front

and so on to
part of thread,next step takes out more
the end.
Only used for heavy threads,usuallysquare or Acme.
Made
same
Tap, Stove-bolt
taps but in only
way as machine-screw
Tap, Step
end

"

cuts

"

six standard

Tap, Tapper

sizes.

Similar to

"

tap except that it has

machine

no

square

the end.

on

Reamer

Taper

See

"

Tapped Face-plate
slots.

Tapping

Studs

Reamer, Taper.
Having a. number

"

in at any

screw

Machine

For

"

of

tapped holes instead of

point.
with taps (tapping)
in nuts

desired

cuttingthreads

other holes.

or

Threads, Screw

Threads.

See Screw

"

Threading Tool, Rivet-Dock

rotary cutter

depths.

The

"

tool is

with

cuttingteeth of different
first tooth starts the cut,

The

then instead of feedingthe carriageinto

the work, the cutter is turned and the next
tooth takes the next cut.

Toggle

tiply
Arrangement of levers to mulobtained
by making
pressure
movement
given to work very much
"

less than

Tongs

"

Tools

Tool, Boring

for
For

"

Tool, Cutting-off
"

holdinghot
operatingon
For

or

of

movement

appliedpower.

cold metals.
internal surface of holes.

cuttingwork

apart

on

lathe

or

cutting-off

machine.

Tool, Diamond

Black diamond
set in metal
other abrasive wheels.
Also used to some
hardened steel or iron.

Tool

"

Holder,Lathe

Planer

A body
piecesof

for

tracingemery or
for truingup

extent

shank, adopted to hold

cuttingtools.
These
be
removed
for
can
or
2) renewal without moving thesharpening
holder and
the tool to the work.
saves
resetting
Holders in which are held small steel cutting
Tools,Inserted Cutter
when
for grindingor replacing
tools. These are usuallyremoved
steel.
broken
or
worn
out.
Usuallymade of self-hardening
or

small

"

"

or

tool steel for

LATHE

TOOLS,

492

Tooly Nurlliig For

or
checkingthe
roughing

"

work

so

be

it can

readilygrasped by hand.

outside of turned
The
tool is a wheel

with

Uie desired markings cut in the

and
hardened.
It is forced against
edge
and actuallyforces the metal
the work
in the wheel.
the
into
depressions
up
held in the end of a
Most
nurls are
hand
tool but for heavy nurlingthey
made to go in the tool post as shown.
are
LATHE

TOOLS,

"

TOOLS,

WM.

SELLERS

CO.

"

LATHE

^
Left-hand

Side

Tool

Sight-hand

Side

Tool 1

^
Left-hand

Bent

Side

Tool

"i(ht-hand Bent

Bide

Tool

TOOLS,

hATHE"Conimutd

Scaling Tool.

for

TOOLS,

493

Truelnff Up Ceuteri, "c.

PLANER

'^
Left-hand

Left-hand

Side

Diamond

Tool

f oiut

"ight-hand Side Tool

Tool.

Klgbt-baud

Bull

Nose,

(or

Heavy

Diamond

Point

Cats.

Gouge

Nose

Tool.

Tool

TOOLS,

494

VUiNER

"

CorUinued

Bcallug Tool.
Broad

KoM

or

Stockint TooL

Left-hand

Siding Tool-

Bight-hand ftldiug Tool.

^
For

Finishing

Left-hand

in Cornert.

Berel Tool.

1
For

Smoothing

Wrought

Iron

or

Steel.

Smoothing

Tool for Oast

Iron

TOTE

Tote

Boxes

Tote

Pans

See Tote

"

Pans

"

part of

one

another.

"

495

Pans.

series of gears,
lead screw.
with
spindle

Train

VISE

trays of steel for carrying small parts from

or

shop to

BOXES"

as

the feed train of

lathe

connecting

"
Trammels

Fit

For
beam

"

on

the

on

Tool for
bored hole.

Tool

Trepanning
around

"

drawing large circles.

and

their capacitydepends
o
f
the
beam.
length

annular

cuttingan

outside

groove

or

at the desired
tripsany pieceof mechanism
found
in
An
the tripper
where
time.
example is
conveyers
desired
material
the
the
at
point.
dumps

Tripper

Device

"

Gear

Tumbler

gears to

that

An

"

reverse

intermediate gear which meshes in between other

the direction of the driven gear of the train.

oC^S"=,
^""

Stub End

Buckle

Turn

buckles

for connecting
and tightening
truss rods,tie rods,
^^^'*^^^ ^" construction work.
"

are

fy^rjirl"niiLiAiJhz^^
Hook

Tuyere

"

and

Eye

pipeor openinginto forgethroughwhich

The

Metal
Veeder
An
metal molds.
"

alloywith tin

as

air is forced.

base, used for castingin

Heavy bench vise

used for holding work
to chip. Vises
similar
but lighter.
for filing
are
only

Vise,Chipping or FUing

Vise, Drill

"

Vise for

use

on

"

drill press to hold work

Vise,Hand
hand.

"

beingdrilled.

^A small vise to be held in the

that requires
small work

For

to get
turning frequently

sides.

at

different

VISE

496
Vise,Jig

drill vise with arms

which carry bushings so that
be drilled in duplicate
without specialjigsfor them.

"

WRENCHES

"

pieces

can

Small hand
small wire rods.

Vila, Pin
"

vise for

Stands,Vise.
Ways shaped like a V, either raised above the bed
lathe or cut below as in a planer,for guidingthe travel

Vise Stands
V's

"

See

"

"

or

Volt

on

as

of

riage
car-

table.

The

"

holding

imit of electricalpressure.

W
with one
side open so as
Washers
or
slippedunder the nut to avoid necessityof
washer.
off. Also called a "C"
entirely

Washer, Open

Watt

The

"

"

unit of electrical power

746

amperes.

watts

are

and

equal to

one

to

be removed

taking the

nut

equals volts multiplied

by
horse-power.

bearing surfaces on which moving parts

The
be
as
a
plane or milliugmachine.
slide,
ways
may
other
V or any
of any form, flat,
shape.
The
Welding
joiningof metals by heatingthe parts to be joined
the
to
fusingpointand making a union by hammeringor forcing
them together.Welding in an open fire is usuallyconfined to
iron and steel but nearlyall metals can be joinedin this way by
electric heating.
and refers to a
Pronounced with a long * as in "mind"
Wind
and parallelism.
twist or warping away from straightness
Large heavy wrench with a hole in end
Wrench, Bridge Builders'

Ways

The

"

guidingor

in

lathe

"

"

"

for

tackle to

applypower.

MACHINE

WRENCHES,
have
which
15 degreeswith the handle,
around where the
nut
completely
15

degreeanglewrenches

openingmilled

at an
angle of
of
the
permits
turning a hexagon
swing of the handle is limited to
an

degrees.
22i degreeanglewrenches have an openingwhich forms an angle
of 22i degreeswith the handle,which
permits the turningof any
around
where the swing of the
head
bolt
or
screw
completely
square
limited
handle is
to 45 degrees.
30

Unfinished
milled

wrenches
drop-forged

to fit the nut

are

which

with openings
plainforgings,

screw
they are to be used.
milled
fit
Semi-finished wrenches
the nut or screw
to
are
which
on
they are to be used and case-hardened all over.
milled to fitthe nut or screw
Finished wrenches
are
which they
on
to be used and are
are
case-hardened
all over, lacground,polished,
quered,
with heads bright.
or

on

WRENCHES

"Continued

497

0
SingleEnd,

Hex.

Double

Hex.
Double

End. Hex.

