Well Velocity 1

5000

10,000

15,000

Velocity - feet/sec

0
2
4

Velocities are
directly measured in
wells:

Depth - x1000 feet

6
8
10
12
14
16

Average
Velocity

RMS
Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Well Velocity Measurements

What velocity measurements are made in wells?
What velocities do we obtain?
What are some of the problems encountered with
these velocity measurements?

3.1

Checkshot

Well Velocity 1

Schematic cross section

Derrick floor
Ground surface
Gun/shot depth

MSL Datum

Base of weathering

Sea bed

Well geophone
or hydrophone

The various measurements required to correct the measured

times and well depths to true vertical times below datum.

Checkshot

Well Velocity 1

Velocities
We observe the travel-time from a source at a known
position to a receiver at a known position.
We make a direct measurement of the average
velocity.
The difference between two measurements gives us
the interval velocity.

3.2

Checkshot

Well Velocity 1

Source
Source related problems with
onshore surveys:
Variable coupling between
shots,
Variable weathering layer
velocities,

Checkshot

Well Velocity 1

Source
Source related problems with onshore surveys:
Variable coupling between shots,
Vibroseis source compacts ground, digs in and has
to be moved
Explosives cannot reoccupy the same place
Mud pits in the ground can loose filtrate affecting
groundwater saturation
Tanks can offer poor coupling
Variable weathering layer velocities and layer
thicknesses
3.3

Checkshot

Well Velocity 1

Near Surface
Billie Yates 18D

Two checkshot surveys

acquired in the same
well from different
surface locations, but
assuming the same
weathering layer and low
velocity.

Average Velocity ft/s

8000

9000

10000

11000

12000

Depth below SRD ft

1000

These data suggest that

the near surface velocity
is different at the two
locations.

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000
vibroseis

dynamite

Marsden, 1999, Leading Edge, v. 18, no. 2.

Checkshot

Well Velocity 1

Ray Paths - Zero Offset

Ray paths obey Fermats principle.
The seismic energy takes the path
of least travel-time rather than the
path which is geometrically the
shortest distance.
Check shot interval velocities and
integrated logs will fail to agree and
the calibrated log may be found to
require a geologically
unreasonably fast velocity.
3.4

Checkshot

Well Velocity 1

Well Velocity Curves

5000

10,000

Velocity - feet/sec

15,000

0
2
4

Depth - x1000 feet

6
8
10
12
14
16

Average
Velocity

RMS
Velocity

Interval Velocity
every 500 feet
Data Courtesy of Amoco

VSP

Well Velocity 1

Vertical Seismic Profile

How does a VSP differ from a checkshot survey?

What common VSP surveys are there?

3.5

VSP

Well Velocity 1

Geometry
SHOT

The field geometry for a VSP.

A
B

1000 m

2000 m

The borehole geophone, or

hydrophone, station interval
was typically 50 to 100 ft (25m)
apart, now it is often 12.5m.
A full seismic trace is recorded
to enable correlation between
borehole depths and seismic
events.

Raypaths

VSP

Well Velocity 1

Records

UPG
WA OING
VE
ING
GO
WN E
O
D AV
P-W

TIME

The first break on

each of the traces
gives the timedepth records
which correspond
to the checkshot
records.

DEPTH

Data Courtesy of Amoco

TUBE-WAVES

3.6

S-WAVES

VSP

Well Velocity 1

Velocities

6 3

Average
Velocity
500

Depth - m.

Notice the more

detailed interval
velocity curve
compared to that
obtained by
checkshots

Velocity x1000 m/s

0

1000

Interval
Velocity

RMS
Velocity

Data Courtesy of Amoco

VSP

Well Velocity 1

Walk Above VSP

Lateral velocity variations
above the well make it difficult
to reconcile VSP, sonic and
seismic velocities.
Source cannot always be
located above receiver position.
The sonic log is affected by
anisotropy as the well deviation
increases.
With this type of survey it is
difficult to get a tie between the
sonic log and VSP data.
3.7

VSP

Well Velocity 1

Corrections
OFFSET m x 1000

In situations where the raypaths are not close to vertical

(large offsets, deviated holes,
large near-surface velocity
contrasts) the travel-times
should be corrected to the
vertical using RMS velocity
rather than average velocity.

