CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPANY PROFILE
Merino laminates market presence in over 60 countries and their extensive quality is
making multi-products with a world class standards .Merino Laminates the worlds
leading manufacturer and exporter of decorative laminates for the interiors segment.
They showcase a range of world class, premium laminates with more than 10,000
designs, textures, colors and finishes. Complementary products from the Merino
Group include plywood, melamine-faced particle board and post-formed panels for
the interiors industry. They have committed themselves to uphold the highest
manufacturing standards, a practice that has earned all our facilities pertinent
certifications that include ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and OHSAS 18001.
The Merino Laminates brand came into existence in 1981, when the Merino Group
extended its activity to laminates manufacturing, having entered the interiors segment
with Plywood in 1974. About the Merino Group: Founded in 1968, the Merino Group
is today a US$ 165 million group with diverse business interests which include Panel
& Panel Products, Biotechnology (Agriculture & Food Processing) and Information
Technology (IT). They are driven by their constant effort to maintain Economy,
Excellence and Ethics in all our businesses. They export to 60 countries around the
globe, and employ 3000 people across three manufacturing sites, 19 offices in India
and an office in the U.S.

1.2 CORPORATE PHILOSOPHY

Our business is built on the steady pillars of a globally relevant mission ,a far reaching
vision ,a strong three-pronged motto.
a) Mission: Universal Weal through Trade & Industry
b) Vision: Global Competence & Global Competitiveness Synergizing Work Culture
and ethos.
c) Motto: Economy, Excellence, Ethics and explanation of this Motto: Excellence in
1

economy is founded on work ethics, sustainable, when nourished by Moral Ethics.

d) Business Strategy: Business approach is Market Driven, Knowledge Based,
System Sustained, I.T Enabled, and Ethics Anchored.
Inspiration:
"Arise, Awake and Stop Not till the Goal is Reached" - Swami Vivekananda

1.3 HISTORIC FACT

Incorporated as a private limited company in 1965 under the name N H Lohia
(Agencies) Pvt. Ltd, Century Laminating Company acquired its present name in 1984.
It became a deemed public limited company in 1988 and a public limited company in
1995. The company was promoted by M K Lohia, Merino Panel Products is a
subsidiary of the company. The company exports through Merino Exports Pvt. Ltd, its
group company. The company manufactures decorative laminates at its plant in
Achheja (Ghaziabad district), Uttar Pradesh, which are sold under the Merino brand
name. Its cold storage and ice plant is located in New Delhi.

Fig 1.1 Merino panels and products ltd (ncr,delhi- rohtak road)

Fig 1.1 shows the location of the industry, In Aug.'94, the company set up a 6000 tpa
formaldehyde manufacturing plant as a backward integration. Formaldehyde is used
for the preparation of resins which is required in the manufacture of laminates. In
1994-95, the installed capacity of the laminating plant was increased from 42.50 lac
sq mtr to 80 lac sq mtr. In Sep.'95, it came out with a public issue to part-finance the
expansion-cum-modernisation programme involving the laminating capacity increase
2

from 80 lac sq mtr to 108 lac sq mtr. During 2000-2001 company obtained ISO9002:1994 certification from DNV the Netherlands, in its branches at Kolkata,
Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Delhi, Pune, Nagpur and Ahmedabad. The Installed
Capacity of Decorative laminates has increased from 80 lac Sq Mtrs to 108 lac Sq
Mtrs. In 2001-02 the installed capacity of Decorative laminates was increased to 167
lacs Sq Mtrs.

1.4 INFRASTRUCTURE INTEGRATION

The Merino Group's facilities are state-of-the-art, geared for integration, and
strategically well-located to serve the markets. Its two manufacturing facilities for
High Pressure Laminates have a combined annual production capacity of 35million
sq.m. Our three short cycle lamination facilities can produce pre-laminated particle
and MDF boards in sizes varying from 2.5 X 6 ft up to 9 X 6 ft. Following the
principle of Economy, their three pre-lamination lines are located in northern and
southern locations for readier dispatches to the customer. In keeping with their
integrated approach, industry have set up a printing facility to offer custom designs. A
plate polishing and cleaning facility has also been installed for uniform surface finish
of stainless steel moulds. The only HPL manufacturer in Asia to have chroming and
de-chroming facility that maintains chromed SS moulds in order to produce nondirectional chromed gloss plates. Industry manufactures own formaldehyde and resins
too. Offices and warehouses in all major state capitals ensure an adequate presence of
Merino and serve to expedite business decisions and logistics. Further, an in-house
fleet of vehicles ensures on-time product delivery at all times.

1.5

CERTIFICATES AND ACCREDITATION

Industry encourage adherence to safety standards, promote ease of application, strive

to reduce installation time, and help customers to maintain their interiors better with
usage information. At Merino, quality is a tradition that is followed meticulously and
in its entirety. Their commitment to the highest standards in manufacturing process
has won certifications including ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and ISO 18001, for all
facilities. Merino has integrated all the stages of its operation through ERP, ensuring
transparency and on-time information to customers and service providers. A dedicated
and focused Research and Development team works unremittingly towards
3

continuous innovation and improvement, resulting in an array of superior quality

products. Moreover, experts from around the world are invited to strengthen
knowledge base.