End, Tool Post

Box, 1$^ Angle

Chuck

15" Angle,SingleEnd

Pin-face, For
15*^Angle,Double

End

Round
Nuts Having Holes in
their Face to Receive
the two Wrench
Pins

'^=^

Hook

22!**Angle,Double

End

Spanner, Milled
out to suit Round
Nuts
Having Notches in the
Periphery to
the Hook

Receive

at the End

of

Spanner
S

"

22i" Angle

Pin Spanner Used

on
Nuts
Round
which
have Holes in the Periphery
the
receive
to

SingleEnd, Set Screw

and

Machine

Spanner Pin

Double
End, Set Screw
and Machine

'Box"-Tool

Post

Socket

WRENCHES

498

mSCELLANEOUS

WRENCHES,

Monkey

or

Continued

"

Stillaon

Screw

Vulcan

Adjustable

IVxket

General

Chain

Pipe

Utility

"e

D=
Track

Construction

Wrench,
3

See

Fits
"

Fits.

Tap

turning
for

Wringing

Pipe

Wrench

taps.

different

for

"

Usually
sizes.

made

holding

and

adjustable

INDEX

PAGE

Abrasive

wheels,grading

156
148

Abrasives, commercial

Accurate
taper gage
245
Acme
twenty-nine degree screw
Brown
"
thread, and
Sharpe
thread compared
worm
10, 11
Acme
twenty-nine degree screw
thread,measuringwith micrometer
and wires
35
Acme
twenty-nine degree screw
"

thread, table of parts

.'

32

of gear teeth

Addendum
A. L. A. M.

standard
with
Alining shafting

bolts and
a

for grinding
for press fits
for shrink fits

for threadingin
machine
for upsets
in

Allowances
holes
Allowances

216

229, 333
231
screw

324

348, 360

520

Automobile

63

taps
standard

200, 209

bolt and nut standards.

216

Babbitt metal
Back lash of machine molded
four point
Ball bearings,

hardening of

326
gears

point

two

173
292

278, 279

Ball handles

273

for

coinage
bars, weightof
Alimiinimi, burnishing
frosting
mdtiixg
polishing

324
307
327

of
projperties

273

lever handles

273

Bar

brass, copper and aluminum,

weight of
307
Bar sted and iron,weight of
306
flat sizes,weight of
308
Barth
Baths

key

dimensions

239
317

for hardening steel

for heating steel

326

319, 323

93

280

singleend

Alumimmi

315,

Bearing metals
Bearings,ball,data for four point
.

for two

data

327

Bell metal

327
327

Belt

316
325
280

pdnt,
278, 379
326

fastenings

310
310

hooks
Bristol

shrinkage of

327
327

lacing,Tackson

spinning

327

leather

310,

turning

327

strengthof

310, 31 1
31Q, 311

Alundum
sizes

Brown

"

splice

Sharpe wire-

stud, Blake
working strain of

297, 299

helix for screw-threads,

table

4, S

Angles, calculation of
362, 367
corresponding to giventapers
259
Ijerfoot
layingout by table of chords 281
obtained by opening a twofoot rule
294
of V-tools,measurement
of 1 1 13
rules for
266
Angular cutters,cutters for fluting. 140
.

310, 311
310, 311

wire

148
or

of

140
322
317

153

32s,

Angle

I to

for standard

pluggages

Alloys

gage

from

A. S. M. E. machine screw
A. S. M. E. machine screws,
of
proportions

229, 232
239

in shop gages for various

kinds of fits
231, 233
for punch and die, for
Allowances
work
accurate
184-187
with the calipers
Allowances
for running,
shrink and press fits
333-236

American

Areas and circumferences of circles

from i^ito I inch
340, 341
Areas and circumferences of circles
from 1 to 100
343, 347
Areas and circumferences of circles

231

case

steelwire 312,313

for drive fits

for hand fits

Allowances

83
nuts

Angular cutters,number of teeth in

of
steel,properties
Annealing
of
Antimony. (H-operties
Annealed

499

Belts and
gear

Work

310, 314

benches.

cutters

107

table
gears,

108,

layingout
names

gage

sizes

272

for jigs
or

109

106
106

of parts

Binder handles

Binding screws
Birmingham

310
311
311

sl^fting

Benches,see
Bevel

310,

311

Stubbs'

268
iron

wire
297-299

INDEX

500

PAGE

Bismuth

fusible
alloy,
of
properties

325
324

Blake belt studs

310, 311

Blanks, shell,
findingdiameters of
Block
and
wheels

roller chain

184

sprocket

PAGE

"
Brown
Sharpe
table of parts

and

...

rough
Bolts and nuts, A. L. A. M. standard

coupling
Bolts,eye

Z90
216
2x7
219
275

lengthsof

214
on

machine, carriageand

214

loom,

button head
214
Bolts,machine, with manufacturers'
standard heads
192
Bolts,nuts, and screws
189-225
planerhead
217
and round countersunk
square
heads
215
stove

C
Calculations by trigonometry

fits

234

side play of
Calipers,
for running fits

tubing, weight of
309
wire,weight of
:jo4,305
Briggsstandard pipeends, drillsizes

pipe ends,

41, 44
gages

for

screws,

and general system

Bristol belt hooks
British Association screw
of
Bronze, properties

310,
.

Sharpe standard tapers 250,

Sharpe thread micrometer

readings for 17. S. threads

311
19

251
24

" Sharpe thread micrometer

readings for V threads
25
Brown
" Sharpe thread micrometer
26
readings for Whitworth threads.
" Sharpe wire gage sizes 297, 299
Brown
Brown
" Sharpe worm
thread and
thread compared
Acme screw
10, 11
Brown
"
threads,
Sharpeworm
measuring with micrometer and

Brown

wires

the
197

sunk
counter197

and

oval

and

195,

head

194

Carbonizing

318-323

material
of

319-321

rate

319,

148

Company's

whed

grade marks

156

Carriagebolts
Case hardening
rate

214

318-323
of

with gas
Castellated nuts for A.

319,

37

321
321

L.

A.

M.

standard bolts
Cast jfearteeth

216
92

soldering

81

washers

221

Castings,
shrinkageof

326
294

Centigradethermometer scale
Change gears for cutting diametral
in the lathe
pitchworms
Change gears for cuttingscrew, how

323
9

to find

Charcoal for

321
321

Carborundum

iron

196

square

weight of

324
325

Bronzes, Navy Department

"
"

42

39-43

threads.

121

up

fillister
head

hexagon

235

122

button h^ui
flat and
oval
head

flat, round

43-46

Briggsstandard iHpe,joint
Briggs standard pipe, threads,form

233,

dividinghead

Cap

302, 303

for

measuring

with gas

Box tool for screw

machines,speed
and feeds for
180
Brass bars, weightof
307
cast, propertiesof
324

plates,
weightof

in

Cams, heart shape,milling

millingby gearing

machines,roughing
169

Brown
Brown

364

Caliperingand fitting
225-244
Calipers,axial inclination of in
measuring for shrink or press

170

Briggs standard

197

Button head machine screws, American

Screw Co. standard
199
Button
head machine screws, A. S.
M. ". standard
209

215

tap
21S
Bone for case hardening
319
Box tod for screw
finishmachines, ing
tool for screw

214

hook

lengths of threads

Box

loom

screws

cap

Boiler rivet heads

224
Bolt circles,
spacing
365
heads for standard T-slbts.
218
stock requiredfor
293
Bolts and
nuts, U. S. standard,
finished
*.
e.
191
Bolts and
nuts, U. S. standard,

266

loose
266, 267
Button head bolts,
machine, carriage

104, 105
loa

36

fixed
Bushings,tor jigs,

Block indexingin cuttinggear teeth,

zox,

threads,

worm

hardening
319
Check
and jam nuts, cold punched. 210
Chemical symbols ot metals.
324
Chordal
pitch
83
280',281
Chords, table of
taUe for layingout holes in
circles
284-286
of for layingout angles 281
use
of
Chromium, properties
324
Chucking reamers, rose, cutter for
fluting
144
areas
Circles,
of,from ^ to i inch,
case

...

