Collecting qualitative data

BUSINESS RESEARCH
Lecture 8
Collecting qualitative
data

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Learning objectives

After studying this topic, you should be able to

Describe methods based on interviews
Describe methods based on diaries
Describe methods based on observation
Compare the strengths and weaknesses of methods
Choose a method that reflects your paradigm

Independent study
Study Chapter 8
Activities and progress test as set

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Introduction

It is the research data rather than the method of

collection that can be described as quantitative
(numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical)
Data can be primary (new) or secondary (existing)
Interpretivists will want to collect qualitative data
Positivists may also collect some which they will later
quantify, especially if they use methodological
triangulation (see Chapter 5)

You need to describe and justify the method(s) you

use to collect your research data in your
methodology chapter

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Collecting qualitative data

Data collection in the context of the research process

Choose a topic and conduct a systematic search
of the literature
Write a critical review of the literature and define
the research problem/research questions
Design the research and write the proposal
Collect the research data (primary or secondary
Analyse and interpret the research data
Write the dissertation or thesis
Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Interviews
An interview is a method for collecting primary data
in which a sample of interviewees are asked
questions to find out what they think, do or feel
(Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 144)
Interviews can be conducted with individuals or
groups, using face-to-face, telephone, email or video
conferencing methods

Interpretivists prefer unstructured interviews

(questions not planned in advance) and
open questions
Positivists use structured interviews with closed questions
Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Interviews - Advantages and problems

Advantages

Potential problems

You can ask complex questions and use probes

Access to participants (interpretivists) or to a
representative sample (positivists)
Cost (time, expense) and risk (personal security)
Permission to record data (audio, video, notes)
Concerns about confidentiality/anonymity
Interviewee wearing more than one hat
Interviewer bias (no approval/disapproval)
Ensuring stimulus equivalence (positivists)
Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Collecting qualitative data

Critical incident technique

Interviews are not merely idle conversations - you

are trying to get in-depth and authentic knowledge
One way to do this is to use critical incident
technique (Flanagan, 1954), which is a method for
collecting data about a defined activity or event
based on the participants recollections of key facts
(Collis and Hussey, 2009, p.147)
Interpretivists use it in unstructured interviews
Positivists use it in structured interviews or
questionnaires
Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Example of critical incident technique

Research problem: Access to finance

Please think about an occasion when the business

was seeking finance
How much was required and for what purpose?
Can you tell me what happened from the beginning?

Probes
Did you seek any advice? If so, at what stage, from whom
and what advice did you receive?
How did you select the potential source(s) of finance?
What information were you asked to supply?
Were any applications unsuccessful? If so, what were the
reasons?

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Exercise 1
Critical incident technique

What are the advantages and potential problems of

using critical incident technique?
Jot down a few notes

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

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Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Collecting qualitative data

Solution 1
Critical incident technique

Advantages
Simple to use
Creates focus as interviewee talks about issues in the
context of his or her experience and discourages
interviewee from talking about hypothetical situations

Potential problems
Interviewees reason for choosing the event is not known
Important facts may have been forgotten
Post-rationalisation may have taken place (the interviewee
recounts the events with a degree of logic and coherence
that did not exist at the time)

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

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Protocol analysis (Clarkson, 1962)

Protocol analysis is a method for collecting data

used to identify a practitioners mental processes in
solving a problem in a particular situation, including
the logic and methods used (Collis and Hussey,
2009, p. 148)
The researcher gives a written problem to a practitioner
who is experienced in that field
As the practitioner addresses the problem, he or she gives
verbal explanations which are recorded by the researcher

A protocol is a transcript of the verbalization

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

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Protocol analysis
Advantages and problems

Advantages
Reduces the risk of interviewer bias
Reduces the possibility of omitting potentially important
areas or aspects
Technique is open-ended and flexible

Potential problems
Time-consuming and labour intensive (Bolton, 1991)
Retrospective verbalization does not represent a real-time
situation, but rather an action replay (Day, 1986)
Concurrent verbalization may be too time-consuming as
the researcher must maintain a continuous presence

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Collecting qualitative data

Repertory grid technique (Kelly, 1955)

Repertory grid technique is a method based on

personal construct theory that generates a
mathematical representation of a participants
perceptions and constructs (Collis and Hussey,
2009, p.150) during a structured interview
A grid is generated using the interviewees notions of the
concepts under discussion (the elements) and attributes of
the elements (the constructs)
Interpretivists get a mental map of how each interviewee
views the world and can interpret the emerging patterns
Positivists collect quantitative data for statistical analysis