Fig 1.2 Certification standards

a) DECORATIVE LAMINATE: Decorative laminates are laminated products

primarily used as furniture surface materials or wall paneling. It can be
manufactured as either high or low pressure laminate, with the two processes
not much different from each other except for the pressure applied in the
pressing process.
b) HIGH PRESSURE LAMINATE: According to McGraw-Hill Dictionary of
Architecture & Construction, high-pressure laminates consists of laminates
"molded and cured at pressures not lower than 1,000 per sq in.(70 kg per sq
cm.)
c) LOW PRESSURE LAMINATE: Low Pressure laminate is defined as "a
plastic laminate molded and cured at pressures in general of 400 pounds per
square inch (approximately 27 atmospheres or 2.8 x 106 pascals).

Fig1.3 multiple products

As shown in Fig 1.3 merino multiple products are shown which are manufactured at
their various units, various laminates types described above are used in interior
solutions and also the food products are launched by them in market which are
showing good results.Some quality standards of laminates are mentioned below:
ANTI-BACTERIAL: Antibacterial properties are important for decorative laminates
because these laminates are used as kitchen tops and counter tops, cabinets and table
tops that may be in constant contact with food materials and younger children.
Antibacterial properties are there to ensure that bacterial growth is minimal. One of
the standards for Anti-Bacterial is the ISO 22196:2007, which is based on
the Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS), code Z2801. This is one of the standards most
often referred to in the industry with regards to tests on microbial activities
(specifically bacteria) and in the JIS Z2801, two bacteria species are used as a
standard, namely E.Coli and Staphylococcus aureus. However, some companies may
have the initiative to test more than just these two bacteria and may also replace
Staphylococcus aureus with MRSA, the methicillin-resistant version of the same
bacteria. Again, different countries may choose to specify different types of microbes
for testing especially if they identified some bacteria groups which are more
intimidating in their countries due to specific reasons.
5

ANTI-FUNGI: A common anti-fungi standard is the ASTM G21. Not all

manufacturers will take the initiatives for product R&D for anti-Fungi attributes.
Manufacturers like Mica Laminates send their products for laboratory tests for
certification following the ASTM G21-09 standard, while Formica partners with
Microbian Protection, which is a company manufacturing additives, including the
anti-bacterial additives.
FIRE-RESISTANT AND FLAME RETARDANT: There are many different standards
with regards to fire resistant and flame retardant properties of High Pressure
Decorative Laminates.
"GREEN" CERTIFICATES: One of the internationally-acknowledged "Green"
certificates for decorative laminates is GREENGUARD. The GREENGUARD marks
are to certify that the products have low chemical emissions. Chemicals tested include
VOCs, formaldehyde and other harmful particles. The tests are based on single
occupancy room with outdoor ventilation following the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard
62.1-2007, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality. There are also many other
"Green" certifications, some which are requirements by the authorities before the
product can be used as building materials. These include the Singapore Green
Label which is recognized by the Global Ecolabelling Network (GEN) and all its
member countries. Industry encourage adherence to safety standards, promote ease of
application, strive to reduce installation time, and help customers to maintain their
interiors better with usage information. At Merino, quality is a tradition that is
followed meticulously and in its entirety. Their commitment to the highest standards
in manufacturing process has won certifications including ISO 9001, ISO 14001 and
ISO 18001, for all facilities. Merino has integrated all the stages of its operation
through ERP, ensuring transparency and on-time information to customers and service
providers.

1.6 DEPARTMENTS IN INDUSTRY

6

In Fig 1.4 there are various departments of industry are shown and at every level
decentralization mechanism is followed for achieving the industrial goals, focused
section was electronics and electrical which is explained further.

Fig1.4 Flow chart of departments in industry

CHAPTER-2
AUTOMATION AND INSTRUMENTATION
2.1

INTRODUCTION OF AUTOMATION

Automation is the use of machines, control systems and information technologies to

optimize productivity in the production of goods and delivery of services. The correct
incentive for applying automation is to increase productivity, and quality beyond that
possible with current human labor levels so as to realize economies of scale, and
7

realize predictable quality levels. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step

beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provides human operators with
machinery to assist them with the muscular requirements of work, automation greatly
decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements while increasing load
capacity, speed, and repeatability. Automation plays an increasingly important role in
the world economy and in daily experience.
a) Automation has had a notable impact in a wide range of industries beyond
manufacturing. Once-ubiquitous telephone operators have been replaced
largely by automated telephone switchboards and answering machines.
b) Medical processes such as primary screening in electrocardiography and
laboratory analysis of human genes, cells, and tissues are carried out at much
greater speed and accuracy by automated systems. Automated teller machines
have reduced the need for bank visits to obtain cash and carry out transactions.
In general, automation has been responsible for the shift in the world economy
from industrial jobs to service jobs in the 20th and 21st centuries.
c) The term automation, inspired by the earlier word automatic was not widely
used before 1947, when General Motors established the automation
department. At that time automation technologies were electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic and pneumatic. Between 1957 and 1964 factory output nearly
doubled while the number of blue collar workers started to decline
d) Automation is the use of control systems and information technologies
reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope of industrialization,
automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided
human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular
requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory
and mental requirements as well. Automation plays an increasingly important
role in the world economy and in daily experience.

2.2

PLC SYSTEM IN AUTOMATION

A Programmable Logic Controller, PLC or Programmable Controller is a digital

computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of
8

machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. The

abbreviation "PLC" and the term "Programmable Logic Controller" are registered
trademarks of the Allen-Bradley Company (Rockwell Automation). PLCs are used in
many industries and machines. [3] Figure shows ,Siemens Simatic S7-400 system at
rack, left-to-right: power supply unit PS407 4A, CPU 416-3, interface module IM
460-communication processor CP 443-1.