340.

3^1

INBEX

SOI

PAGE
areas
Circles,

of,from

from

PAGE

to 100.342-347
to 520 .348-360

Circles, tables of sides,angles and

sines for layingout work in. .286-391
Circles,tables for spacingholes in 384-291
Circular forming tools
174-178
diameter of
176
.

Circular

forming tools for conical

178
83

points
Circular pitch
Circiimferences

and

of

areas

cles
cir-

Co-tangentof angk
Co-tangents,tangentsand, taUe

371-383
Cotter

pins

319

Counterbore,depth of for fillister

head cap screws
195, 196
Counterbores with inserted plots.
277
Counterboringon the screw machine,
speeds for
183
Countersunk head bolts,
square and
.

and
Circumferences
diameters of
circles from i to 300
361
Circiunferential distences,
divisions

correspondingto
147
anglefor millingcutters.. 120
for punches and dies. 184-187
for running fits
333

Clearance

2x5

Coupling bolts

2x7

Co- versed sine of angle

363
Cubes, squares and Toots of fractions
from rfito I inch
340, 341
Cubes, squares and roots of numbers

from

to 520

radius without
Curves, finding
sizes of
for
tangent

disk grinding

Cold

324

fine and

324
210

keyway
numb^

212

power

297

364
325
ening
hard321-323
screw

cutting

Computing tapers, table for

260-262

and convex
cutters, cutter
for fluting
Concave and convex
ber
cutters, numof teeth in
Constants for dovetail measurements
Conversion factors,
English
329,
Conversion
factors,English and
Metric
331,
Cooling steel
Copper bars, weis^tof
plates,
weightof
302,
of
properties
tubing,weight of
wire, weight of
304,
Comer
roimding cutters, cutter for
Concave

fluting

for

in

Composition of bearing metals

gearing,train for

dimensions 145
of teeth in,

T-slot,dimensions of
Whitney, for Woodruff

267

Complementary angles

Compound

?3?, 140
i"tch X19

138-140

195

for jigs
Comparison of wire gages used
the United States

coarse

requiredfor.
speeds and feeds

82

screws

of steel,
effect on

X20
.

222

soldering

Collar head

pitch

length of

X69
xox

nullingangle of clearance. 120

for fluting,
cutters

222

X70

advantagesof coarse
milling,
x68

Cold punched nuts, check and jam

Cold punched nuts, manufacturers'
standard

170

steel

for spur gears

of
Cobalt, properties
Coinage alloys

348-360
369

center

radial
Cutters,for box tool,

of gear teeth
83
of reamers, grinding.164. 167
of thread tool at side,finding

Coach and lag screws

and lag screws,
Coach
thread on

round

340-360

with cup and

wheels

363
of

140
140

Cuttingdiametral pitchworms
lathe

332

118

146

keys

240

in the
8-10

Cuttingdouble threads

fractional threads
x
multiplethreads with special
face plate
8
threads
7
quadruple
threads
screw
x-4
speeds and feeds for screw
machine work
179
of planers
292
threads with compound gearing

265
330

1x9

threads with simplegearing. 2

threads
triide
7
Cydoidal gear teeth
83

316
D

307
303
324
309
305
140

Comer
rounding cutters, number of
teeth in
140
Corundtun
148
Co-secant of angle
363
Co-secants, secants and, table of .394-405
Cosine of angle
363
Cosines, sines and, table of
382-393

of
367
properties
of fractions of
Decimal equivalents
inch
an
335-337
.^
Decimal
of millimeters
equivalents
and fractions
332, 333
Decimal
equivalents of squares,
cubes,roots,etc.,of fractions .340, 341
Decimals of a foot,equivalentsof
inches in
338, 339
Dedendum
of gear teeth
83
Degrees obtained by opening a twofoot rule
394

Decagon,

INDEX

S02

PAGE

Depth of keyways, total,taUe

finding
Depth to drilland tap for studs

342,

243

318

to

361

200

of circular forming tools,

174, 176
of shell blanks,finding. 184
.

Diametral

pitch

83

change gears

worms,

for

cutting

cutting in the

worms,

lathe

Diamond

laps
powder

Drills for running fits

59
for taps,
see
Tap drills,
for Whit worth _pipetaps.
41
also see Twist Drills.
and
Drilling
tapping for studs,
218
depthsfor
...

of circles of circumferences

Diameters
Diameters

PAGE

for

Drilhng feeds

and

speeds in

182

Drive fits,
allowingwith the calipers
for
234
Drive fits,
drillsand reamers
for.
59
limits for
239, 232
.

163
in

the

machine

shop

163-164

162
settung in oil
tools for charging,163
used on box wood
164
laps

Diamonds, setting

154,

using on wheels
Die clearance,punch and
taps, taper
machine
Dies and taps for screw
work

155
154

184
67
171

machine, speedsfor
183
Dies,screw
sizesof
spring,
172
Differential indexing on the milling

Emery

used with accurate

mills,number of teeth in
Metric
conversion
English and
tabl"

331,

...

Equivalentsof inches
of inches
Equivalents

132

of
Dodecagon, properties

367

Double

threads,cutting
Dovetail forming tools
depth of

174, 175
177

...

ing
gibs,dimension-

263
Dovetails,measuring with plugs in
the angles
264, 265
Dowel pins,drillsfor
59
standards, shop and,
Drawing room
266-295
Drill and wire gage sizes
296, 298, 299
Drill and wire gage sizes arranged
consecutively
298, 299
Drill bushings for ^igs,
fixed
266
fixed for stop
bushingsfor jigs,

collars
Drill
Drill

267

bushingsfor jigs,loose
jigscrews, binding

266
268

collar head
headless

267
268

locking

268-269
269

nurled

head

square

head

268

supporting
winged

268, 269
267
269

jigs,
straps for
Drills for Briggs

pipereamers

for dowel pms

for drive fits

in millimeters
334
in millimeters,
.

decimal
",;"".""".

"

."

-333,

333

281
perpendicularsby triangles,
Erecting

Estimatinglumber for patterns

Eye bolts

294
219

F
Face

245-349

Drill

332

English weights and measures.

.328-330
Equivalents of inches in decimals of
a foot
338, 339

taper gage,

Dividinghead, gearingfor plainand

differential
indexingon
128-137
ting
Dividing head, milling cams
by set-

slides and

148
138

End

machine, tables for

128-137
Dimensioning dovetail slides and
gibs
263, 363
Disks

screw

machine

...

.41, 44
59
i
59

plate for cutting multiple

threads
Fahrenhdt

thermometer scale
323
Feather key, square, dimensions of. 239
Feeds and speeds for screw
machines
1 79
118
millingmachine speeds and
File makers' terms
70
teeth,cut of,actual sizes
71
Files
70-75
die sinkers or riffle
75
.

of

measurement

70

shapes and sizes of

teeth per inch

72

on

72

tests of

74

hight of
Filing,

work

for

70

Fillets,
areas, weight and volume

of

295

Fillister
head cap screws
195, 196
Fillister head
machine
screws,
American Screw Co
199
Fillisterhead machine screws, flat,
A. S. M. E. standard
207
Fillisterhead machine screws, oval,
A. S. M. E. Standard
206
Finding the diameters of shell blanks 184
Fine pitch screw
thread diameters,
measuring with wires
34
box
Finishing

tod for screw

machine,
and
cuttingspeeds
feeds

lor

180

....

Fits,limitsfor drive

170

for hand-

229, 232
339, 232

for press
for running

329,

in
press and

shopgages

for

...