DEPTH m x 1000

1
2000 m/s
2
4000 m/s
3

This reduces the error in the

time depth curve and in
subsequent interval velocity
estimates.

MODEL
After Noponen, 1995, Geophysics, v. 60, no. 6.

VSP

Well Velocity 1

Corrections
Apply average velocity
correction, compute values of
VI, compute VRMS, apply RMS
velocity correction, iterate.

42/27-1 V SP
Interva l Ve loc ity (ft/sec )
0

5000

10000

15000

500

Depth TVDSS (ft)

Average velocity correction:

to = t x z / (z2 + x2)1/2
RMS velocity correction:
to = t x z / (z2 + x2/r2)1/2

1000

1500

2000

where r = VRMS/VA

2500

Standard

3.8

Actis

20000

25000

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Sonic Log
The sonic log approximates a log of
instantaneous velocity in the direction of the
borehole. In practice it measures the average
velocity of refracted energy (a head wave) over
a short interval.

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Sonic Log
There are a number of different devices in use.
Name as many as you can:

3.9

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Tool
8 ft
2 ft

Transmitters

3 ft

3.5 ft

2 ft

BHC sonic log

Receivers

Full Waveform
Mud
Receivers Measurement

Schematic sonic logging tool

From Schlumberger brochures

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

BHC and LSS

The Bore Hole Compensated
(BHC) sonic and Long Spaced
Sonic (LSS) logs use the
principal of differential
measurements which are
averaged in order to provide
compensation for borehole
rugosity.

3.10

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

BHC Log
Notice the scale, 40 to 190
sec/ft, is a slowness scale.

sec/ft

Also notice the integrator

curve; a small tick every 1
msec and a large tick every
10 msec. This is very useful
for computing average
interval velocity in the
absence of checkshot or
VSP.

example of log
Data Courtesy of Amoco

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

BHC Problems
The older BHC logs suffer from two main problems:
Cycle Skip
Time

Correct detection point

Transmitted
pulse

Noise
Time

From a Schlumberger brochure

3.11

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

BHC Problems
Log example
showing noise and
cycle skip. It is
advisable to edit
these spikes out of
the log or they may
influence interval
transit time
calculations and
the velocity log.
Data Courtesy of Amoco

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Sonic Log
Problems occurring close to the borehole, as a result of
drilling, which affect sonic logs:
T

Fractures

Washout

Hydration
3.12

Invasion

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Long Spaced Sonic Log

Data Courtesy of Amoco (U.K.) Ex. Co.

From a Schlumberger brochure

Examples of Long
Spaced Sonic log
compared to BHC.
The Long Spaced
Sonic sees deeper
into the formation
than the BHC sonic
and is therefore
less affected by
washouts, fractures,
invasion and clay
hydration.

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Full Waveform Sonic Log

Pseudo - Rayleigh wave

Time

P-wave

S-wave
Stoneley wave

Example of waveform
3.13

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Full Waveform Sonic Log

Sonic

Well Velocity 1

Full Waveform Sonic Log

This log provides a shear wave velocity curve as well as a
compressional wave log. It also gives a log of VP/VS.
Why do we get gaps in the shear wave log?

Data Courtesy of Amoco

3.14

Shear

Well Velocity 1

Dipole and Quadripole Sources

These are special tools for use in formations where the
shear wave velocity of the formation is less than the
velocity of the P-wave in the borehole fluid, i.e. when mode
conversion does not occur.
Body waves in the formation and surface waves in the
borehole wall are excited by the use of non axially
symmetric acoustic sources which operate out of phase
with one another.

Shear

Well Velocity 1

Dipole and Quadripole Sources

CANCEL
REINFORCE

The out of phase sources cause the borehole walls to be

flexed asymmetrically setting up shear and other wave types
in the formation.
3.15

Shear

Well Velocity 1

Dipole and Quadripole Sources

Note the shear
wave velocity
of about 4500
ft/sec in the
shales which
is less than
the p-wave
velocity in
water!