Fig 2.1 Siemens Simatic S7-400 system

Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are
typically stored in battery-

backed-up or non-volatile

memory.

example of a hard real time

A PLC is an

system since output results

must

response to input conditions

within a limited time,[3]

otherwise

operation will results in fig

unintended

be

produced

in

2.1 is showing the PLC.

History of plc : Before the

PLC, control, sequencing,

and safety interlock logic

for

automobiles

composed of relays, cam

was

mainly

manufacturing

timers, drum sequencers, and dedicated closed-loop controllers. Since these could
number in the hundreds or even thousands, the process for updating such facilities for
the yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive, as electricians
needed to individually rewire relays to change the logic. Digital computers, being
9

general-purpose programmable devices, were soon applied to control of industrial

processes. Early computers required specialist programmers, and stringent operating
environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and power quality. Using a
general-purpose computer for process control required protecting the computer from
the plant floor conditions. An industrial control computer would have several
attributes: it would tolerate the shop-floor environment, it would support discrete (bitform) input and output in an easily extensible manner, it would not require years of
training to use, and it would permit its operation to be monitored. The response time
of any computer system must be fast enough to be useful for control; the required
speed varying according to the nature of the process. Early PLCs were designed to
replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic" with
reference to [1], which strongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This
program notation was chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians.
Other early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-based
logic solver. The ladder logic to programming languages such as specially adapted
dialects of BASIC and C. Another method is State Logic, a very high-level
programming language designed to program PLCs based on state transition diagrams.

10

Programming: Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using

proprietary programming panels or special-purpose programming terminals, which
often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of PLC
programs. Some proprietary programming terminals displayed the elements of PLC
programs as graphic symbols, but plain ASCII character representations of contacts,
coils, and wires were common. Programs were stored on cassette tape cartridges.
Facilities for printing and documentation were minimal due to lack of memory
capacity. The very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory. More
recently, PLCs are programmed using application software on personal computers,
which now represent the logic in graphic form instead of character symbols. The
computer is connected to the PLC through Ethernet, RS-232, RS-485 or RS-422
cabling. The programming software allows entry and editing of the ladder-style logic.
Generally the software provides functions for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC
software. For example, by highlighting portions of the logic to show current status
during operation or via simulation. The software will upload and download the PLC
program, for backup and restoration purposes. In some models of programmable
controller, the program is transferred from a personal computer to the PLC through a
programming board which writes the program into a removable chip such as an
EEPROM or EPROM.
Functionality: Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of ways, from the
relay-derive. The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the years to include
sequential relay control, motion control, process control, distributed control systems

11

and networking. The data handling, storage, processing power and communication
capabilities of some modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop
computers. PLC-like programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a
general-purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications.
Regarding the practicality of these desktop computer based logic controllers, it is
important to note that they have not been generally accepted in heavy industry
because the desktop computers run on less stable operating systems than do PLCs,
and because the desktop computer hardware is typically not designed to the same
levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the processors
used in PLCs.

2.2.1 FEATURES OF PLC

The main difference from other computers is that PLCs are armored for severe
conditions (such as dust, moisture, heat, cold) and have the facility for
extensive input/output (I/O) arrangements. These connect the PLC to sensors
and actuators. PLCs read limit switches, analog process variables (such as
temperature and pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems.
Some use machine vision. On the actuator side, PLCs operate electric motors,
pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog
outputs. The input/output arrangements may be built into a simple PLC, or the
PLC may have external I/O modules attached to a computer network that
plugs into the PLC.[3]
a) Scan time: A PLC program is generally executed repeatedly as long as the
controlled system is running. The status of physical input points is copied to
an area of memory accessible to the processor, sometimes called the "I/O
Image Table". The program is then run from its first instruction rung down to
the last rung. It takes some time for the processor of the PLC to evaluate all
the rungs and update the I/O image table with the status of outputs. This scan
time may be a few milliseconds for a small program or on a fast processor, but
older PLCs running very large programs could take much longer to execute
the program. If the scan time was too long, the response of the PLC to process

12

conditions would be too slow to be useful. As PLCs became more advanced,

methods were developed to change the sequence of ladder execution, and
subroutines were implemented. This simplified programming could be used to
save scan time for high-speed processes; for example, parts of the program
used only for setting up the machine could be segregated from those parts
required to operate at higher speed. Special-purpose I/O modules, such as
timer modules or counter modules, can be used where the scan time of the
processor is too long to reliably pick up, for example, counting pulses and
interpreting quadrature from a shaft encoder. The relatively slow PLC can still
interpret the counted values to control a machine, but the accumulation of
pulses is done by a dedicated module that is unaffected by the speed of the
program execution.
b) User interface: PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of
configuration, alarm reporting or everyday control. A human-machine
interface (HMI) is

employed for this purpose.

HMIs

also

referred to as man-machine

(MMIs)

and graphical user interface

simple

system may use buttons and

lights to interact with

the user. Text displays are

available as well as

graphical touch screens. More

complex systems use

programming and monitoring

software installed on

a computer, with the PLC

connected

communication interface.

are

interfaces
(GUIs).

via

c) Programming: PLC programs are typically written in a special application on

a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or over a
network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in batterybacked-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often, a single
PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays.

