Conduction Heat Transfer

Lecture Notes Compiled by

http://heatflows.info
Dr. Subrahmanya S. Katte
Ashok Leyland Chair Professor & Associate Dean (Research)
School of Mechanical Engineering
SASTRA University
Thanjavur 613401, India

Based on References

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Incropera F.P., and DeWitt D.P., Fundamentals of Heat and

Mass Transfer, Fifth edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2001
John H. Lienhard IV, and John H. Lienhard V, A Heat
Transfer Text Book, Third edition, Phlogiston Press,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

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Other sources on web

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1. Fundamentals of Conduction Heat Transfer

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1.1 Thermophysical Properties

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Transport properties:
k (thermal conductivity conduction heat transfer)
(kinematic viscosity - momentum transfer)
D (diffusion coefficient - mass transfer)

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Thermodynamic properties:
relating to equilibrium state of a system, such as density
and specific heat c

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Thermal Conductivity

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dT
= k x
Recall Fouriers law
dx
It is an empirical law, i.e., based on experimental evidence
q"x

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Applies to all states of matter

Defines the transport property, thermal conductivity:

kx

q"x
(dT / dx )

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m2 = W / m K
K
m

We, mostly, assume isotropic material (independent of the

direction): kx=ky=kz=k

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Is thermal conductivity different between gases, liquids and

solids?

Gases
Nonmetalic solids
NM liquids

Liquid metals
Solid metals

Range of thermal conductivity for various states of matter at

NTP

Thermal Conductivity: Solids

Heat, in solids, is transported
through
Migration of free electrons
Lattice vibrational waves
On can disperse solid material
throughout an air space to form
an insulator - fiber, powder and
flake type insulations, even
though solids have higher k
No theory to predict.
k Metals > Non Metals
k Crystals > Non Crystals
k metals - with + T
k nonmetals + with + T
Pure metals - electrical and
Thermal conductance correlate.

Thermal Conductivity: Fluids

Heat transport is less effective than in
solids; k is lower
Physical mechanisms controlling k not
well understood in liquid state

Generally k decreases with increasing

temperature (exceptions glycerine and water)
k decreases with increasing molecular weight

Thermal Diffusivity
The volumetric heat capacity c (J/m3 K) represents the
ability of a material to store heat energy
For solids and liquids, c > 1 MJ/m3 K
For gases, c 1 kJ/m3 K
Thermal diffusivity

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k
=
c

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Thermal diffusivity represents the ability of a material to

conduct heat relative to its ability to store the same
Materials of large thermal diffusivity will respond quickly to
changes in their thermal environment
Materials of small thermal diffusivity will respond more
sluggishly, taking longer to reach a new equilibrium
condition

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Density and Specific Heat

Solids density ~ constant,
(Eg. iron)

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cv= cp= c increases with +T

Liquids density decreases with + T, cv= cp= c increases

with +T
(Eg. Water above 4oC)

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Gases density decreases with + T, cv< cp both increases

with +T
(Eg. air), volumetric heat capacity decreases with +T

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1.1.1 A Note on Thermophysical Property Data

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The accuracy of engineering calculations depends on the

accuracy with which the thermophysical properties are
known

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Numerous examples could be cited of design failures

attributable to misinformation associated with key
thermophysical properties

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Selection of reliable property data is an integral part of any

careful engineering analysis

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The casual use of data from the literature or handbooks,

which have not been well characterized or evaluated, is to
be avoided

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1.2 Heat Conduction Equation

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Fouriers law is used to determine the conduction heat

transfer rate

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Temperature is a scalar field T(x,y,z)

Heat transfer in three dimensions are:

T
T
q x = k x
; q y = k y
x
y

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T
; q z = k z
z

Heat flux is a vector quantity, q is vector sum of qx, qy and qz

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Hence, to determine qx, qy, qz we require the knowledge of the

manner in which temperature varies within the medium
(temperature distribution)

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This knowledge is obtained by developing, from fundamental

principles, a partial differential equation (PDE), termed as the
Heat Conduction Equation, which governs the temperature
distribution within a medium

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The solution to this PDE, subject to boundary and/or initial

conditions, provides the knowledge of temperature
distribution

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Conservation of Energy (on a rate basis)

Surroundings

E + E E = dE st = E
in
g
out
st
dt

Control Volume
Boundary
(Control Surface)

