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components.
First, the study investigated the formulation and characterization of a suitable
nonreactive coating for titanium casting applications.The coating was
evaluated with steel Certsman castings, which are designed to test for metal
penetration into the mold. Trial cylindrical mold metal reactivity molds were
produced using a ceramic bonded with the furan and sodium silicate binder
systems to evaluate the two binder systems. Molds were also made using
alumina
and
zirconia
aggregates
to
compare
the
specialty
aggregates.Preliminary titanium casting trials were held at Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa, where the molds were poured. THE alpha case layer
formed was measured.
The nal component of the testing involved titanium casting trials at the Rock
Island Arsenal, Rock Island, Ill. Silica sand molds and the newly developed
refractory coating were used.The alpha case layer of titanium was correlated to
the preliminary trials. To evaluate the aggregates, binder systems and coating,
a lab-scale glovebox-based melting system was designed and fabricated at
lowa State University.
The system was used for autogenous weld passes for systematic investigation
of cooling rate effects on solidication structure; cold-crucible melting with
direct-chill solidication; and inertlvacuum arc-melting and tiltpour casting to
study solidication in shape castings and the performance of various mold
materials chemical compatibility, cooling behavior and interface heat transfer.
The overall system is shown in Fig. 1. A water-cooled copper hearth was
integrated into a tiltpour system to operate within the glove box containment
system.The hearth and pouring assembly were then adapted to accommodate
the molds.This is shown in Fig.2. Vickers micmhardness was measured for all
castings starting from the alpha case layer down to the base metal, where the
hardness attens out.The depth was recorded at the same time.
The titanium alloy used at Rock Island Arsenal was titanium with 6% aluminum
and 4% vanadium (TiAl6V4). The solidication behavior of this alloy was
provided by the University of Iowa.
Based on the solidication results, a wedge casting was designed which
enabled the evaluation of alpha-case layer defects with respect to different
section thicknesses of the casting and different cooling rates.This is shown in
Fig. 3. An equipment vendor produced the test mold using a 3-D printer. Silica
sand with a 105 AFS-GFN was the aggregate and a furan binder system was
used. The mold was coated with the EAC. A Baum of 80 was used.The test
mold is shown in Fig. 4.
The molds were poured at Rock Island Arsenal using a vacuum induction
melting Furnace and vacuum pouring chamber.'Ihe resulting casting was
sectioned according to predeterminedthicknesses.The cross sections were then
evaluated for its microhardness using a Buehler microhardness tester.A
magnication of SOOX was used with a load of 500 g (1.1 lb.), and the
microhardness was measured across all cross sections in steps ofS0-150
micrometers. Charts were plotted using the depth in micrometers for the X axis
and the microhardness for the Y axis.
Results and Conclusions
L Zahn cup, viscosity and percent solid results from the coating
characterization were plotted against the respective Baum to detennine a
suitable Baum for coating cores and molds. A target range of 10-15 seconds
for zahn cup measurement and 75% solid fraction were set as optimal for
coating applications.
A Baum of 78 or 80 resulted in desired viscosity and percent solids results for
the experimental alumina coating (EAC). It was decided to coat the test molds
and cores at a Baum of 80. Table 1 shows the detailed results obtained from
the tests.
Ceramic and silica sand Gertzmann cores bonded with furan binder system
were placed in the molds. Low alloy steel with a target chemistry of 0.3 %
carbon, 0.6% silicon and 0.5% manganese was poured in these molds with a
target pouring temperature of 2,912F (1,600C). Later, the castings were
cleaned and photographed. Figures S and 6 show the castings from cores made
of ceramic and silica sand. Both cores were coated with the experimental
alumina coating (EAC). lt can be seen that both the castings with the EAC have
no visible defects except for a small area of sand burn on the bottom of the
casting made of the ceramic sand. From the steel casting results, it can be seen
that the EAC is effective in forming a protective layer around the core. As a
result, it was decided to use theEAC for the preliminary casting trials of
titanium at Iowa State University and evaluate the performance of the coating
in titanium castings.