Data Courtesy of Amoco

Shear

Well Velocity 1

Shear Wave Logs

FROM A SCHLUMBERGER BROCHURE

3.16

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Sonic Log Integration

Integration of the sonic log gives the travel time over
the integration interval.
Travel time & interval thickness gives the average
interval velocity.
This will usually show a discrepancy with the
checkshot value for the same interval.
Sonic log not recorded from TD to surface

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Discrepancies
What are the sources of the discrepancies between
integrated sonic logs and checkshots?

3.17

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Absorption and Dispersion.

0.10

P-wave velocity m/sec

Absorption and Dispersion of body waves in rocks

are frequency dependent and therefore affect the
VSP and sonic logs differently.
ABSORPTION

1/Q

0.05

DISPERSION

4100
3900
3700
3500
3300
3100
2900

3 4 5 6
Log (frequency)

3 4 5 6
Log (frequency)

(After Neep et al EAEG 1993) also see Sams et al Geophysics 1997

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Absorption and Dispersion.

Absorption and dispersion depend on: Squirt in fully saturated rocks pore fluid is exchanged between
the soft and stiff pore space.

Soft thin
fracture

Permeability and fluid viscosity

Stiff
pore
space

After Dvorkin et al, Squirt flow in fully

saturated rocks, Geophysics 1995.

After Batzle et al, Fluids and frequency

dependent velocity of rocks, Leading edge 2001.

Most recently: see Batzle et al, Fluids and frequency dependent velocity of rocks, Geophysics 2006.

3.18

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Sonic Log and Checkshots

To overcome the discrepancies we calibrate the sonic log.
TIME

TIME

sec/ft

DEPTH

DEPTH

DEPTH
CHECKSHOTS

SONIC

INTEGRATED SONIC
WITH CHECKSHOTS

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Drift Curve
TIME

In calibrating the sonic log the

integrated time is made to
match the checkshot time.

msec

More than one estimated

time-depth pair is required
from checkshots.

DEPTH

DEPTH

A curve is constructed of the

differences in travel time
which is called the drift curve.

INTEGRATED SONIC
WITH CHECKSHOTS

3.19

DRIFT

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Drift Curve
At this point it is necessary to recognise that poor sonic logs
(cycle skipping problems) and poor checkshots will produce
large, possibly erratic, shifts in the drift curve.
Missing sonic logs or poor quality logs can be modelled from
either resistivity logs or from other porosity logs.
Erratic checkshot values must be edited out.
Where dispersion is a problem it may be corrected for.

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Modelling the Sonic

When the sonic log is missing there are a number of formulae
that have been proposed for modelling the log.
Fausts formula for use in shallow clastic sequences:
Vmod = K1 x RS1/K2 x z1/K3
Where Rs is the shallow reading resistivity log, z is the depth
and K1, K2 and K3 are constants determined by regression
analysis for the project area from other wells.
Smith formula:
1/ Vmod = K4 x RSK5
K4 and K5 are constants determined by regression analysis
for the project area from other wells.
3.20

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Modelling the Sonic

The sonic-porosity log relationship involves the clays in the rock
matrix as well as a temporally varying matrix transit time. The
sonic log, t, is normally used to determine the porosity, ,
according to: = [(t- tm) - Fsh*(tsh-tm)] / [(tf -tm)]
Where the matrix transit time is the weighted transit times of the
mineral constituents: - tm = (Fi * ti)
F = fraction, m = matrix, sh = shale and f = fluid. The shale
fraction comes from the gamma ray or SP curve and from the
neutron or density porosity curve

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Erratic Checkshots
Recognising erratic checkshot values should be part of the process.

Unrealistic Interval
Velocities

3.21

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Dispersion
The sonic log and checkshot data are used to find interval
velocities over the same interval, we usually integrate the sonic
log to derive estimates of the interval velocity for the intervals
over which the checkshots were taken. The ratio of these two
measures of interval velocity is plotted against depth. Any
trend is indicative of dispersion.
(see Box and Lowrey, Leading
Edge, June 2003)

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Calibration
sec/ft

msec

The sonic or transit time log is

shifted so that the drift is
minimised.
The integrated travel time is
stretched or squeezed by making
the instantaneous velocity
proportionally faster or slower
over an interval.

