EXERCISE 3.1.

For (a), we apply Laplace expansion along the row or column with the most
number of zeros—in this case, the third column—to obtain

Da=101010100=-11+3a13M13+-12+3a23M23+-13+3a33M33
=a13C13-a23C23+a33C33
=10110-01010+01001
Da=1.

For (b), we try another useful device for evaluating a third-order determinant—
that is, we write down the determinant column by column, then after the third, we
repeat the first and second columns to create a 3×5 array of numbers. The value of
the determinant is equal to the sum of six terms: the first three terms carry a positive
sign and are formed by the product of three elements along each of the three
diagonals going from upper left to lower right; the other three terms carry a negative
sign and are products formed along the diagonals from lower left to upper right.
Hence,

Db=120312031=120312031123103
=1∙1∙1+2∙2∙0+0∙3∙3-0∙1∙0-3∙2∙1-1∙3∙2.
=1-6-6
Db=-11.

To check this result, we can use Laplace expansion on the elements of the top
row:

Db=120312031=-11+1a11M11+-11+2a12M12+-11+3a13M13
=a11C11-a12C12+a13C13
=1∙1231-2∙3201+0∙3103
=1-6-2(3-0)
Db=-11.

For (c), the first row, third row, and the first column all have three zeros out of
four terms and so they are all equally good choices for Laplace expansion. Suppose we
choose to expand across the first row, we obtain

Dc=120300302002030030
=12-11+1a11M11+-11+2a12M12+-11+3a13M13+-11+4a14M14
=12a11C11-a12C12+a13C13-a14C14
Dc=12-3320003030

Expanding the third-order determinant along the first column, we get

1
Dc=-32320003030
=-32-11+1a11M11+-12+1a21M21+-13+1a31M31
=-32a11C11-a21C21+a31C31
=-32∙30330
=-32∙0-3∙3
=-32∙-3
=92 .

EXERCISE 3.1.3

By definition, the determinant D2 of the coefficients given pair of equations is

given by
D2=1224=1∙4-2∙2=4-4=0,
while the numerator determinants Nx and Ny are
given by
Nx=3264=3∙4-6∙2=12-12=0,
Ny=1326=1∙6-2∙3=6-6=0.
Because the determinants D2, Nx, and Ny all
vanish for the given pair of inhomogeneous
equations, solutions may exist but they are not
unique. Geometrically, the lines represented by the
two equations are coincident. That is, if we write
both of them in slope-intercept form, we obtain the
same equation whose graph is plotted on the xy-
coordinate plane below:

2
 x+2y=3 2x+4y=6
2y=-x+3 4y=-2x+6
y=-12x+32 y=-24x+64
y=-12x+32

Any ordered pair (x,y) representing any point on the line is a solution of the given
system. Some of these ordered pairs are tabulated below:

x y

-3 3 y=-12-3+32=32+32
5
-2 y=-12-2+32=22+32
2
-1 2 y=-12-1+32=12+32
- 7
y=-12-12+32=14+32
12 4
3
0 2
y=-120+32=32

5
12 y=-1212+32=-14+32
4
1 1 y=-121+32=-12+32
1
2 2
y=-122+32=-22+32

3 0 y=-123+32=-32+32

EXERCISE 3.1.5

(a) Consider two determinants aij and aji, where aij is the general nth order
determinant and aji is the nth order determinant formed by interchanging rows and
columns of aij. In double-subscript notation,
aij=a11a12⋯a1na21a22⋯a2n∙∙⋯∙an1an2⋯ann, and
aji=a11a21⋯an1a12a22⋯an2∙∙⋯∙a1na2n⋯ann.

Now it is a fundamental theorem that determinants of any order can be

evaluated by a Laplace development on any row or column. Thus, we can evaluate
both determinants aij and aji by Laplace expansion either along any row to get

aij=j=1n-1i+jaijMij=j=1naijCij for any i ,

and
aji=j=1n-1j+iajiMji=j=1najiCji for any i ,

or along any column to get

aij=i=1n-1i+jaijMij=i=1naijCij for any j ,

3
and
aji=i=1n-1j+iajiMji=i=1najiCji for any j .

But according to one of the fundamental properties of the nth order

determinants, the value of the determinant remains the same if rows and
columns are interchanged. By this property, we can therefore establish the
following:

(i) aij=aji ;

(ii) j=1naijCij=j=1najiCji for any i ;

(iii) i=1naijCij=i=1najiCji for any j .

Now if A=aij , it follows from (i) and (iii) that

iaijCij=iajiCji=A .

(b) Suppose aij and aji are the third-order determinants D3 and D3T :

aij=D3=a11a12a13a21a22a23a31a32a33 and aji=D3T=a11a21a31a12a22a32a13a23a33.