232
230, 233
331, 333

shrink,calipering
for,334

INDEX

503

PAGE

numing,
Fits,

side

playin calipering

for

233,

shrink,allowances for
Fittiiigs,
Bnggs pipe,gages for

23s

PAGE

Gages, plugand ring,dimensions of. 276

lapsfor ..160, 161
kinds

42-46

sizesfor 44
tap drill sizes
for
41, 44
pipe, tap drill
reamer

^Vhitwcrth
sizes for
41
Fixed bushingsfor jigs
266
for jigtools with stop
collars
967
Flat and oval countersunk
head cap
screws

197

Flat bar steel,weight of

308
195, 196

fillister
head cap screws
machine screws,
A. S. M. E. standard
Flat head machine screws, American
....

207

Co
Screw
198
Flat head machine screws, A. S. M. E
standard
208
Flat on tools for U. S. form of thread,

grinding

Stubs'
296-300
wire,differentstandards used
in the U. S
297
Gas, case harderdngwith
321
Gear blanks,layingout
93
sizes of
99
tables of
99, 100
96
pressure angles
teeth
83
actual sizes of
95
tooth parts, proportions
of
.88-91
Gears and pulleys,
speedsof
314
bevd
106
cutters for
107
table of
108
block indexingfor
loz
cutters for
101
for screw
finding.
cutting,
3
miter,table of
xio
.

sjx'ocket

Flutingcutters for hobs

142
for milling cutters,
139.

Fluxes,
"

for reamers

143

for taps

141

Soldering

see

decimal

Foot,

140

parts

in

equivalents

177

280

338, 339
341

screw

liquid

9
103
103

83
2

96
112

113

97
97

worm

20

Fusible plug

115

pitch

standard tooth
stub tooth

IIS

of
proportions

315

gas

86

table of

roots
340,

French
(Metric) standard
threads
for heatingsted
Furnaces

337

87

84, 85

simplefor screw cutting

singlecurve tooth
rules for
spiral,
iii,

equivalentsof,
335,

i"tches

diametral pitch
face of worm
for cuttingdiametral
table of
worms,
metric pitch
module
ixirtsof

speeds and feeds for. 181

data
ball-bearing
Four-jpoint

circular

201

174, 176

dovetail,
depthof

foot,decimal
cubes,and

ting
cut-

screw

for chordal pitch

diametral and
corresponding

174-178

84, 85

constants

circular diameters of,

tools,

of

87

inch

of thread,A. S. M. ". standard

machine screws
200,
tail
Forming tools,circular and dove-

squares,
of

92

83-117

chordal jMtch
circular pitch
compound, for

338, 339

Fractions, decimal

loi

Gearing

Form

Forming

104

sinir, cutters for

with cast teeth

78

of

...

15

13,

in for various
of fits
231, 23a

shop,limits

231

316

German

315

of
Gold, properties

325

Graduations

117

silver
on
on

326
324

micrometer
ten thousandth

226

crometer
mi227

G
madiine
and
wood
screw,
of
drilland steel wire
Gage, sizes,

Gage,
sizes

221

296, 298, 299

taper

24s

of
applications
applicationsof formuulas for

245

245

and

drill,sizes arranged
consecutively
298, 299
Briggs. .42-46
Gages, pipe and fittings
.

combination
grit
149
contact of
152
cup, clearance table
168
for
.

247-249

formulas for
wire

vernier
225
Grinding allowances
153
and lapping
148-168
U.
flats on
S. form of
thread tool
13-iS
hardened work
153
of water in
use
154
wheels and grinding
148
on

disk,

clearance

teblefpr

,.,.,,

969

INDEX

S04

PAGE

Grinding wheeb, gradesfor different

kinds of work

..

157

grading. X48t i53i 156

..

bard

149

speedsof
Gun

150,

155

metal

326
H

Hand

of
I^operties

limitsfor
fits,

904,

asa

305

64

for fluting
number
of flutesin
whed dimensions
Handles,ball
cutter

141
141

370
973

lever

273

binder
for hand
machine

272

wheels

fackson bdt ladng

lam

screws,

318-333

effectof

331-323

318
368

315
315
315
4, 5

Hexagon stock,brass,weight of
steel,
weightof

307

head cap

268

267
268

368,269
269
368

supporting
winged

368, 369
267
269

straiJS

laying
by trigonometry.
figs,
oint,Briggspipe
out

365

...

42

367
306

screws

194

of
properties
High-speedsteel
Hight of work for filing

binding
collar head
headless
nurled head
head

Z3i

Heat treatment
of steel
Heating sted in liquids
methods of
threads
Helix anglesof screw
of
Heptagon, properties

266

366-369

square

393

^55

267

locking

341

310

266

for stop collars

loose
parts, standard

333
153

Harveyizing
Headless jigscrews
of
Heads, key,proportions
for.
of bolts,
stock re"]uired
Heart-shapecams, milling

254,

fixed
Jigbushings,

374

of
steel,properties
work, grinding

3x0, 311

and check nuts, cold pundied.

[arno
taper

371

Hardening, case

Hob

324

wire,wdght of

taps

Hardened

Inserted toodl cutters, number

of
teeth in
138
table of 281
Integralright-angle
triangles,
International standard screw
threads, 2 1
Involute gear tooth
83
of
Iridium, properties
324
Iron bars, wd^t of
306
plates,
weight of
301, 302

367, 370
318
70

68

taps

for fluting
143
number of flutes in
14a
Hobs, cutters for fluting
142
die,number of flutes in
14a
for worm
wheels
38
pipe,cutter for fluting
142
of flutes in
number
142
cutter for fluting
Sellers,
142
number of flutes in. 143
tables for spacing,
in circles,
Hdes
cutter

Key head dimensions

of taper for various
Keys, amount

341

lengths
Keys and key-seats,rules and

244

mensions
di-

for

336, 337

Keys, Barth,

239

feather

239

straight

237-239
336, 237

taper
Woodruff

240, 241
243
371

finding
Keyway depth,total,
Knobs, machine, sizes of

343,

....

....

284-291
Hollow mills for
Hook bolts

screw

machine

170

27s

Hooks, belt

Ladng, bdt
Lag screws

310

Hot pressedand cold punched nuts,

310
U. S. standard sizes
Hot pressedand forged nuts, manufacturers'
standard sizes
211

Hot preyed nuts,

narrow

gage

....

313

310
222

lengthof thread
test

gage

shrink

or

on
Indexing

press

rizes

297

calipers in making
fits

of

163
.

159, 160
160, 161

158
158, 159

Lapixng

for
for sted
of
properties
Leather for case hardening
bath

of bolts
138-137 I^engths

222
223

for holes
for {dugand ringgages

Lead

234

milling machine, i^ain

and differential

Laying out angles by table of chords

holes in drdes, tables

Inclination of

...

Laps, diamond

flatsurfaces

Imperialwire

on

281

384-291
316
324
319
$14

"

INDEX

50s

PAGE

Lengths "^ threads

cut

bolts

on

314

....

of threads cut on lag screws,

22a
Limits for drive fits
339, 333
for hand fits
339, 333
for press fits
329, 332
ior running fits
330, 332
for shop gages,
for various
classes of fits
231,233
for shrink fits
230
Linear {xtchof racks
83
Linear, square, and cubic measure,

English
Linear, square,

328
and

cubic measure,

330

Linii^bushingsfor jigs

366

368, 269

Loom

bolts

Loose

bushingsfor jigd
for press tools

Lubricants
Lubricants

324

Manufacturers' standard heads for

machine bolts
192
standard
Manufacturers'
cold

punched nuts

212

Manufacturers' standard hot pressed

nuts

211

Manufacturers' standard hot pressed

and

forgednuts

211

Manufacturers* standard

narrow

gage

nuts

213

Measurement

of V-tools

1-13

Measures and weights,

Engli^. 328-330
Metric ..330-332
Measuring external and internal
dovetails
264,265
.