13

Fig 2.2 Control panel with PLC

Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be programmed using standardsbased programming languages. A graphical programming notation called
Sequential Function Charts is available on certain programmable controllers.
Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic Diagram Programming, a model
which emulated electromechanical control panel devices (such as the contact
and coils of relays) which PLCs replaced. This model remains common today.
Fig2.2 shows control panel with PLC (grey elements in the center).The unit
consists of separate elements, from left to right; power supply, controller, relay
units for in- and output.

2.2.2 PLC COMPARED TO OTHER CONTROL SYSTEMS

PLCs are well adapted to a range of automation tasks. These are typically industrial
processes in manufacturing where the cost of developing and maintaining the
automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and where
changes to the system would be expected during its operational life. PLCs contain
input and output devices compatible with industrial pilot devices and controls; little
electrical design is required, and the design problem centers on expressing the desired
sequence of operations. PLC applications are typically highly customized systems, so
the cost of a packaged PLC is low compared to the cost of a specific custom-built
controller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods, customized
control systems are economical. This is due to the lower cost of the components,
which can be optimally chosen instead of a "generic" solution, and where the nonrecurring engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units. For high
volume or very simple fixed automation tasks, different techniques are used. For
example, a consumer dishwasher would be controlled by an electromechanical cam
timer costing only a few dollars in production quantities. A microcontroller-based
14

design would be appropriate where hundreds or thousands of units will be produced

and

so

the

cost

(design

of

development
power supplies,

input/output

hardware

necessary testing

and

certification) can

be spread over

many sales, and

where the end-

user

need to alter the

would

not

control.

Automotive

applications are an

example;

and

millions of units are built each year, and very few end-users alter the programming of
these controllers. However, some specialty vehicles such as transit buses
economically use PLCs instead of custom-designed controls, because the volumes are
low and the development cost would be uneconomical.

Fig2.3 Allen-Bradley PLC installed in a control panel

Very complex process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may require
algorithms and performance beyond the capability of even high-performance PLCs.
Very high-speed or precision controls may also require customized solutions; for
example, aircraft flight controls. Single-board computers using semi-customized or
fully proprietary hardware may be chosen for very demanding control applications
where the high development and maintenance cost can be supported. "Soft PLCs"
running on desktop-type computers can interface with industrial I/O hardware while
15

executing programs within a version of commercial operating systems adapted for

process control needs. Programmable controllers are widely used in motion control,
positioning control and torque control. PLCs have similar functionality as Remote
Terminal Units. An RTU, however, usually does not support control algorithms or
control loops. As hardware rapidly becomes more powerful and cheaper, RTUs, PLCs
and DCSs are increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors
sell RTUs with PLC-like features and vice versa. In recent years "Safety" PLCs have
started to become popular, either as standalone models or as functionality and safetyrated hardware added to existing controller architectures (Allen Bradley Guardlogix,
Siemens F-series etc.). These differ from conventional PLC types as being suitable for
use in safety-critical applications for which PLCs have traditionally been
supplemented with hard-wired safety relays.

2.3

INTRODUCTION TO SCADA SYSTEM

SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) is a type of industrial control

system (ICS). Industrial control systems [2]are computer controlled systems that
monitor and control industrial processes that exist in the physical world. SCADA
systems historically distinguish themselves from other ICS systems by being large
scale processes that can include multiple sites, and large distances. These
processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facility-based processes, as
described below:
a) Industrial processes include those of manufacturing, production, power
generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run in continuous, batch,
repetitive, or discrete modes.
b) Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment
and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil and gas pipelines,
electrical power transmission and distribution, wind farms, civil defense siren
systems, and large communication systems.
c) Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones, including

buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor and control
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC), access, and energy
consumption.
Common system components, A SCADA system usually consists of the following
subsystems:
a) A humanmachine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device which presents
16

processed data to a human operator, and through this, the human operator
monitors and controls the process.
b) SCADA is used as a safety tool as in lock-out tag-out
c) A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the process
and sending commands (control) to the process.
d) Remote terminal units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process, converting
sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory
system.

17

Fig 2.4 level control system through PLC and SCADA

e) Programmable logic controller (PLCs) used as field devices because they are
more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special-purpose
RTUs.
f) Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to the
remote terminal units.
g) Various process and analytical instrumentation.
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems as shown in Fig 2.4 which
monitor and control entire sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas
(anything from an industrial plant to a nation). Most control actions are performed
automatically by RTUs or by PLCs. Host control functions are usually restricted to
basic overriding or supervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC may control
the flow of cooling water through part of an industrial process, but the SCADA
system may allow operators to change the set points for the flow, and enable alarm
conditions, such as loss of flow and high temperature, to be displayed and recorded.
The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system
monitors the overall performance of the loop.
Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and
equipment status reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then
compiled and formatted in such a way that a control room operator using the HMI can
make supervisory decisions to adjust or override normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data
may also be fed to an Historian, often built on a commodity Database Management
18