If we form iaijCik where j≠k, we have the following six cases:

Case 1: j=1, k=2.

iaijCik=i=13ai1Ci2=a11C12+a21C22+a31C32
=a11∙-11+2a21a23a31a33+a21∙-12+2a11a13a31a33+a31∙-13+2a11a13a21a23
=-a11a21a33-a23a31+a21a11a33-a13a31-a31a11a23-a13a21
=-a11a21a33+a11a23a31+a21a11a33-a21a13a31-a31a11a23+a31a13a21=0.

Case 2: j=1, k=3.

iaijCik=i=13ai1Ci3=a11C13+a21C23+a31C33
=a11∙-11+3a21a22a31a32+a21∙-12+3a11a12a31a32+a31∙-13+3a11a12a21a22
=a11a21a32-a22a31-a21a11a32-a12a31+a31a11a22-a12a21
=a11a21a32-a11a22a31-a21a11a32+a21a12a31+a31a11a22-a31a12a21=0.

Case 3: j=2, k=1.

iaijCik=i=13ai2Ci1=a12C11+a22C21+a32C31
=a12∙-11+1a22a23a32a33+a22∙-12+1a12a13a32a33+a32∙-13+1a12a13a22a23
=a12a22a33-a23a32-a22a12a33-a13a32+a32a12a23-a13a22
=a12a22a33-a12a23a32-a22a12a33+a22a13a32+a32a12a23-a32a13a22=0.

Case 4: j=2, k=3.

iaijCik=i=13ai2Ci3=a12C13+a22C23+a32C33
=a12∙-11+3a21a22a31a32+a22∙-12+3a11a12a31a32+a32∙-13+3a11a12a21a22
=a12a21a32-a22a31-a22a11a32-a12a31+a32a11a22-a12a21
=a12a21a32-a12a22a31-a22a11a32+a22a12a31+a32a11a22-a32a12a21=0.

Case 5: j=3, k=1.

iaijCik=i=13ai3Ci1=a13C11+a23C21+a33C31
=a13∙-11+1a22a23a32a33+a23∙-12+1a12a13a32a33+a33∙-13+1a12a13a22a23
=a13a22a33-a23a32-a23a12a33-a13a32+a33a12a23-a13a22

4
=a13a22a33-a13a23a32-a23a12a33+a23a13a32+a33a12a23-a33a13a22=0.

Case 6: j=3, k=2.

iaijCik=i=13ai3Ci2=a13C12+a23C22+a33C32
=a13∙-11+2a21a23a31a33+a23∙-12+2a11a13a31a33+a33∙-13+2a11a13a21a23
=-a13a21a33-a23a31+a23a11a33-a13a31-a33a11a23-a13a21
=-a13a21a33+a13a23a31+a23a11a33-a23a13a31-a33a11a23+a33a13a21=0.

By exhausting all possible scenarios of j≠k in third-order determinants (n=3), we have

shown
i=13ai1Ci2=i=13ai1Ci3=i=13ai2Ci1=i=13ai2Ci3=i=13ai3Ci1=i=13ai3Ci2=0.

This process can be carried out, one step at a time, to any n. Therefore, we conclude
iaijCik=0 for j≠k.
Moreover, analogous to the relationship
iaijCij=iajiCji
established in part (a), we can also write
iaijCik=iajiCki .
It follows that
iaijCik=iajiCki=0 for j≠k.

EXERCISE 3.1.7

5
Method I: CRAMER’S RULE

According to Cramer’s Rule, if the determinant Dn of the coefficients of a set of

linear equations is not zero, then the system has a unique solution, xi=NiDn for
1≤i≤n, where Ni is the determinant obtained by replacing the ith column of Dn by the
inhomogeneous terms. Applying Cramer’s Rule to the given set of six linear
inhomogeneous equations with six unknowns yields

x1=N1D=1.00.90.80.40.100.91.00.80.50.20.10.8 x4=N4D=1.00.90.81.00.100.91.00.80.90.20.10.8

0.81.00.70.40.20.70.50.71.00.60.30.60.20.40.61. 0.81.00.80.40.20.40.50.70.70.60.30.10.20.40.61.

00.50.50.10.20.30.51.0D, 00.500.10.20.50.51.0D,

x2=N2D=1.01.00.80.40.100.90.90.80.50.20.10.8 x5=N5D=1.00.90.80.41.000.91.00.80.50.90.10.8

0.81.00.70.40.20.40.70.71.00.60.30.10.60.40.61. 0.81.00.70.80.20.40.50.71.00.70.30.10.20.40.60.

00.500.50.20.30.51.0D, 60.500.10.20.30.51.0D,

x3=N3D=1.00.91.00.40.100.91.00.90.50.20.10.8 x6=N6D=1.00.90.80.40.11.00.91.00.80.50.20.90.