Metric

Locking jigscrews

PAGE

of
Manganese, properties

214
266

Measuring

188

Acme
Measiuing screw
threads,
29
degree
threads,fine pitch
Measuring screw
U. S. standard
Measuring screw threads,

ior working copper, brass,

188
steel,etc.,in the punch press

Lubrication
in millingsteel
Lumber
for patterns, estimating

130

threads

screw

with

crometer
mi-

wires

and

27-34
35
34

28, 29

294

Measuring screw

V standard,
threads,

Measuring screw

threads Whitworth,

M
Machine

and wood

screw

gage

sizes,331

bolts with button heads.

with
manufacturers'
standard
heads
with U. S. standard
.

314
193

heads
190, 191
wheels
370
handles for
271
handles
373-374

hand

..

knobs

271

molded
nut

or

gears

taps, number

93

Machine

screw

taps
taps, cutters

screw

taps, number

63
ting
for flu-

head
Co.jfillister
Machine

37
324
324

325

138
324

325
324
327

315,

specificgravity of

324

tensilestrengthof

324

weight of

324

of flutes

331.
.

American

weightsand
199

Micrometer

332

pitch gears

Screw

Screw
American
Co., flat and round head
198
Screw
Machine
American
screws,
200
Co., threads per inch
Machine screw, A. S. M. E. standard,
flat fillister
head
207
A. S. M. E. standard,
Machine
screws,
flathead
208
ard,
Machine
A. S. M. E. standscrews,
oval head
206
Machine
A. S. M. E. standard,
screws,
round head
209
A. S. M. E. standMachine
ard,
screws,
specialsizes
204
A. S. M. E. standMachine
ard,
screws,
specialtaps for
20s
A. S. M. E. standard,
Machine
screws,
standard proportions
200-209
A. S. M. E. standard,
Machine
screws,
standard taps for
203
ard,
Machine screws, A. S. M. E. stand201
thread diagram

24S
228

Metric and Englishconversion tables,

141
screws,

227,

of
properties
141

141

Machine
in
Machine

three-flutedtools
threads
worm
Meltingpointsof metals
of
Mercurv, properties
Metal, tusible
slitting
cutters,pitchof
Metals, chemical symbols of
for bearings
melting pointsof

of flutes

in
screw

32, 33

Measuring tapers

and

how

103
measures

330-332

it is read

226

measuring
applicationin

screws,

three-flutedtools
Micrometer

readings

for

U.

228

S.

threads

Micrometer
Micrometer
threads

24
25

readingsforV Threads
readingsfor Whitworth

26

Micrometer,ten thousandth
227
decimal equivalents
of,
Millimeters,
332,

333

of inches in 334
equivalents
by gearing the dividing
.

Millingcams
head

122

Millingcutters,angle of clearance for

Millingcutters, clearance tables for

120

grinding
Milling cutters,

168
coarse

tages
i"tch,advan-

of

MiUmg

cutters, cutters

120

for fluting,
139,

Milling cutters, fineand

coarse

140

pitch,
119,

120

So6

INDEX

PAGE

MiUingcuttcn,forWoodruff keys..
keyways for

PAGE

340

head
fillister

Oval

machine
A. S. M. ". standard

145

screws,
306

of teeth in,

number

138-140

required

power

to

drive
T-slot

119

146

Packf ong metal

heart-shapedcams

121

lutiricationfor

lao

Patterns,
estimatinglumber iar.
weight of castingsproportionate

machine, plainand
Milling

tial
differen-

on
indexing

Millingmachine

speeds and feeds. 118

table for cutting
.

hollow, for

screw

teeth in
machine.

...

Miter gear table

Morse standard tapers

353,

Multiplethreads,cutting
face platefor

bearing metal.

367
angles
tri281

Pickhng bath for cast iron

Pilots tor counterlxM-es,

table of dimensions

6
8
301

320

334

367
bers
num-

156
369

Nurled head jigscrews

for A. L. A.
Nuts, castellated,

M.

bolts

70
277

Pins and reamers, taper

257
Pipe and pipe threads
39-46
Briggs standard dimensions
.39-43
drillsizes for. 41, 44
66
taps
Pipehobs,cutters for fluting
142
number
of flutes
142
.

Briggs
joint,

335

Company's wheel grade

325

103

Naval

42

taps, cutters for fluting

142

number

of flutes
tools
^\Tiitworth standard
sions,
dimentaWe of

142

cuttingwith
threads,

40

41

Whitworth standard,drill sizes

for
41
Pitch lineof gears
83
Plain millingcutters,cutter for fluting

316

punched,check and jam.

cold punched, manufacturers'

310

bolts

191

for U S. standard rough bolts 1 90

for planerhead bolts
217
hot pressedand forged,manufacturers'
.

standard

811

pressed, manufacturers'

standard

3ix

standard

313
217

leaner
Bolts also.

bdts,nuts

and

washers

317

317

Planers, actual cutting

speed of
393
brassand a"pper, weight of,
Plates,
...

30a, 303

steeland iron,
weightsof .301, 303

Platinum,propertiesof
endwise
Play of calipers

324

for press and

334

in measuring
shrink fits

sidewise in measuring
Play of calipers
for running fits

333,

23s

276

standard pipe
Plug gages for briggs
fittings
42-46
Plug, taper, gage for measuring
24s
Plugs, use of m measuringdovetails 264
367
Polygons,table of
ing
Potassium cyanidefor case harden.

thumb, dimensions of

275

hot pressedand
cold punched
wing,dimensions of

374

U. S. standard

310

Octagon bar steel,

weight of
propertiesof
Oval, countersunk
head, cap
flat end

Oval fillister
head cap

head

sions
Plug and ringgages, standard dimen-

manufacturers'

gage,

139

Planer

nuts

standard
313
for A. L. A. M standard bolts 316
for couplingbolts
217
for U. S. standard finished

see

R.

353

336

beanng metals
of
Nickel, {N-operties
of
Nonagon, properties

321

330,

Perpendiouars,erection of, by

313

narrow

tests

170

Narrow
nuts, manufacturers'
gage
standard
Narrow ga^e washers

hot

319-323

"

"

Pentagon, propertiesof

metal
wire sizes

standard
Nuts, cold

haiden-

138

Norton

"n"
:
Penetration

294
case

1 10

Module, metric pitch

Muntz
Music

Penetration of carbon in

PennsylvaniaR.

....134-137
spirals
ot

294

to

138-137

Mills,end, number

336
...

306

367-370
screw,
197

screws

196

320

Press and runningfits

228, 233
inclination of calipers
in
fits,
measuring for
334
limits for
339, 233
188
tods, lubricants for

punch
Pressure angle of gear teeth
of metals
Properties
Proportionsof machine screw
A. S. M. E. standard

184
96
315-327

heads,
206-200

INDEX

S07

PAGE

thread tool
in testing
angle

Protractor,
clearance

Pulley, findingsize of
Pulleys and gears, speed of

369
314

for

die,allowance

and

Punch

PAGE

use

rate
accu-

work
184-187
Punch
and die,clearance for various
metals
184-187
Punch
184
press tools

Round
Round

fillister
head cap screws
button head
machine
""American Screw Co
screws,
Round
button
head
or
machine
screws, A. S. M. ". standard
two
foot,angle obtained

198
209

Rule,

opening
for solvingangles
speed of pulleysand
drillsand reamers
Running fite,

196

by
294

Rules

366
gear

314
59

for.

limits for
230, 232
side playof calipers
for,
thread cutting

Quadruple

Radius, findingwithout center

Reading the micrometer
eter
Reading the ten-thousandth microm-

368

....

aa6

Reading the vernier

225

44

163
for
144

of

flutes
144
Reamer
clearances,
grinding,
164,166, 167
cutters for fluting
143, 144

for taper pins

257
number
of flutes
143
shell,cutters for fluting
143
number
of flutes
144
taper,
Reaming,leeds and speedsfor screw
machine
183
stock,
Rectangular section bar
weight of
308
Reed taper
254
266
Removable
bushings for jigs
die sinkers
Riffles,see files,
75
integral,table
Right angle triangles,
of

281
.