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Heat Addition

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E in

Accumulation
(Storage) E st

Generation E g

Heat Rejection

E out

Inflow and outflow are surface phenomena

Generation and accumulation are volumetric phenomena

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1.2.1 Conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates:

Energy conservation for differential volume, dx dy dz, gives

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Qy+ y

Qz+ z

Qx

T(x,y,z,t)

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Qin Q out + Q g = Qst

where

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Qin = Q x + Q y + Q z

Qx+ x

Qz

Qy

Qg

(2.1)

Q out = Q x +dx + Q y+dy + Q z +dz

Substituting these in Eq. (2.1)

Q x Q x +dx + Q y Q y+dy + Q z Q z+dz + Q g = Qst

(2.2)

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Using Taylor series, neglecting higher order terms:

Q y
Q x
Q
Q x +dx = Q x +
dx ; Q y+dy = Q y +
dy ; Q z+dz = Q z + z dz
x
y
z
Substituting these in Eq. (2.2)

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Q y
Q x
Q z

dx
dy
dz + Q g = Qst
x
y
z
Using Fouriers law

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T
T
Q x = A x q x = A x k x
= kx
(dydz)
x
x
T
T
Q y = A y q y = A y k y
= k y
(dxdz)
y
y
T
T
Q z = A z q z = A z k z
= k z
(dxdy)
z
z

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(2.3)

(2.4)

q is rate at which heat is generated per unit volume

of medium (W/m3), could be a source or sink

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Therefore heat generated is Q g = q dxdydz

T
Heat stored or
Qst = (mcT) = c dxdydz
t
t
rate of change of energy is:
m = dV , if c is a constant

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(2.5)
(2.6)

Substituting Eq. (2.4-2.6) in Eq. (2.3), and dividing by (dxdydz),

General
T T T
T Heat
+ kz
kx
+ ky
+ q = c
x x y y z z
t Equation
(2.7a)
rate of heat time rate of
Net conduction of heat into the CV
generation change of
heat energy
or sink

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Terms depend on 1-D, 2-D, 3-D conduction

0 for no
0 for steady
generation state
or sink

If material is isotropic kx=ky=kz=k, a constant

2

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2

T T T q 1 T
+ 2+ 2+ =
2
k t
x
y
z

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(2.7b)

k
where the thermal diffusivity =
c

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Eq. (2.7b) can be written as

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For steady state

If there is no heat generation

q 1 T Heat
T+ =
k t Equation

(2.7c)

q
T+
=0
k

Poisson
equation

(2.7d)

Laplace
equation

(2.7e)

T=0

1.2.2 Conduction Equation in Polar Coordinates

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Qin = Q r + Q + Q z

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Q out = Q r +dr + Q +d + Q z +dz

Substituting these in Eq. (2.1)

Q r Q r +dr + Q Q +d + Q z Q z +dz + Q g = Qst

(2.8)

Using Taylor series expansion,

Q r + dr = Q r +

Q
Q r
dr ; Q + d = Q + rd
r
r

; Q z + dz = Q z +

Q z
dz
z

Substituting these in Eq. (2.8)

Q
Qr
Qz

dr
rd
dz + Qg = Qst
r
r
z

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Using Fouriers law Qr = A r q r = A r k r T =k r T rd dz

r
r
T
T
Q = A q = A k
=k
drdz
r
r
T
T
Q z = A z q z = A z k z =k z
rdrd
z
z

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Heat generated

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Heat stored (rate of

change of energy)

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Q g = q rdrddz

T
(mcT) = c rdrddz
t
t
m = dV , if c is a constant

Qst =

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(2.9)

(2.10)

(2.11)

(2.12)

Substituting Eq. (2.10-2.12) in Eq. (2.9),

and dividing by (rdrddz),
1
T 1 T T
T

k
r
+
k
+
k
+
q
=

c
r
2

r r
r r z z
t

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If material is isotropic kr=k=kz=k, a constant

1 T 1 2T 2T q 1 T
r + 2 2 + 2 + =
r r r r z
k t
or

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2 T 1 T 1 2 T 2 T q 1 T
+
+ 2 2+ 2+ =
2
r r r z
k t
r

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or

q 1 T
T+ =
k t
2

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(2.13a)

(2.13b)

(2.13c)

1.2.3 Conduction Equation in Spherical Coordinates

1 2 T
1

T
1
T
T

k
r
+
k
sin

+
k
+
q
=

c

r
2

2 2
2
r r sin
r sin
t
r r

If material is isotropic kr=k=k=k, a constant

1 2 T
1

T
1
T q 1 T
r
+
sin

+
+ =

2 2
2
r sin k t
r r r r sin

(2.14a)
(2.14b)