System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing. SCADA systems typically
implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag database, which
contains data elements called tags or points. A point represents a single input or output
value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A
hard point represents an actual input or output within the system, while a soft point
results from logic and math operations applied to other points. (Most implementations
conceptually remove the distinction by making every property a "soft" point
expression, which may, in the simplest case, equal a single hard point.) Points are
normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value, and the timestamp when it was
recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp pairs gives the history of that
point. It is also common to store additional metadata with tags, such as the path to a
field device or PLC register, design time comments, and alarm information. SCADA
systems are significantly important systems used in national infrastructures such as
electric grids, water supplies and pipelines. However, SCADA systems may have
security vulnerabilities, so the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and
solutions implemented to mitigate those risks.
Humanmachine interface: A humanmachine interface or HMI is the apparatus
which presents process data to a human operator, and through which the human
operator controls the process. HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's databases
and software programs, to provide trending, diagnostic data, and management
information such as scheduled maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed
schematics for a particular sensor or machine, and expert-system troubleshooting
guides. The HMI system usually presents the information to the operating personnel
graphically, in the form of a mimic diagram. This means that the operator can see a
schematic representation of the plant being controlled. For example, a picture of a
pump connected to a pipe can show the operator that the pump is running and how
much fluid it is pumping through the pipe at the moment. The operator can then
switch the pump off. The HMI software will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe
decrease in real time. Mimic diagrams may consist of line graphics and schematic
symbols to represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the
process equipment overlain with animated symbols.
The HMI package for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that
19

the operators or system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are
represented in the interface. These representations can be as simple as an on-screen
traffic
light,

which
represents

the

state

an

actual

of

traffic
light

in

the

field,

or

as

complex
as a

multiprojector

display representing the position of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the
trains on a railway. An important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm
handling. The system monitors whether certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to
determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an alarm event has been detected,
one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more alarm indicators,
and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or remote
SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to
acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas
other indicators remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.
Alarm conditions can be explicitfor example, an alarm point is a digital status point
that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula based
on the values in other analogue and digital pointsor implicit: the SCADA system
might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high
and low limit values associated with that point.

20

Fig 2.5 SCADA System

The SCADA system as shown in Fig 2.5 is the example of water filtering system with
alarm. More examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a screen,
or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the "fuel
tank empty" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the
operator's attention to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can
be taken. In designing SCADA systems with reference to [2] care must be taken when
a cascade of alarm events occurs in a short time, otherwise the underlying cause
(which might not be the earliest event detected) may get lost in the noise.
Supervisory station: The term supervisory station refers to the servers and software
responsible for communicating with the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, SENSORS
etc.), and then to the HMI software running on workstations in the control room, or
elsewhere. In smaller SCADA systems, the master station may be composed of a
single PC. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include multiple servers,
distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity
of the system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hotstandby formation providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a
server failure.

21

Operational philosophy: For some installations, the costs that would result from the
control system failing are extremely high. Hardware for some SCADA systems is
ruggedized to withstand temperature, vibration, and voltage extremes. In the most
critical installations, reliability is enhanced by having redundant hardware and
communications channels, up to the point of having multiple fully equipped control
centres. A failing part can be quickly identified and its functionality automatically
taken over by backup hardware. A failed part can often be replaced without
interrupting the process. The reliability of such systems can be calculated statistically
and is stated as the mean time to failure, which is a variant of Mean Time Between
Failures (MTBF). The calculated mean time to failure of such high reliability systems
can be on the order of centuries.
Communication infrastructure and methods:
a) SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct
wired connections, although SONET/SDH is also frequently used for large
systems such as railways and power stations. The remote management or
monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry. [2]
Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate
networks or to share the network with other applications. The legacy of the
early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.
b) SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to
send information only when the master station polls the RTU. With increasing
security demands (such as North American Electric Reliability Corporation
(NERC) and Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) in the US), there is
increasing use of satellite-based communication. This has the key advantages
that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using circuits from the public
telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to the
availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier
experiences using consumer-grade VSAT were poor. Modern carrier-class
systems provide the quality of service required for SCADA. RTUs and other
automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry
wide standards for interoperability.

2.3.1 SPECIAL ANALYTICAL REPORT ON SCADA

22

The United States Army's Training Manual 5-601 covers "SCADA Systems for
C4ISR Facilities". SCADA systems have evolved through 3 generations as follows:
First generation Monolithic: In the first generation, computing was done by
mainframe computers. Networks did not exist at the time SCADA was developed.
Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with no connectivity to other
systems. Wide Area Networks were later designed by RTU vendors to communicate
with the RTU. The communication protocols used were often proprietary at that time.
The first-generation SCADA system was redundant since a back-up mainframe
system was connected at the bus level and was used in the event of failure of the
primary mainframe system. Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as
"turn key" operations that ran on minicomputers like the PDP-11 series made by the
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). These systems were read only in the sense that
they could display information from the existing analog based control systems to
individual operator workstations but they usually didn't attempt to send control signals
to remote stations due to analog based telemetry issues and control center
management concerns with allowing direct control from computer workstations. They
would also perform alarming and logging functions and calculate hourly and daily
system commodity accounting functions.
Second generationDistributed: The processing was distributed across multiple
stations which were connected through a LAN and they shared information in real
time. Each station was responsible for a particular task thus making the size and cost
of each station less than the one used in First Generation. The network protocols used
were still mostly proprietary, which led to significant security problems for any
SCADA system that received attention from a hacker. Since the protocols were
proprietary, very few people beyond the developers and hackers knew enough to
determine how secure a SCADA installation was. Since both parties had vested
interests in keeping security issues quiet, the security of a SCADA installation was
often badly overestimated, if it was considered at all.