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Procedure for constructing a repertory grid

Determine the focus of the grid

Determine the elements in advance or agree them with the
interviewee (approx 5 10)
Write each element on a separate card
Decide whether to use 2 cards (dyads) or 3 (triads) and
randomly select the appropriate number of cards
Ask the interviewee to provide a word/phrase that describes
each similarity or difference between pairs of elements and
use these words as the constructs on the grid
Explain the rating scale (eg 5 = high, 1 = low)
Ask the interviewee to indicate the number closest to his/her
view and explain the reason

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An employees constructs of organizational systems

Adapted from Dunn and Ginsberg (1986, p. 964)
Constructs

Elements

(Rated on a
Inventory
scale of 1 7) management
system

Strategic
planning
system

Office
automation

Decision
support
system

Quality
working
circle

Collateral
organization

Technical
quality

Cost

Challenge to
status quo

Actionability

Evaluability

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Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

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Collecting qualitative data

Exercise 2
Repertory grid technique

The structured and quantitative approach of

repertory grid technique gives rise to controversy
over its suitability for an interpretive study
In addition to recording the interviewees rating
scores on the grid, what else might an interpretivist
want to record to support his or her interpretation of
the grid?

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Solution 2
Repertory grid technique

Ask the interviewee to generate the elements and

constructs, but also to explain why they have chosen
each element and what each construct means
Ask the interviewee to explain why he or she has
given a particular rating score to each pairing
Record all stages (audio and notes)

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Diary methods

A diary is a method of collecting data where

selected participants are asked to record relevant
information in diary forms or booklets over a
specified period of time (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p.
152)
A log is a detailed record of time spent on activities
(preferred by positivists)
A diary is a descriptive record of participants daily life
A diary-interview is where detailed questions are
developed from the diary and used as the basis of an indepth interview with the diarist (Plummer, 1983)

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Collecting qualitative data

Diary methods
Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
Greater coverage of types and locations of participants
Participants classify their activities, rather than an
observer who may not have the technical knowledge
All time can be recorded, rather than when an observer is
present

Potential problems
Selecting participants who can express themselves well
Providing encouragement over the record-keeping period
Risk of recording bias by participants
Comparison may be difficult if sample is not homogenous

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Observation

Observation is a method for collecting data used in

a laboratory or natural setting to observe and record
peoples actions and behaviour (Collis and Hussey,
2009, p. 154)
Non-participant observation (researcher is not involved)
Participant observation (researcher is fully involved)

Potential problems
Access, ethics, cost/time, how to record the data
Demand characteristics (effect of researchers presence)
Researcher bias (eg one observer interprets action
differently from a co-researcher)

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

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Focus groups

A focus group is a method for collecting data

whereby selected participants discuss their reactions
and feelings about a product, service, situation or
concept, under the guidance of a group leader
(Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 155)
Group leader facilitates discussion of a prepared list of
topics using broad open questions, visual displays
Assistant records what is said and by whom
(audio, video, notes)

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

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Collecting qualitative data

Focus groups
Advantages and disadvantages

Advantage of focus groups is that they combine

interviewing and observation and can be used to
Develop knowledge of a new phenomenon
Generate propositions from the issues that emerge
Develop questions for a survey
Obtain feedback on the findings of research in which the
focus group members participated

Potential problems
Selecting a range of participants, choosing a venue,
ensuring issues are covered in sufficient depth, recording
Cost/time

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

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Grounded theory

Grounded theory is a methodology in which a

systematic set of procedures is used to develop an
inductively derived theory about phenomena (Collis
and Hussey, 2009, p. 157)

Joint collection, coding and analysis of data is the

underlying operation. The generation of theory,
coupled with the notion of theory as process,
requires that all three operations be done together
as much as possible (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, p.
43)

Used where there is no theory to explain the phenomena

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Grounded theory
Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
Any data collection method associated with an interpretive
paradigm can be used in a grounded theory methodology

Potential problems
It is hard to rid yourself of the boundaries imposed by prior
theory but you need to have an open mind (imagine you
are observing the Olympic Games from another planet
and trying to make sense of what you see)
Limited generalization as the resulting substantive models
relate only to the particular context and research setting

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

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Collecting qualitative data

Conclusions

You can collect primary or secondary research data

Do not collect any data until you have decided on
your method of analysis
Your methods must have a good fit with your paradigm
and methodology, be feasible and allow you to investigate
your research questions
You will justify your choice in your methodology chapter

It is not possible to give a full description of the main

methods introduced in this lecture
Now read Chapter 8
Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Business Research

Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

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