DEPTH

DEPTH
DRIFT

3.22

SONIC

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Calibration
VELOCITY

The main danger from using a

linear interpolation of the drift
curve is that sudden shifts may
be induced in the calibrated
sonic log which will result in
erroneous reflections being
produced in the synthetic
seismogram.
DEPTH

The problem is minimised by

having checkshots at
macrovelocity unit boundaries.

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Calibration
sec/ft

msec

To guard against the problem of

inducing sudden shifts in the
calibrated sonic log a spline or
polynomial interpolation is
used.
This gives a smooth drift curve
rather than the angular drift
curve of the linear interpolation.

DEPTH

DEPTH
DRIFT

3.23

SONIC

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Calibrated Sonic/Velocity Log.

The calibrated sonic log is displayed as a
conventional log with velocity and depth scales.
The log is also displayed with a time scale so that it
can be matched to the seismic data.
The velocity log is used to generated synthetic
seismograms for effecting well-seismic ties.

Velocity Log

Well Velocity 1

Calibrated Sonic/Velocity Log

Data Courtesy of Amoco

Linear
Time
Scale

Non-linear
Depth
Scale

3.24

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Pseudo Velocity
There are always occasions when we dont have a sonic
log, or checkshots, or we do but they cannot be reconciled.
In these circumstances we use Pseudo Velocity.
The well depth / seismic reflection time.
Not always a good approximation to average velocity, but
better than nothing.
Will ensure that the depth converted seismic fits the well
depth.

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Pseudo Velocity
Why is pseudo velocity not the average velocity?

3.25

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Datum
The drillers datum is usually the Kelly Bushing or rig floor
which is above topographic surface. Logs are originally
measured with respect to this datum.
Seismic data uses a regional reference datum.
Before using well depths and seismic times it is necessary to
ensure that they are referenced to the same datum.
In the marine environment this will be mean sea level.

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Composite Reflections
It is usually difficult to find a seismic reflection which is
associated with a clean lithologic break. Most seismic events
are band-limited composite events coming from a number of
spikes in the earths wideband reflectivity series.

Consequently a geologic marker will tie to different positions

in the seismic wavelet at different wells.
3.26

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Depth
The geological marker may be picked on the gamma-ray curve but
the velocity log variations do not necessarily mirror the gamma ray
log.
-ray

-ray

sonic 1

sonic 2

Geological
marker

WELL 1

WELL 2

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Travel Time Error

Seismic events may be distorted by:
long period multiples
short period multiples
free surface ghosts
the phase of the data
AVO effects
Deconvolution should stabilize the first four effects.
Range limited stack is necessary to avoid AVO effects.

3.27

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Travel Time Error - AVO

A model example of AVO

Model courtesy of Conoco (UK) Ltd.

P-wave velocity, s-wave velocity and density all increase

giving rise to an AVO anomaly which will distort the seismic
event on the stacked section.

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Travel Time Error - Position

1 km

Most interpretation is carried

out on time migrated data
which is represented by the
image ray. In the presence of
lateral velocity
inhomogeneities the image
ray will be bent. Thus the
seismic event will come from
a subsurface location which
is different to that of the
borehole.
Example after Larner et al, Depth migration of imaged
time sections, Geophysics, May 1981

3.28

2900
2600
1 km
4350

0
470

5200

00
54
0
500

5100

2 km

4550

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Travel Time Error - Stack

DISTANCE

The zero offset

reflection time, T0, of
the seismic data does
not always agree with
the checkshot time.

TIME

In some situations
pseudo velocities are
more practical than
checkshots and
seismic velocities.

Seismic image distorted by overlying velocity anomaly.

Pseudo Velocity

Well Velocity 1

Travel Time Error - Stack

Offset

When there is non-hyperbolic

moveout in the gather then
the seismic energy can be
stacked to a time that does
not agree to either the vertical
travel time or the zero offset
travel time.