Third generation"Networked": Due to the usage of standard protocols and the fact
that many networked SCADA systems are accessible from the Internet, the systems
23

are potentially vulnerable to remote attack. On the other hand, the usage of standard
protocols and security techniques means that standard security improvements are
applicable to the SCADA systems, assuming they receive timely maintenance and
updates.

2.3.2 SECURITY ISSUES

SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, and gas
pipelines and water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to
be open, robust, and easily operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure. The
move from proprietary technologies to more standardized and open solutions together
with the increased number of connections between SCADA systems, office networks,
and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to types of network attacks that are
relatively common in computer security. For example, United States Computer
Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) released a vulnerability advisory that
allowed unauthenticated users to download sensitive configuration information
including password hashes on an Inductive Automation Ignition system utilizing is a
standard attack type leveraging access to the Tomcat Embedded Web server. Security
researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory regarding a buffer overflow
vulnerability in a Wonderware In Batch Client ActiveX control. Both vendors made
updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations
were standard patching practices and requiring VPN access for secure connectivity.
Consequently, the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as
they are seen as potentially vulnerable to cyber attacks.
In particular, security researchers are concerned about:
a) The lack of concern about security and authentication in the design,
deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks the beliefs are
that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through obscurity through
the use of specialized protocols and proprietary interfaces the belief that
SCADA networks are secure because they are physically secured the belief
that SCADA networks are secure because they are disconnected from the
Internet.
b) SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples
of which are transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in
pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights, and other systems used as the basis
24

of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is important because

compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of
society far removed from the original compromise.
c) For example, a blackout caused by a compromised electrical SCADA system
would cause financial losses to all the customers that received electricity from
that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments
remains to be seen.

2.4

INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION

Instrumentation is defined as the art and science of measurement and control of

process variables within a production or manufacturing area. Instrument is a device
that measures a physical quantity such as flow, temperature, level, distance, angle, or
pressure. Instruments may be as simple as direct reading thermometers or may be
complex multi-variable process analyzers. Instruments are often part of a control
system in refineries, factories, and vehicles. The control of processes is one of the
main branches of applied instrumentation. Instrumentation can also refer to handheld
devices that measure some desired variable. Diverse handheld instrumentation is
common in laboratories, but can be found in the household as well. For example, a
smoke detector is a common instrument found in most western homes.
Instruments attached to a control system may provide signals used to operate
solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, or relays. These devices control a
desired output variable, and provide either remote or automated control capabilities.
These are often referred to as final control elements when controlled remotely or by a
control system. A Transmitter is a device that produces an output signal, often in the
form of a 420 Ma electrical current signal, although many other options using
voltage, frequency, pressure, or Ethernet are possible. This signal can be used for
informational purposes, or it can be sent to a PLC, DCS, SCADA system, Lab View
or other type of computerized controller, where it can be interpreted into readable
values and used to control other devices and processes in the system. Control
instrumentation plays a significant role in both gathering information from the field
and changing the field parameters, and as such are a key part of control loops[1].

25

2.5

CALIBRATION

Calibration is a comparison between measurements one of known magnitude or

correctness made or set with one device and another measurement made in as similar
a way as possible with a second device. The device with the known or assigned
correctness is called the standard. The second device is the unit under test, test
instrument, or any of several other names for the device being calibrated.[1].The
formal definition of calibration by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
is the following: "Operation that, under specified conditions, in a first step, establishes
a relation between the quantity values with measurement uncertainties provided by
measurement standards and corresponding indications with associated measurement
uncertainties (of the calibrated instrument or secondary standard) and, in a second
step, uses this information to establish a relation for obtaining a measurement result
from an indication."

2.5.1 BASIC CALIBRATION PROCESS

The calibration process begins with the design of the measuring instrument that needs
to be calibrated. The design has to be able to "hold a calibration" through its
calibration interval. In other words, the design has to be capable of measurements that
are "within engineering tolerance" when used within the stated environmental
conditions over some reasonable period of time. Having a design with these
characteristics increases the likelihood of the actual measuring instruments
performing as expected. The exact mechanism for assigning tolerance values varies
by country and industry type. The measuring equipment manufacturer generally
assigns the measurement tolerance, suggests a calibration interval and specifies the
environmental range of use and storage. The using organization generally assigns the
actual calibration interval, which is dependent on this specific measuring equipment's
likely usage level. A very common interval in the United States for 812 hours of use
5 days per week is six months. That same instrument in 24/7 usage would generally
get a shorter interval. The assignment of calibration intervals can be a formal process
based on the results of previous calibrations.
The next step is defining the calibration process. The selection of a standard or
standards is the most visible part of the calibration process. Ideally, the standard has
26