1.2.4 Methods of Solution

Integration
Separation of variables

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Superposition principle for linear problems

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Approximate analytical methods (Integral methods)

Numerical methods

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Numerical integration

Finite Difference Method (FDM)

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Finite Volume Method (FVM)

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Finite Element Method (FEM)

Direct Numerical Simulation (DNC)

1.2.5 Boundary and Initial Conditions

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The temperature distribution in a medium depends on the

conditions existing at the boundaries, and at some initial time
The solution of heat equation requires a maximum of 6 B.Cs
and 1 I.C
Initial condition is the specification of temperature distribution
at some initial time
Surface Energy Balance

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For a control surface:

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T

Qcond

Q cond Q conv Q rad = 0

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Qrad

T
x

T
2

Qconv
T

B.C of first kind (Dirichlet condition)

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Surface temperature is specified

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Eg.: a surface in contact with a melting solid or a boiling

liquid or condensing steam

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B.C of second kind (Neumann condition)

Heat flux at the surface
(temperature gradient at the
surface) is specified
Eg.: Radiative heating of a body,
electrical heating
What if the surface is perfectly
insulated?
Heat flux is zero: approximation for
situations where thermal insulation
is very high

qs W/m2

B.C. of third kind

A relationship for the

temperature gradient at the
surface is specified
Eg.: convection at the surface
Can be approximated to

(Same as B.C of first kind)

NOTE:
Specified values could be constant or a function of time
Many more types of B.C s possible: radiative, interface with
another solid with a contact resistance

1.2.6 Solution Procedure

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Step 1. Pick the coordinate scheme that best fits the problem
and identify the independent variables that determine T

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Step 2. Write the appropriate differential equation, starting

with one of the forms of Eq. (2.7c)
Step 3. Obtain the general solution of the differential
equation

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Step 4. Write the side conditions on the differential

equation - the initial and boundary conditions

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This is the step that most seriously tests your physical

or practical understanding of problems

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Never, never introduce inaccessible information in a

boundary or initial condition

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Step 5. Substitute the general solution in the initial and

boundary conditions and solve for the constants
This process gets very complicated in the transient
and multidimensional problems. Fourier series
methods are typically needed to solve the problem

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Step 6. Put the calculated constants back in the general

solution to get the particular solution to the problem
It would be better to express the solution in a neat
dimensionless form
By nondimensionalizing the result, we can succeed in
representing all situations with a simple curve while
plotting
This is highly desirable when the calculations are not
simple

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Step 7. Play with the solution - look it over - see what it has
to tell you. Make any checks you can think of to be sure it
is correct

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Step 8. If the temperature field is now correctly established,

you can, if you wish, calculate the heat flux at any point in
the body by substituting temperature distribution back into
Fouriers law

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Obtain rate of heat

transfer

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Solve the Equation for T

Analytical or Numerical

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COORDINATE
SYSTEM

Fouriers Law of Heat

Conduction

Obtain Temperature
Profile

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TYPICAL METHOD FOR SOLVING

CONDUCTION PROBLEMS

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Geometry

Fourier-Poisson
Equation

Assumptions

Boundary
and/or initial
conditions

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2. One-dimensional, Steady Conduction

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Temperature is a function of only one spatial coordinate

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Steady state means that the temperature is not a function

of time
Despite their inherent simplicity, one-dimensional,
steady-state models may be used to accurately represent
numerous engineering systems

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2.1 Plane Wall / Slab

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A slab/plane wall, as shown, is at steady state with dissimilar

temperatures on either side and no internal heat generation

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Recall the solution procedure

T1

Step 1

T=T(X) for steady x-direction heat flow

Qx

x=0
x

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T2

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x=L

Step 2

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For steady 1-D conduction without

heat generation

d 2T
=0
2
dx

(i) GDE

Step 3
By integrating (i) twice
dT
= C1
dx

T( x ) = C1x + C 2
Step 4
The B.Cs are:
Step 5

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T(0)=T1

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T(0)=T1 = 0 + C2

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(ii) General solution

and

; so

T(L)=T2=C1L + C2 = C1L+ T1

T(L)=T2

C2=T1
; so

T2 T1
C1 =
L

Step 6
Putting constants in the general solution
x
T( x ) = ( T2 T1 ) + T1
L

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T( x ) T1 x
=
T2 T1
L

or

Step 7
We note that the solution satisfies the boundary
conditions and that the temperature profile is linear
Step 8