NMO Hyperbola

VSP

Moveout

Time

In this situation the pseudo

velocity will accurately depth
convert the seismic event.

Seismic
event

CMP GATHER

3.29

Core Velocities

Well Velocity 1

Core Measurements
What are the advantages

disadvantages

of velocity measurements from cores?

Core Velocities

Well Velocity 1

Measurements
Laboratory measurements are usually made on 1 inch
diameter plugs. These are cut perpendicular, parallel (2
orthogonal) and at 45 to the bedding. Vp and Vsh
measurements are taken at atmospheric pressure and at a
confining pressure to simulate
formation pressure.

3.30

Core Velocities

Well Velocity 1

Velocities
3000

3500

4000

VP m/sec
Horizontal
/ parallel
Vertical
/ perpendicular
45 degrees

DEPTH
Data Courtesy of Amoco

Quality Control

Well Velocity 1

Single Well

Unrealistic Interval
Velocities

3.31

Quality Control

Well Velocity 1

Multiple Wells
K immeridge S hale
0.16

Anomalous
Point

0.12

C orralian

0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0

500

1000

1500

Isopa ch (ft)

Inte rva l V e locity (ft/se c)

Isochron (se c)

0.14

Anomalous
Points

18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0

y = 18554x 0.2249

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

M id P oint Tim e (se c)

Well Velocity 1

Summary

Checkshot and VSP surveys give, for both P & S waves,

Average Velocity,
Interval Velocity.
Sonic Logs give, for both P & S waves,
Instantaneous Velocity,
Interval Velocity.
Core measurements give the anisotropy parameters.
Pseudo velocities provide a practical solution.

3.32

Well Velocity 1

Summary
Pitfalls

Checkshot and VSP surveys : In land surveys source related problems

Ray paths
Correction to vertical weathered layer, refractions
Sonic/Velocity Logs : Cycle skipping not recognised
Core measurements : Frequency dependant velocities
Stress relaxation
Alteration of sales
Pseudo velocities : Datums
Marker/Event identification
Mispositioning of events

Well Velocity 1
Before starting to build a macrovelocity model it is
essential to examine
Sonic / velocity logs
Checkshot data (velocity - time)
Seismic data
in order to determine
Macro layers
Velocity distribution in layer(s)
Discrete velocity anomalies
of the macrovelocity model.
3.33

Exercise 3.1
140

Well Velocity 1
40 sec/ft

90

100 ft

FORMATION A

Data courtesy of ARCO British Ltd

What is the average interval velocity of the formation based on the integrated sonic travel
time?
Use the information from Definitions 1, Exercise 2.2 to estimate the drift.

3.34

3.35

Well Velocity 1

The following sheets contain suggested

answers to the class discussion topics and
form a summary for the different well velocity
measurements.

Well Velocity 1

Vertical Seismic Profile

How does it differ from a checkshot survey?
A full seismic trace is recorded rather than the
first break

What common VSP surveys are there?

Zero Offset
Walk away
Walk above
3D

3.36

Well Velocity 1

Sonic Log
There are a number of different devices in use.
Borehole Compensated Sonic
Long Spaced Sonic
Full Waveform Sonic
Dipole
Quadripole

Well Velocity 1

Sonic Log.
Discrepancies between integrated sonic and checkshot due
to:
Rugose borehole
Microfracturing
Invasion
Clay hydration
Raypath / Volume of investigation
Different signal wavelengths / Backus averaging
Anisotropy (transverse isotropy and intrinsic)
Frequency dependent attenuation
Dispersion
Measurement errors
3.37

Well Velocity 1

Pseudo Velocity
Why is pseudo velocity not the average velocity?
1. Seismic datum and drillers datum are different.
2. Composite reflection.
3. Which marker?
4. Seismic data contaminated by multiples or AVO effects.
5. Mispositioning of seismic events.

Well Velocity 1

Core Measurements
What are the disadvantages of velocity measurements
from cores?
At a few discrete points
Small rock volume sampled
Small S-R separation
Much higher frequency - Dispersion

3.38