less than 1/4 of the measurement uncertainty of the device being calibrated. When this
goal is met, the accumulated measurement uncertainty of all of the standards involved
is considered to be insignificant when the final measurement is also made with the 4:1
ratio. The test equipment being calibrated can be just as accurate as the working
standard. If the accuracy ratio is less than 4:1, then the calibration tolerance can be
reduced to compensate. When 1:1 is reached, only an exact match between the
standard and the device being calibrated is a completely correct calibration. Adjusting
the calibration tolerance for the gauge would be a better solution. If the calibration is
performed at 100 units, the 1% standard would actually be anywhere between 99 and
101 units. The acceptable values of calibrations where the test equipment is at the 4:1
ratio would be 96 to 104 units, inclusive. Changing the acceptable range to 97 to 103
units would remove the potential contribution of all of the standards and preserve a
3.3:1 ratio. Continuing, a further change to the acceptable range to 98 to 102 restores
more than a 4:1 final ratio. This is a simplified example. The mathematics of the
example can be challenged. It is important that whatever thinking guided this process
in an actual calibration be recorded and accessible. Informality contributes to
tolerance stacks and other difficult to diagnose post calibration problems. Also in the
example above, ideally the calibration value of 100 units would be the best point in
the gage's range to perform a single-point calibration. It may be the manufacturer's
recommendation or it may be the way similar devices are already being calibrated.
Multiple point calibrations are also used. Depending on the device, a zero unit state,
the absence of the phenomenon being measured, may also be a calibration point. Or
zero may be resettable by the user-there are several variations possible. Again, the
points to use during calibration should be recorded. There may be specific connection
techniques between the standard and the device being calibrated that may influence
the calibration. For example, in electronic calibrations involving analog phenomena,
the impedance of the cable connections can directly influence the result. All of the
information above is collected in a calibration procedure, which is a specific test
method.
These procedures capture all of the steps needed to perform a successful calibration.
The manufacturer may provide one or the organization may prepare one that also
captures all of the organization's other requirements. There are clearinghouses for
calibration procedures such as the Government-Industry Data Exchange Program
27

(GIDEP) in the United States. This exact process is repeated for each of the standards
used until transfer standards, certified reference material sand or natural physical
constants, the measurement standards with the least uncertainty in the laboratory, are
reached. [1]This establishes the traceability of the calibration. See Metrology for other
factors that are considered during calibration process development. After all of this,
individual instruments of the specific type discussed above can finally be calibrated.
The process generally begins with a basic damage check. Some organizations such as
nuclear power plants collect "as-found" calibration data before any routine
maintenance is performed. After routine maintenance and deficiencies detected during
calibration are addressed, an "as-left" calibration is performed. More commonly, a
calibration technician is entrusted with the entire process and signs the calibration
certificate, which documents the completion of a successful calibration.

2.5.2 INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION

Calibration may be called for reasons below:
a)
b)
c)
d)

A new instrument.
After an instrument has been repaired or modified.
When a specified time period has elapsed.
When a specified usage (operating hours) has elapsed, before and/or after a

e)

critical measurement.
After an event, for example. after an instrument has had a shock, vibration, or
has been exposed to an adverse condition which potentially may have put it

f)

out of calibration or damage it.

Sudden changes in weather. Whenever observations appear questionable or

g)

instrument indications do not match the output of surrogate instruments.

As specified by a requirement, e.g., customer specification, instrument
manufacturer recommendation. In general use, calibration is often regarded as
including the process of adjusting the output or indication on a measurement
instrument to agree with value of the applied standard, within a specified
accuracy. For example, a thermometer could be calibrated so the error of
indication or the correction is determined, and adjusted (e.g. via calibration
constants) so that it shows the true temperature in Celsius at specific points on

h)

the scale.
This is the perception of the instrument's end-user. However, very few
instruments can be adjusted to exactly match the standards they are compared
to. For the vast majority of calibrations, the calibration process is actually the
28

comparison of an unknown to a known and recording.

2.6

RTD ( RESISTANCE TEMPRATURE DETECTOR)

Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors ('RTD's), are

sensors used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element
with temperature. Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped
around a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often
placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is made from a pure
material, typically platinum, nickel or copper. The material has a predictable change
in resistance as the temperature changes; it is this predictable change that is used to
determine temperature.[1] They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in
many industrial applications below 600 C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability.

2.6.1 CALIBRATION
To characterize the R v/s T relationship of any RTD over a temperature range that
represents the planned range of use, calibration must be performed at temperatures
other than 0C and 100C. Two common calibration methods are the fixed point
method and the comparison method. Fixed point calibration, used for the highest
accuracy calibrations, uses the triple point, freezing point or melting point of pure
substances such as water, zinc, tin, and argon to generate a known and repeatable
temperature. Fixed point calibrations provide extremely accurate calibrations
(within0.001C). A common fixed point calibration method for industrial-grade
probes is the ice bath. The equipment is inexpensive, easy to use, and can
accommodate several sensors at once. The ice point is designated as a secondary
standard because its accuracy is 0.005C (0.009F), compared to 0.001C
(0.0018F) for primary fixed points. Comparison calibrations, commonly used with
industrial RTDs, the thermometers being calibrated are compared to calibrated
thermometers by means of a bath whose temperature is uniformly stable. Unlike fixed
point calibrations, comparisons can be made at any temperature between 100C and
500C (148F to 932F). This method might be more cost-effective since several
sensors can be calibrated simultaneously with automated equipment. These
electrically heated and well-stirred baths use silicone oils and molten salts as the
29

medium for the various calibration temperatures.