Thee coupled expansion and viscosity results for uncoated silica sand bonded
with the furan binder follow an expansion pattern typical of silica sand. An
Alpha-Beta transition is seen at approximately 1,063F (573C). A peak at higher
temperatures, which corresponds to the cristobalite transition in silica sand,
also denotes the sintering temperature of the sample, when sand grains
partially melt and start fusing to each other.The temporary increase in viscosity
at this stage depicts an increase in the strength of the core or mold due to
partial lsion of the sand grains.The viscosity measurement can be used as an
indication to the extent of the same.
From the expansion and viscosity results for the coated silica sand sample, it
was detennined that the peak expansin at the alpha-beta phase transition was
reduced. A peak expansion of 0.007 in./in. (0.018 cm/cm) was measured.
Rather than a contraction after 1,112F (600C), a steady expansion was
observed until the cristobalite phase transition.This behavior prevented the
coated core or moldom cracking from high strain caused by contraction of the
sample. An increase in viscosity vs. the uncoated sample lead to higher
strength, enabling the core to withstand higher temperatures. As mentioned
earlier, four molds were cast with titanium at the Iowa State University. All
molds were coated with the EAC.Thc resulting mold metal reactivity molds
castings were evaluated for alpha-case depth. Vickers hardness was measured
for all castings and the extent and depth of the alpha layer was mcasurcd. A
chart was plotted with the depth in microns on X axis and Vickers hardness on
Y axis. ln all cases, it was seen that the hardness was initially high at a lower
depth and decreased with depth till the base layer of titanium was reached. At
this point, the hardness stabilizes and is representative otthc unaected base
metal.
The base layer of titanium is reached at approximately 350 VHN. With the
exception of ceramic with sodium silicate binder system, the other three
samples have similar results. Zirconia with sodium silicatc,alumina with sodium
silicate and ceramic with Furan recorded an alpha case layer depth of 115
microns, 129 microns and 160 microns,respectively. Ceramic with sodium
silicate recorded an alpha case layer depth of 237 microns.The results are in
Table 2.
The performance of the ceramic with iran resin compares well with those of
Specialty aggregates such as Alumina or Zirconia.'lhe alpha case layer depths
recorded for all samples in the preliminary casting trials is comparable to
investment casting of titanium. the EAC is believed to have played a major role
in protecting the base layer of the core from being reduced by titanium. This
can be explained from the similarity seen in the results for the four samples.
Titanium castings were poured using 3D printer molds at Rock Island Arsenal.
The mold was oated with EAC and dricd before pouring.The resulting castings
were sectioned and evaluated for microhardness (Vickers).
The wedge casting had different section thicknesses to evaluate the effect of
cooling rate on the formation of alpha case layer defects.The results were
similar across the sections.This shows the different cooling rates in the casting
did not play an active part in the formation of the alpha-case layer defect of
titanium.
The base layer was measured to be at approximately 350 VHN (see Table 3).
The results from the experiments at Rock Island Arsenal were compared with
previous results from Iowa State University to check for variances. The results
were similar between the pour at the two facilitiesThe silica sand casting has a
maximum hardness of544 VHN compared to a hardness of 587.8 VHN for the
ceram ic with sodium silicate.
For the same section thickness, a hardness of 510.89 was measured with
ceramic sand and furan resin compared to 544 for the silica sand casting.
Hence, similar alpha case layer depth was measured with the 3D printed silica
sand mold.The results are comparable to the Specialty aggregates tested in the
preliminary trials.
In conclusion, the research indicated that by using a specially designed
refractory coating, titanium castings could be produced to an acceptable
quality level in silica sand molds.The refractory coating cfectively prevented
the molten titanium from reacting with the base molding material. This was
evidenced by the depth of the oxygen rich alpha-case layer exhibited in the
experimental castings. Large-scale experimental castings agreed well with
laboratory scale castings.
From all the testing done and looking at the nal casting results, it can be
concludcd that using rapid prototyping technology to produce silica sand molds
and using an eective refractory coating such as a water-based alumina
coating, the alpha-case layer defect in titanium castings can bc reduced to a
large extent in sand casting. ln addition,3-D printed molds provided the quality
and integrity required to pour titanium castings, as long as the surface was
protected with a nonreactive refractory coating. This technology has the
potential to reduce the cost of titanium castings and increase their use in landbased applications.