0.80.80.70.40.20.40.50.71.00.60.30.10.20.60.61. 80.81.00.70.40.80.40.50.71.00.60.70.10.20.40.61

00.500.10.50.30.51.0D, .00.600.10.20.30.50.5D,

where
D=1.00.90.80.40.100.91.00.80.50.20.10.80.81.00.70.40.20.40.50.71.00.60.30.10.20.40.61.00.500.10.
20.30.51.0.

Though Cramer’s Rule is handy for linear systems of two or three equations,
using it to solve the given system of six equations with six unknowns is not very
practical.
Method II: GAUSS ELIMINATION

The Gauss elimination technique (also known as echelon method or

triangularization) is a shorter and less complicated way to find the solution of the
given system:

6
 A0

B0

C0

D0

E0

F0

Since equations A0, B0, C0, D0, E0, and F0 have already been arranged with
the largest coefficients running along the main diagonal, we proceed directly with the
elimination process.

Starting off, we use the first equation A0 to eliminate the first unknown x1 from
equations B0, C0, D0, and E0.

A0 : x + 0.9 x2 + 0.8 x3 + 0.4 x4 + 0.1 x5 =1

1 0 0 0 0
B1=0.9A0-B0 : - 0.1 x2 - 0.0 x3 - 0.1 x4 - 0.1 x5 - 0.1 x6 = 0

9 8 4 1 0
C1=0.8A0-C0 : - 0.0 x2 - 0.3 x3 - 0.3 x4 - 0.3 x5 - 0.2 x6 = 0

8 6 8 2 0
D1=0.4A0-D0 : - 0.1 x2 - 0.3 x3 - 0.8 x4 - 0.5 x5 - 0.3 x6 = -0.3

4 8 4 6 0
E1=0.1A0-E0 : - 0.1 x2 - 0.3 x3 - 0.5 x4 - 0.9 x5 - 0.5 x6 = -0.5

1 2 6 9 0
F0 : + 0.1 x2 + 0.2 x3 + 0.3 x4 + 0.5 x5 + 1.0 x6 = 0.5

0 0 0 0 0

Next, we use B1 to eliminate x2 from equations C1, D1, E1, and F0.

B2=-B10.19 : x + 0.421052 x + 0.736842 x + 0.578947 x + 0.526315 x = 0

2 63 3 11 4 37 5 79 6

C2=B2-- : - 4.078947 x - 4.013157 x - 3.421052 x - 1.973684 x = 0

C10.08 37 3 89 4 63 5 21 6

D2=B2-- : - 2.293233 x - 5.263157 x - 3.421052 x - 1.616541 x = -

D10.14 08 3 89 4 63 5 35 6 2.1428571
4
E2=B2--E10.11 : - 2.488038 x - 4.354066 x - 8.421052 x - 4.019138 x = -

28 3 99 4 63 5 76 6 4.5454545
5

7
F1=B2-F00.10 : - 1.578947 x - 2.263157 x - 4.421052 x - 9.473684 x = -5

37 3 89 4 63 5 21 6

Repeating the same technique above, we use C2 to eliminate x3 from equations D2,
E2, and F1.

C3=-C24.078… : x + 0.9838709 x + 0.8387096 x + 0.4838709 x = 0

3 68 4 77 5 68 6

D3=C3-- : - 1.3112109 x - 0.6530936 x - 0.2210470 x = -0.93442623

D22.293… 99 4 01 5 65 6

E3=C3-- : - 0.7661290 x - 2.5459057 x - 1.1315136 x = -

E22.488… 32 4 07 5 48 6 1.82692307
7
F2=C3-- : - 0.4494623 x - 1.9612903 x - 5.5161290 x = -
F11.578… 66 4 23 5 32 6 3.16666666
7

We eliminate the remaining unknowns x4, x5, and x6 similarly.

D4=-D31.311… : x + 0.4980842 x + 0.1685823 x = 0.71264367

4 91 5 75 6 8
E4=D4-- : - 2.8249926 x - 1.3083407 x = -
E30.766… 32 5 01 6 1.67197170
6
F3=D4-- : - 3.8655520 x - 12.104144 x = -
F20.449… 72 5 90 6 6.33281086
7

E5=-E42.824… : x + 0.4631306 x = 0.59184993

5 60 6 5
F4=E5-- : - 2.6681542 x = -
F33.865… 56 6 1.04641822
1

F5=-F42.668… : x = 0.3921880
6 52

We obtain the values of the other unknowns by working back up. Starting from E5 , we
get
x5+0.463130660x6=0.591849935
x5=0.591849935-0.463130660x6
x5=0.591849935-0.4631306600.392188052=0.410215624.