2.6.2 ELEMENT TYPES

There are three main categories of RTD sensors:a) Thin Film
b) Wire-Wound
c) Coiled Elements
While these types are the ones most widely used in industry there are some places
where other more exotic shapes are used, for example carbon resistors are used at
ultra low temperatures (-173 C to -273C). Carbon resistor elements are widely
available and are very inexpensive. They have very reproducible results at low
temperatures. They are the most reliable form at extremely low temperatures. They
generally do not suffer from significant strain gauge effects. Strain free elements use a
wire coil minimally supported within a sealed housing filled with an inert gas. They
consisted of platinum wire loosely coiled over a support structure so the element is
free to expand and contract with temperature, but it is very susceptible to shock and
vibration as the loops of platinum can sway back and forth causing deformation. Thin
film elements have a sensing element that is formed by depositing a very thin layer of
resistive material, normally platinum, on a ceramic substrate. This layer is usually just
10 to 100 angstroms (1 to 10 nanometers) thick. This film is then coated with an
epoxy or glass that helps protect the deposited film and also acts as a strain relief for
the external lead-wires. [1]. Disadvantages of this type are that they are not as stable
as their wire wound or coiled counterparts. They also can only be used over a limited
temperature range due to the different expansion rates of the substrate and resistive
deposited giving a "strain gauge" effect that can be seen in the resistive temperature
coefficient. These elements work with temperatures to 300 C without further
packaging but can operate up to 500 C when suitably encapsulated in glass or
ceramic. Wire-wound elements can have greater accuracy, especially for wide
temperature ranges. The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical
stability and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential
drift. The sensing wire is wrapped around an insulating mandrel or core. The winding
core can be round or flat, but must be an electrical insulator. The coefficient of
thermal expansion of the winding core material is matched to the sensing wire to
minimize any mechanical strain. This strain on the element wire will result in a
30

thermal measurement error. The sensing wire is connected to a larger wire, usually
referred to as the element lead or wire. This wire is selected to be compatible with the
sensing wire so that the combination does not generate an emf that would distort the
thermal measurement. These elements work with temperatures to 660C. Coiled
elements have largely replaced wire-wound elements in industry. This design has a
wire coil which can expand freely over temperature, held in place by some
mechanical support which lets the coil keep its shape. This strain free design allows
the sensing wire to expand and contract free of influence from other materials. The
basis of the sensing element is a small coil of platinum sensing wire. This coil
resembles a filament in an incandescent light bulb. The housing or mandrel is a hard
fired ceramic oxide tube with equally spaced bores that run transverse to the axes. The
coil is inserted in the bores of the mandrel and then packed with a very finely ground
ceramic powder. This permits the sensing wire to move while still remaining in good
thermal contact with the process. These Elements works with temperatures to 850 C.
The current international standard which specifies tolerance and the temperature-toelectrical resistance relationship for platinum resistance thermometers is IEC
60751:2008, ASTM E1137 is also used in the United States. By far the most common
devices used in industry have a nominal resistance of 100ohmsat 0 C, and are called
Pt100 sensors ('Pt' is the symbol for platinum, 100 for the resistance in ohm at 0C).
The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is a nominal 0.385 ohm/C. RTDs with a
sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/C as well as a variety of others are also available.

2.7

THERMOCOUPLE

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors in contact which produce a

voltage when heated. The voltage produced is dependent on the difference of
temperature of the junction to other parts of the circuit. Thermocouples are a widely
used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to
convert a temperature gradient into electricity. Commercial thermocouples are
inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure
a wide range of temperatures.

31

Fig
2.6

Thermocouple

In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are

self-powered and require no external form of excitation. The main limitation with
thermocouples is accuracy; system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be
difficult to achieve. Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric
potential related to temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of
temperature are junctions of specifically which have a predictable and repeatable
relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for different
temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be important
32

when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the
measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires
which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are
usually standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical
instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for
varying temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also
compensate for the varying characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the
precision and accuracy of measurements. Thermocouples are widely used in science
and industry; applications include temperature measurement gas turbine exhaust,
diesel engines, and other industrial processes.

CHAPTER-3
RESULTS
33

During calibration following results are obtained with K-type thermocouple which
are tabulated in table no 3.1
TABLE 3.1

Millivolts (source) Temperature(deg.C)

00.00
00.40
00.80
1.00
1.20

29
39
59
54
59

The calibration of resistance temperature detector is done and following results are
obtained which are tabulated in table 3.2
TABLE 3.2

Temperature(deg.C) Resistance(ohms)
25
35
45
50
55

100
103.9
107.79
109.73
111.67

These values in observation are calculated as per calibration chart standards of

industrial instruments. In this same manner values of RTD is also measured, vaccum
gauge was also analysed with different values of weight applied. In automation
techniques study of various factors in PLC and SCADA and their work with industrial
machines are analysed, for the combination of automation and instrumentation.

CHAPTER-4
CONCLUSION
During the training period in instrumentation section, calibration was done as per the
industrial calibration standards and was properly checked and verified. PLC and
SCADA automation techniques and programming was studied, as per the industrial
requirements. Rockwell automation techniques and new discoveries of SCADA
34

system featuring 3D graphics were analyzed , temperature, pressure variations and

flow controls are analyzed through SCADA, with proper Human Machine Interface.
Overall this training period will be fruitful for the future career start.

REFERENCES
[1] A.K. Sawhney Electronics measurements and insturuments ( second edition)
vol. 1213
[2] David bailey and Edwin wright SCADA basics, second edition( 2003)
[3] W.BOLTON Programable logic controllers, fourth edition (2006) vol. 229
Links
1) https://www.rockwellautomation.com/rockwellautomation/industries/auto
motive
35

2) http://literature.rockwellautomation.com/idc/groups/literature/documents/a
r/journk-ar010_-en-p.pdf
3) http://www.idconline.com/technical_references/pdfs/electrical_engineering/Control_of_B
oiler_Operation_using_PLC%20-%20SCADA.pdf

36