.42-46
224

tank

224

Rivetiz^washers
and

221

block

chain

sprocket

wheels
Rose

chucking

104-105
reamer,

cutter

for

fluting

Round

and square

number

of
144

machine.

169

countersunk head

bolts

bar stock,brass,copper and

aluminum, weight of
iron
bar stock, steel and
Round

173

Screw

machine

box

tools, cutters,
169

etc

Screw machine dies and taps

Screw machine, feeds for counter-

boringin
machine, hollow mills
machine, sizing work

171

183

Screw
Screw

170

for

threading

172

Screw machine

speedsand
Screw machine, speedsand
drilling
Screw machine, speedsand
forming
Screw machine,speedsand
reaming
Screw machines, speed and

180
feeds
feeds for
.

Screw
Screw
with

182

feeds for
181

feeds for

183
feeds for

turning
Screw machine,
Screw
machine
feeds

179, 180

speedsfor dies
tools, speeds

of
slotting
cutters,pitch

183
and

169-183
138

thread an^le
table
4, s
thread diameter, measuring
wires

27-34

Screw

thread micrometer
caliper
readings for U. S. threads
24
thread micrometer
Screw
caliper
readingsfor V threads
25
Screw
thread micrometer
caliper
26
readings for Whitworth threads.
Screw thread tools,grinding flat for
U. S. form
Screw threads
Screw threads.Acme

13-15

1-38
29

degree,table

of
215

Round

weightof

rules for
Screw machine,allowance for threading

144

Rose
chucking reamer,
flutes
Roughing tool for screw

26

164

of grinding

Roller

for
'

Briggs pipe
chucking and hand, method

Ring gages for Briggs pipeends.

Rivet heads, boiler

gears

multiple
25

for Whitworth threads

Reamer
and cutter grinding

Reamer,
chucking,rose, cutter
fluting
Reamer, chucking,rose, number

cutdng,examples in

24

thread micrometer

screw

for
Screw

thread micrometer
of screw
for U. S. threads
Readings of screw thread micrometer
for V threads

Readings

of

Safety Emery Wheel Co.'s,wheel

grade numbers
156
Sag of wire for alining
shafting. 312, 313
Screw cutting,
arrangement of gears
.

227

Readings

235

233"

307

306

Screw threads.Acme,
Brown
"
Sharpe

22

standard and
threads
worm

compared
Screw
threads, British
table of

10,

11

Association,
19

INDEX

So8
Screw threads,cutting

fractional

threads, French

Screw

(metric)

standard,table of
Screw

91

threads,sharp
V, table oi
threads,60 degree,
measuring

Screws,coach and lag

222

collar head
jig,bindiM
collar head
headless

195
268

267
268

locking

268, 269

head
head

268

268, 269
winged
267
standScrews,machine, A. S. M. ". ard
flathead
flat fillister
head
Screws, machine, A. S. M.
oval fillister
head
Screws, machine, A. S. M.
round head
Screws, machine, A. S. M.

143

standards,

of nts

231, 232

362-367

Shrink fitallowances

231

inclination oi calipers
in
fits,

measuring tor
Shrinkage of castings

234

326

Side clearance of thread toed, tabJe

of
Side or straddle mills,cutters
for

fluting
Side

of

138
nin-

ning fits
233, 235
.."."""";
for
Sides,angles and sines
spacing
table of
holes,etc., in circles,
286-291
Silver,propertiesof
324
Simple gearingtrain for screw
ting
cut.

Sines of angles
ball

Singleend

263
266

269

78-82

cast iron

81

cleaning and holdingwork

81

cold
fluxes for different metals
glass and porcelain
making the fluxes

201

200

193

82
.

^o

78
365

Spacing bolt circles

hdes

in circles,tables

for,
284-291

Specific
gravityof metals

324

Speculum

326

""

screw

machine

182

Speedsand feeds

for

box
fin-gtiing

tools

180

Speedsand feeds for formingin

screw

machine

181

Speeds and feeds for grindingwheels,

1501

Speeds and

feeds for milling machines

Speeds and

feeds for reaming

256,257

Set screws

193

for truing wheels,

powder
steel wire.

screw

and belting

162
.

.312, 313
310-314

155

118
machine
feeds for screw

Speeds and
Shafting,
aliningby

78
82

strengthof joint

Speeds and feeds for drills in

wood
223
Secants and co-secants, table of. 394-405
of angles
363
Sellershob, cutter for fluting
142
68
taps
number
of flutes 142

tapers

for

dimensioning

202

172

table
gibs,dovetail,

Slipbushingstor jigs
Slotted straps for jigs
Soldering

199

for threading in screw

machines

200-209

handles,dimensions
273

E. standard

Screws, machine, threads per inch,

American
Screw Co., standard
Screws, set

382-393
363

.of
Slides and

209

sizes

table of
cosines,

Sines and

207

". standard

4
139

straddle mills,number
teeth in
Side playof calipersin making
or

Sizingwork

206

Co

Settlingdiamond

of flutes
room

trigonometry

208

round
Screws, machine, flat and
Screw
Co
head, American
198
Screws,machine, table of A. S. M. E.,
specialsizes
204
Screws,machine, table of A. S. M. E.,

Settingdiamonds

drawing

266-295

". standard

Screws,machine, diagram of form of

thread,A. S. M. E. standard
can
Screws,machine, fillister
head, Ameri-

standard

and

184
143

gageSj limits for various kinds

E. standard

proportions

Screw

301
.

269

supporting

Screws, machine, A. S. M.

number

Shop

countersunk
head
197
head
fillister
195, 196
hexagon and
square
head
194

square

weight of
Shell blanks, findingdiameter of
cutter for fluting
reamer,

17

with wires
30, 31
Screw threads,U. S. standard,
uring
measwith wires
28, ag
Screw threads,
U. S. standard,table
of
16
Screw threads,Whitworth
standard,
measuringwith wires
3a, 33
Screw threads,
Whitworth standard,
table of
18
Screws, cap, button head
197

nurled

ao

ard,
threads. International standtable of

Screw
Screw

Sheet brass and copper, weight of 302, 303

American ("- B. " S. gage, 302
steel,
U.
S. standard
gage,

in
183

machine

work

Speeds and feeds for turningin

machine

169
screw
1

79, 180

INDEX

509

PAGE

Speeds for threadingin

screw

PAGE

Stove bolt taps

chine
ma-

actual cutting
Speeds of planers,
aga
Speeds of pulleysand gears
314
m
Spiralgears
Spirals,table for cutting on milling
machine

124-127

Splice for belts

310

Spring cotter|Hns

219
172

dies,sizesof

Sprocket wheels

Sqxiarecountersunk head
head cap

bolts

screws

367, 370
69

^ to I inch
Squares,cubes, roots, etc., of

220

341

348-360
can

146
266-269

jigparts
Stationarybushingsfor jigs

Sugar for

297-300
300

218

case

319

268, 269
324

bolt heads for

T-slots,
Tangents and co-tangents,
,

315

high speed

318

lubricant for milling

120
methods of heating
315
plates,American or B. " S.
gage, weight of
302
Birmingham or Stubs

weight of
standard

Tap

Taper

245

formulas for using

247
key heads, dimensions of
.241
and
keyseats,dimensions
of
236, 237
.