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dT
d
x
T2 T1
T1 T2

q = k
= k ( T2 T1 ) + T1 = k
=k
dx
dx
L
L
L

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T1 T2
T
Q = qA = kA
= kA
L
L

( W)

(W / m2 )

2.1.1 Thermal Resistance (Electrical Analogy)

T
The expression Q = kA
L

Thus, if we rearrange it:

T
Q=
L
kA

is like

R cond

E = T

L
=
kA

for slab reminds us Ohms law

E
I=
R
Thus, we can write
T
Q=
R cond

where, the thermal resistance for

conduction in a plane wall (K/W)
is

R cond

L
=
kA

Plane Wall with Convection

Cold fluid

T,1

T,2 , h2

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Based on the previous solution,

the conduction heat transfer rate is

Ts ,1
Ts ,2

T,1 , h1
Hot fluid

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Consider a plane wall, separating

two fluids of different temperature

qx
x=0
x

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T,2

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(
TS,1 TS, 2 )
kA
( TS,1 TS,2 ) = L
Qx =
L
kA

For heat convection,

(TS T )
Q x = hA (TS T ) =
1
hA
where, the thermal resistance for
convection (K/W) is
R conv =

1
hA

Using the concept of a thermal circuit

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Toverall
Q=
R

Q=

T,1 TS,1
R conv,1

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TS,1 TS, 2
R cond

Ts, 2 T, 2
R conv, 2

R tot = R conv,1 + R cond + R conv, 2 =

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T,1 T, 2
R tot

1
L
1
+
+
h1A kA h 2 A

T,1 TS,1 TS,1 TS, 2 TS, 2 T, 2

T,1 T, 2
=
=
=
1
L
1
1
L
1
+
+
h1A
kA
h 2A
h1A kA h 2 A

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Find surface
temperatures

Temperature distribution can be obtained

x
T ( x ) = (Ts, 2 Ts,1 ) + Ts,1
by treating the slab as subject to the first
L
kind boundary conditions on both surfaces

Plane Wall with Heat flux / Convection

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A slab, as shown, is subject to heat flux and convective boundary

conditions on either side
Under steady state, by energy balance
TS,1
TS,2
q0 W/m2

Convection,
given: h, T

Qx

x=0
x

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x=L

TS,1 TS, 2
q 0 A = kA
= hA( TS, 2 T )
L

TS,1 TS, 2 TS, 2 T

q0A =
=
L
1
kA
hA

Equating the first and last terms

TS, 2

q0
= T +
h

Equating the first and second terms

q0L
L 1
TS,1 = TS, 2 +
= T + q 0 +
k
k h

The temperature distribution, as we know

x
T( x ) = (TS, 2 TS,1 ) + TS,1
L

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Substituting for TS,1 and TS,2 , we get

1 ( L x)
T( x ) = T + q 0 +

k
h

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or

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T( x ) T k
x
= +1
q0L
hL
L
k

The same expression can also be obtained by integrating

d 2T
=0
2
dx

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Subject to following boundary conditions

dT
k
= q0
dx x =0

and

dT
k
= h{ T( L ) T }
dx x =L

2.1.2 Conduction Through Composite Walls

Often a slab consists of two or more materials, like the walls of a house
A composite wall may involve any number of series and parallel thermal
resistances due to layers of different materials
For resistances in series:
Rtot =R1+R2++Rn
Hot
fluid

Cold
fluid

Alternatively, Q can be
related to each layer

For resistances in parallel:

1/Rtot =1/R1+1/R2++1/Rn

Qx

Qx

Surfaces normal to x-direction

are isothermal

Surfaces parallel to x-direction

are adiabatic

Heat transfer is actually multidimensional

Hence, both circuits give different values of Rtot with increasing k F k G

2.1.3 Contact Resistance

No two solid surfaces will ever form a perfect thermal contact
is a composite slab
Hence, the temperature drop across the interface between
materials may be appreciable, due to surface roughness
effects, leading to air pockets
This temperature drop
is attributed to the
thermal contact
resistance
For unit area of
interface
TA TB
"
R t ,c =
q"x

Contact resistance may be reduced

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1. By increasing the area of contact spots:

by increasing the joint pressure
by reducing the roughness of the mating surfaces