Substituting these values of x5 and x6 to D4 yields

8
x4+0.498084291x5+0.168582375x6=0.712643678
x4=0.712643678-0.498084291x5-0.168582375x6
x4=0.712643678-0.4980842910.410215624-0.1685823750.392188052=0.442205726.

Then from C3 , we have

x3+0.983870968x4+0.838709677x5+0.483870968x5=0
x3=-0.983870968x4-0.838709677x5-0.483870968x5
x3=-0.9838709680.442205726-0.8387096770.410215624-0.4838709680.392188052
x3=-0.968893602;

from B2, we have

x2+0.42105263x3+0.73684211x4+0.57894737x5+0.52631579x6=0
x2=-0.42105263x3-0.73684211x4-0.57894737x5-0.52631579x6
x2=-0.42105263-0.968893602-0.736842110.442205726-0.578947370.410215624-
0.526315790.392188052
x2=-0.361788618;

and finally from A0, we have

x1+0.90x2+0.80x3+0.40x4+0.10x5=0
x1=-0.90-0.361788618-0.80-0.968893602-0.400.442205726-0.100.410215624
x1=1.882820785.

Therefore, the solution of the given set of six linear inhomogeneous equations with six
unknowns is:
x1=1.88282;
x2=-0.36179;
x3=-0.96889;
x4=0.44221;
x5=0.41026;
x6=0.39219.
EXERCISE 3.1.9

By definition of the dot product, the given vector equations can be transformed
into the following scalar equations:
a∙x=d
a1x1+a2x2+a3x3=d
:
b∙x=e
b1x1+b2x2+b3x3=e
:
c∙x=f
c1x1+c2x2+c3x3=f
:
where
x=x1i+x2j+x3k ,
a=a1i+a2j+a3k ,
b=b1i+b2j+b3k ,
c=c1i+c2j+c3k .

9
 Now according to Cramer’s Rule, this resulting system of linear equations has a
unique solution
x1=N1Dn=da2a3eb2b x2=N2Dn=a1da3b1eb x3=N3Dn=a1a2db1b2

3fc2c3Dn 3c1fc3Dn ec1c2fDn

if the determinant Dn of the coefficients is not zero:

Dn=a1a2a3b1b2b3c1c2c3≠0 .
By definition of the triple scalar product,
Dn=a1a2a3b1b2b3c1c2c3=a×b∙c ,
with a×b∙c≠0, as specified in the problem.

Since Dn ≠0, the system indeed has a unique solution given by

x1=N1a×b∙c x2=N2a×b∙c x3=N3a×b∙c

where the numerator determinants N1, N2, N3 can be evaluated using Laplace
expansion along the columns containing the constants d, e, f. Hence, for N1 we
expand along the first column to obtain

N1=da2a3eb2b3fc2c3=d∙(-1)1+1b2b3c2c3+e∙(-1)2+1a2a3c2c3+f∙(-1)3+1a2a3b2b3
=db2c3-b3c2-ea2c3-a3c2+fa2b3-a3b2
N1=db×ci-ea×ci+fa×bi .
Then for N2 and N3 , we expand along the second and third column, respectively:

N2=a1da3b1eb3c1fc3=d∙(-1)1+2b1b3c1c3+e∙(-1)2+2a1a3c1c3+f∙(-1)3+2a1a3b1b3
=-db1c3-b3c1+ea1c3-a3c1-fa1b3-a3b1
N2=db×cj-ea×cj+fa×bj .

N3=a1a2db1b2ec1c2f=d∙(-1)1+3b1b2c1c2+e∙(-1)2+3a1a2c1c2+f∙(-1)3+3a1a2b1b2
=db1c2-b2c1-ea1c2-a2c1+fa1b2-a2b1
N3=db×ck-ea×ck+fa×bk .

Using the results obtained from Laplace development by complementary minors,

the solution of the system of linear equation becomes

x1=db×ci-ea×ci+fa×bia×b∙c ,

x2=db×cj-ea×cj+fa×bja×b∙c ,

x3=db×ck-ea×ck+fa×bka×b∙c .

The ordered triple x1, x2, x3 can also be expressed in vector form as
x=x1, x2, x3

=x1i+x2j+x3k

=db×ci-ea×ci+fa×bia×b∙ci+db×cj-ea×cj+fa×bja×b∙cj+db×ck-ea×ck+fa×bka×b∙ck

=db×cii+b×cjj+b×ckka×b∙c-ea×cii+a×cjj+a×ckka×b∙c+fa×bii+a×bjj+a×bkka×b∙c

x=db×c-ea×c+fa×ba×b∙c=db×c+ec×a+fa×ba×b∙c .

10