.
pins and

reamers

number
dovetails

reamers,

Tapers

257
of flutes

and
for keys, etc., from
inch per foot

Tapers,

144

245-265

to

243-249

foot and corresponding

angles,table of
259
" Sharpe,
standard, Brown
per

250,

301

Reed

301-303
293

and

copper

round and square,

of

254

70

256, 257

of lengths up

260-262
to

24

inches
Taper taps

Tap,

258
65
machine,

screw

number

length and

of lands

173

taUe
Acme, 29-degree,
Tap threads,
of

23

218
Taping for studs,depth of
Taps, Acme, 29 degrees,measuring
with wires
and dies for

37

Taps

aluminum, weight of.

307
iron,weight
306
and
hexagon, brass,
square
weight of
307
round, square, hexagon and
306
octagon, steel,weight of
....

252, 253

table for computing

Tapers, table

251

254,255

Sellers

sizes,

heads

244

measuring

324

for box tool cutters

57-61

gage

applicationof
246
applicadon of formulas for 247-249

296, 298, 299

and square,

224
215

Jamo
lorse

"
Sharpe gage,
weight of
304
Stubs, sizes and weights 300
Btock allowed for upsets
292
flat sizes,
steel,
weight of
308
sheet brass and copper, weight
of
302, 303
dieet steel and wire,weightof,

requiredfor bolt

rivet heads
bolts
drills

303

Brown

of,
371-382
363

gage,

weightof
of
properties
twist drill gage

218
table

Tangents of angles

317

heat of

round

297-299

hardening
Supportingjigscrews
Symbols, chemical,of metals

bars,flat sizes,
weight of
308
bars, round, square, hexagon
and octagon, weight of
306
cooling,apparatus for
316

wire and

gage

and weights
Studs, depth to drill and tap for

315-327

annealing

S.

wire

sizes
steel wire sizes

366, 267

other metab

gage,

296-300

Birmingham

or

be milled

stock

U.

97

Stubs' gages

Tank

bers
num-

Standard

Steel and

189

tooth gears

340,

to 520

Squares, largestthat
round

Stub

311

310,

194

from

on

269

Strength of belt lacing

bolts,U. S. standard

268

thread taps
washers
tions
Squares, cubes, roots, etc., of frac-

237-239

Strapsfor jigs

215

....

jigscrews
of
properties

from

21s

Straightke^ dimensions

104-105

Spur gears, laying out blanks

93
Square bar stock,brass,copper and
alximinum, weightof
307
Square bar stock, steel and iron,
weight of
306

66

bolts

183

cutters

screw

machine.

for fluting

141,

171
142

dimensions
of
62-69
for A. S. M. E. specialmachine
screws, table of
205
for A. S. M. E. standard machine
screws, table of
203
hand
64
hob. cutters for fludng
142

INDEX

Sio

PAGE

Taps, hob. number

of flutes

142
6a

macninescrew
machine
screw, A. S. M.
number
of flutes

"

for fluting
of flutes

number

SeUershob
thread
stove bolt
taper die
tapper
of steel
Temperature

68

69
66

67
65
3x5

strength of metals

324
227

micrometer
Ten-thousandth
Test of lag screws

Thermometers, Fahrenheit
Thread

angle tabie
cutting,
arrangement

174,

of gears

Iron Co.'s wire gage

281

for
rules for

Tubes, Briggs, standard

40

24
25

26
39
40

and

6
7

table of

Brown

" Sharpe, table of

Threads, cutting

International

drills

worms

with wires

30,

47

of

47
49

grinding or sharpening. 48

22

letter and

23

sizes of

19

special
speed of

decimal sizes

55

53-56
50
49
50

troubles

36

Two-point ball-bearingdata

278, 279
326

Type metal
11

U
37

20

21

sharp V, table of
60
degree V, measuring

47

clearance
feed of

35

standard,

table of

37

sizes,
296, 298, 299

angle of spiral

French
(metric) standard,
table of

36

wires
Twist drilland steelwire gage

ing
measur-

with wires
Threads, Acme 29 degree,table of
table of
Threads, Acme 29 degree tajp,
Threads, British Association,taUe
of
" Sharpe 29 degree
Threads, Brown
table of
worm,
"
Threads, Brown
Sharpe worm
and Acme
compared
10,
"
Threads, Brown
Sharpe worm
measuring with wire

of

23

thread.

worm

Twenty-nine degree worm

thread.
Brown
" Sharpe,measuring with

183
degree,

i8o

37

of

tap, taWe

172

29

324

22

Twenty-nine degree thread, Acme,

measuring with wires
Twenty-nine degree thread. Acme,

machine, speeds

for

309

179,

machine, sizing

for

Threads, Acme

weight of

feeds for

Twenty-nine degree

U. S. form,grinding
the
flat for
13-15

screw

copper,

Twenty-nine degree thread, Acme,

readings for

Thread, pipe,Briggs standard

settingtools for cutting
toc4,use of protractor in getting
clearance angle.
table for angle of clearance

screw

41

and

Tungsten, propertiesof
machine work, speeds
Turning screw

micrometer, readingsfor V

thread
Thread
micrometer,
Whitworth
thread

sions
dimen-

of

201

U. S. thread

dimensions

of

Tubing, brass

200,

364
362-367

Tubes, Whitworth,standard

27-34
screws

of

Trigonometryfor the shop

Triplethreads,cutting

sizes

Trigonometrical table

with

175

11-13
297

of
Triangle,tvoperties
367, 369
Triangles,
integralrightangle, taHe

multiple
multiple, face-plate

micrometer, readings for

Threading in

of

measurement

ard machine

work

fractional

wires

Threading in

fluted tools,measuring. .327, 228

nuts, dimensions of
275
of
Tin, properties
324
machine
Tools, box, for screw
169
for U. S. form of thread,grinding
the flat
13-15
forming,circularand dovetail,

Trenton

313
4, 5

form of, for A. S. M. E. sUnd-

Thread

Three
Thumb

V,

tigrade
Cen-

and

ing with wires

32, 33
Whitworth
standard,table
of
18

222

diameter, measuring

Thread

142
66
14a
X4a

square

Tensile

S. standard,measuring
with wires
28, 29
U. S. standard, table of
16
Whitworth standard, meas-

63
141,

pipe
cutters

Threads, U

115
17
31

of
Undecagon, properties

367

Upsets, stock allowed for

292

United

States
flaton
United States
United States
United States
United States
of

form of thread,grinding
13-15

bolts and

nuts.

189- 191

bolts and nuts, finished,191

bolts and nuts, rough
190
bolts and nuts, strength
.

189

INDEX

S"

PAGE

States

KxLted

standard

l"lates
States

cdted

for

gage

297,
nuts, hot

standard

and cold punched

States standard screw
threads,

X"ressed
'

nited
table
T xiited

301
210

16
of
States standard screw
threads,
with wires
measuring
28, 29
washers
J xiited States standard
220
States
threads, micrometer
J xiited

readings for

24

PAGE

Wheels, hard
speeds of

149
150,

15s

White metal
326
Whitworth
standard pipe ends, drill
sizes for
41
Whitworth
standard pipethreads
41
Whitworth
standard
screw
threads,
table of
18
standard
Whitworth
screw
threads,
...

measuring with
Whitworth

wires

;j2,33
ings
read-

thread,micrometer

for

V
V -block

used

measure

with micrometer
fluted taps

to

228

reading for.
60 degree,measuring with

micrometer

V-threads,

wires
table of

sizes,steel
and
in

296, 298, 299

stock weights 296-309

in the
United
use
.