2. By selecting an interfacial fluid/ substance of larger

thermal conductivity

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2.2 Temperature Dependent Thermal Conductivity

For steady 1-D conduction in a plane wall
d
dT
(
)
k
T

=0
dx
dx
with B.Cs: T(0)=T1
By integrating
dT
k (T )
= C1
dx

T(L)=T2

k (T )dT = C1dx

Integrating again
T2

and

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T1

Qx

T2

L
[
]
k
(
T
)
dT
=
C
dx
=
C
x
+
C

1
1
2 0 = C1L

T1

tt

1 T2
C1 = k (T ) dT
L T1

x=0
x

x=L

By Fouriers law
dT
A T2
A T1
Q = k (T ) A
= AC1 = k (T ) dT = k (T ) dT
dx
L T1
L T2

o
f
n

i
.
s
w
o
l
(
f
t
a

If k is linearly dependent on T : k (T) = k 0 (1 + aT)

k0 is constant

a is temperature coefficient of k
T1

A
Ak 0
T
Ak 0
a 2
2
(
)
Q = k 0 (1 + aT) dT =
T
+
a
=
T

T
+
T

T
1
2
1
2
L T2
L
2 T
L
2

2
2

T1

/
:
p

Ak 0
( T1 T2 )
Q=
L

tt

Q = k mA

e
h
/

(
)
1
+
T
+
T
2
2 1

( T1 T2 )
L

where

( T1 + T2 ) ( T1 T2 )

= k 0 1 + a
A

2
L

T1 + T2
k m = k 0 1 + a
2

2.3 Radial Conduction in Polar Coordinates

o
f
n

For steady state, one-dimensional radial conduction

1 T 1 2 T 2 T q 1 T
r + 2 2 + 2 + =
r r r r z
k t

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a
0

1 d dT
d dT
r = 0 r = 0
r dr dr
dr dr

Ti
ri

tt

e
h
/

dT C1
dT
=
r
= C1
dr
r
dr

/
:
p

By integrating

By integrating again

Subject to boundary conditions

T = C1 ln r + C 2
T(ri)=Ti

and

General
solution
T(ro)=To

Substituting boundary conditions in the general solution

Ti = C1 ln ri + C 2
To = C1 ln ro + C 2

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

Solving for the constants

To Ti
To Ti
; C 2 = Ti
ln ri
C1 =
r
r
ln o
ln o
ri
ri

Substituting the constants in the general solution

ln r
ri
T( r ) = Ti + ( To Ti )
r
ln o
ri

/
:
p

e
h
/

By Fouriers law
(
Ti To )
dT
C1
Q = kA
= k ( 2rL )
= 2Lk
r
dr
r
ln o
ri

tt

o
f
n

Q=

Ti To
T To
= i
ln ( ro ri ) R cond

Lk

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

So, for hollow cylinders

Comparison of temperature distributions

A

dT
Q = k ( 2rL )
= Constant
dr

/
:
p

e
h
/

dT/dr has to decrease as r increases

Hence, the temperature profile in a
cylinder is non-linear, q falls off
inversely with r

t
t
h

For slab, A is constant and so is dT/dr

R cond

o
f
n

ln( ro ri )
=
2Lk

Hollow Cylinder with Convection

Consider a hollow cylinder, whose inner and outer surfaces are exposed
to fluids at different temperatures
Temperature profile, can be
calculated using

(Ts, 2 Ts,1 ) r
T ( r ) = Ts,1 +
ln
ln( r2 / r1 ) r1

Qr =

T ,1 Ts,1
Ts,1 Ts, 2
T T, 2
T,1 T , 2
=
= s,2
=
1
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
+
+ 1
2r1Lh1
2

r
Lh
2Lk
2
2
2r1Lh1
2Lk
2r2 Lh 2

2.3.1 Radial Conduction in Solid Cylinder

d dT
r = 0
dr dr

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

GDE is

o
f
n

If only one B.C is given at the outer surface,

what should be done for the other B.C?
For 1-D radial conduction, the temperature
profile is symmetric about any radial line