States

297

iron, brass and

of, 11-13

of
properties

Vanadium,

gage

gages

30, 31
17

tools,measurements

weight

copper,

of

324

"

304,30s

and how to read it

sine of angle

Vernier
Versed

25

26

Wing nuts, dimensions of

274
Winged jigscrews
267
Wire and drill gage sizes,
arranged
consecutively
298, 299
Wire for alining
shafting
312, 313

lacmg
steel.Brown

225

363

311

310,

"

Sharpe

gage,

weight of

304

sizes and weights 300

steel,Stubs',
Wires, measuring Acme
29-degree
.

thread with
" Moen
" Moen
cast iron

"W^ashbum
Washburn

Washers,

music wire sizes,301

wire gage

297

bolts.

gage

thread
fine pitch thread

217
220

Wires, measuring 6o-degree V thread

riveting

221

square

220

U. S. standard
conversion factors

29-degreeworm

" Sharpe
with

Wires measuring
diameters with

221

for planer head

narrow

sizes

35

Wires, measuring Brown

220

34

with

used
"

Webster

329

in grinding
Horsefali
music

154

wire

sizes

S.

standard

thread with

28,

Weight

of brass and

copper

copper

tubing. 309

and
bars

num
alumi307

of castingsin proportionto
patterns
of fillets
of iron, brass and
copper
wire
304,
of metals
of sheet steel and iron, U. S.
standard ^ge
of steeland iron bars

bars, flat sizes

iron,brass and copper
of

steel

plates
wire,

metric
Wheels,gradesfor diflferentwork
combination
grit
.

contact

of

223
241

legs

78
76
76
78

benches

hightof
material for
Worm

30s
324
301

306

303
304

bench

295

of steel wire. Stubs' gage

300
English.328- 330
Weights and measures,
.

32,33
.

construction of

"

Sharpe gage

with

Work
Work

77

gearing
threadi

wheel hobs
Worms, diametral

115
115

38

pitch,cuttingin
8

the lathe

diametral pitch, table of

Worms,
change gears for
" Sharpe and
Worm
thread, Brown
Acme

29

thread

Wood screws
.^
Woodruff or Whitney key and cutter
dimensions
240,

294

308

302,

Brown

Wires, measuring Whitworth

.

301

31

30,

Wires, measuring U.

Water

37

screw

thread compared
10,
"
Sharpe,
.

Worm
thread. Brown
table of
Worm
thread, Brown
measuring with wires

1 1

36
"

Sharpe,
37

330-332
...

157

157
152

of
Zinc,properties

gradingof,
148, 152, 156

324

LIST

AUTHORITIES

OF

PAGE

PAGE

Lcxne

Machinery Co

292,

L. P

aford,

59
13-iS

SJxxiond, R. A
Screw Co
American
Vixterican Swiss File " Tool
\jrmes, F. W
H. F
Bros
Saker
" Oliver
Ba.rdons
Becker
MillingMachine Co
" Sharpe Mfg. Co.
Brown

96, 103,

Brownstein, Benj
Cantello, Walter

Co

75

325

115

108,

Colburn,
Cook, Asa
Corbin

250,

Co

35.

37

Co

255.

Press,A. P
Ranstch, E. J
Reed

47

Corporation

78

i86, 187

Henry

72

266-269

Fellows Gear
Fraser, Jas
Garford Co

Shaper Co

Goodrich, C.

Hartford Machine Screw Co.

HaskeU
Mfg. Co., Wm. H

Hedglon, M. J.
Hoagland, F. 0
Holz, Fred
Hoopes " Townsend,

97

A.
Valentine,

Vernon, P. V

193, 217
214
271
227

Walcott

192,

214

222,

234

Wood
Watch
Welsh, T. E

53,
253
232

76, 282, 283

156, 157
262, 263
45,

257,

84
46,

270-272
188
8-10

156
287-291
256, 257
277
241
245

6-7
210-213

Machine

Tool Co. 273

Co

Whitney Mfg. Co.

J. V.
Zeh,E. W
Woodworth,

513

231,
.

221

138-145
236

"

Waltham

118-120, 164-167
ai5,

Stabel,Jos
Standard
Gage Steel Co
Stutz,C. C
Trebert, A
Upson Nut Co

147

278-280
169-183

254

Wheel
Co
Seidensticker,F. W
Sellers " Co., Inc.,Wm

200-209

Co.

Co., F. E

Ryder, T
SafetyEmery

99

" Son,
E

Machine

Co
Engineering
New
Britain Machine
Co.
Norton
Co
Noyes, H. F
Nuttall " Co
Pratt
" Whitney Co

4-6

34
149-155

Ellis, M.

220,

Drill "

Newall

i68

I"angerneld,Tas
Darbyshire, H
Disston

Twist

146
31S-323

252,

121

Cregar, J. W

Dean,

239

156, 157

Twist Drill Co
Geo. L

Screw

251

29s

28-33,

Carstensen, Fred R
Cincinnati
Milling Machine
Cleveland

24-1 27
88,
24-27,
1

Laughlin,

"

Morse

11-13
236, 237

128-137,
11,

Tones

228-230
158-161

Lachman, Robt
Lake, E. F
Milton Mfg. Co

198-200

Mkins,

Carborundum

Co., C. W
Johnson, E. A
Hunt

293

31

264, 265
240,

241

188

184, i8s

Tool

Accurate
C.

By

GOODRICH

L.

PraU

Department Foreman,

Associate

Editor

Machinist,

American

"

Handbook,"

Over

250

6x9.

pages,

Hill

The

22

and

Whitney Co.

STANLEY

A.

F.

AND

Work

Author

Kink

of

"

American

Books,"

illustrations.

and

Machinists^

etc.

postpaid

2.00

devices

employed
in making accurate
jigs and
by the toolmaker
almost universallyrequired by
specialtools now
the making of the devices
the manufacturer
of parts.
insure interchangeability
which
Deals

with

processes

"

the

toolmaker

modern

The

of

use

CONTENTS:

other

"

be familiar with

plates,discs,buttons,test
appliances.

master

and

must

Locating

and

Boring Holes in
Jigs;Economical

Drill

dicators
in-

Tigs;

Boring Oblique Holes

Jig Work
the Milling Machine;
ing
Boring Holes on the Miller and Checkon
with
Verniers; A Precision
Machine;
Drilling and Reaming
Master
Plates and How
They are Made; Master Plates and Their
in Making
Watch
Master
Plates Used
Uses in Die Making;
Tools;
A Tool for Laying Out Angles;
Trigonometry in the Tool Room;
Slides, Gibs and V's; A Gage ror Producing
Measuring Dovetail
in

Locating

and

Accurate

Tapers;

The

Microscopein

the Manufacturing
Plant; Making
Dials; Inspecting Tools with the Test

in

Index

the Tool

TnHirafrnr
v"*|[g^

\iation
with

and

Gaging

the Swedish

Room;
a

Set

The
of

of its

BOOK

McGRAW-HILL
NEW

YORK

Accurate

Indicator;

Applications; A New
System; Setting, Laying-out and
Gages.

Some

scope
Micro-

COMPANY

A
UniSwedish

Testing

THE

HILL

KINK

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50c EACH
npHE
*

best littleseries for the

the

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published.
They fitthe pocket and the pocketbook.
They give all the little kinks
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worked
out by clever men
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ever

"

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REPAIR
DRILL

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PRESS

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TOOLMAKERS'
SCREW

THREAD

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SCREW

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MAKING

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MACHINE

DRAWING-ROOM
MILLING

JIG

AND

KINKS

MACHINE

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FIXTURE

McGRAW-HILL

KINKS

BOOK
NEW

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13

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1

'"