T(r)

tt

/
:
p

e
h
/

So, B.C at r = 0 is

dT
=0
dr r =0

2.3.2 Radial Conduction in Composite Coaxial Cylinders

Qr =

Qr =

T ,1 Ts ,1 Ts ,1 T2 T2 T3 T3 Ts , 4 Ts , 4 T , 4
=
=
=
=
1
1
r2
r3
r4
ln ln ln
2r1 Lh1
2r4 Lh4
r1
r2
r3
2Lk A
2Lk B
2LkC
T ,1 T , 2
r
r
r
ln 2 ln 3 ln 4
r
r
r
1
1
+ 1+ 2+ 3+
2r1 Lh1 2Lk A 2Lk B 2LkC 2r4 Lh4

2.4 Critical radius of insulation

ln

R cond
Q as r Q as r
if r>rc
if r<rc

Insulation
thickness

Representative Graph

ro

ri
=
2Lk

; R conv

1
=
2ro Lh

Insulation is
useful

For a particular ro/ri (ro=rc), total resistance is a minimum,

hence Q is a maximum as

rc is determined by

Ti T
Ti T
Q=
=
R cond + R conv ln ro
1
ri
+
2Lk 2ro Lh

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

dR
d 1
1
( ln ro ln ri ) +
=

=0
dro dro 2Lk
2ro Lh

1 1
1

=0
2
2Lk rc 2Lhrc

/
:
p

e
h
/

or

o
f
n

When ro=rc

k
rc =
h

Existence of critical thickness requires that the heat transfer area change
in the direction of heat transfer
This idiosyncrasy is of concern, as an insulation can actually increase
the heat transfer if r<rc
This principle is used in electrical insulations

tt

2.5 Radial Conduction in Spherical Coordinates

o
f
n

1-D radial conduction,

subject to first kind B.Cs

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a
d 2 dT
r
=0
dr dr

T( r1 ) = T1 ; T( r2 ) = T2

By integrating
Integrating again

/
:
p

Substituting B.Cs

tt

dT
dT C1
r
= C1 or
= 2
dr
dr r
C1
General solution
T( r ) = + C 2
r
C1
C1
T1 = + C 2 ; T2 = + C 2
r1
r2
2

e
h
/

r1r2 ( T1 T2 )
and
Solving two equations C1 =
r2 r1

r2 ( T1 T2 )
C 2 = T1
r2 r1

Substituting the constants in the general solution:

r1
1

r
T( r ) = T1 ( T1 T2 )
1 r1
r2

By Fouriers law

i
.
s
w
( )
o
l
f
t
a
e
h
/

o
f
n

( T1 T2 )
dT
r1r2 ( T1 T2 )
2 C1
Q = k 4r
= k 4r 2 = 4k
=
dr
r2 r1
1 1
r

r1 r2
4k

Q=

T1 T2
R cond

tt

/
:
p
or

R cond

1 1

r r
= 1 2

4k

rc, when Rcond is a minimum can be shown to be

2k
rc =
h

A Comparison

(Q)

3. One-dimensional, Steady, Conduction with

Heat Generation

tt

/
:
p

e
h
/

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

o
f
n

o
f
n

Thermal energy may be generated or consumed due to

conversion from/to some other form of energy
If thermal energy is generated in the material at the expense
of some other energy form, we have a source: q is +ve
Deceleration and absorption of neutrons in a nuclear
reactor
Exothermic reactions
Conversion of electrical to thermal energy
Volumetric absorption of radiation

e
h
/

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

If thermal energy is consumed we have a sink:

Endothermic reactions

tt

/
:
p

q is -ve

Caution: Heat flux depends on spatial coordinate. Hence, it

would be incorrect to use the conduction resistance concepts

3.1 Plane Wall

o
f
n

Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall of

constant k, with uniform heat generation:
Heat diffusion equation

d T q
+ =0
2
k
dx
2

By integrating

e
h
/

dT
q
= x + C1
dx
k

/
:
p

Integrating again

tt

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

q x 2
T( x ) =
+ C1x + C 2
k 2

General Solution

Consider a slab as shown:

Boundary Conditions are:

T( L) = Ts ,1 ; T (L) = Ts , 2

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

o
f
n

The problem can be treated by

considering that Ts,1 and Ts,2 are known,
(could be calculated using surface
energy balance for other B.Cs)
Substituting the B.Cs in general solution

tt

/
:
p

q L2
T( L ) = Ts ,1 =
C1L + C 2
k 2

e
h
/

T( L ) = Ts , 2

q L2
=
+ C1L + C 2
k 2

Ts ,1 + Ts , 2 qL2
Ts , 2 Ts ,1
+
and C 2 =
Solving two equations, C1 =
2
2k
2L

Substituting constants in the general solution

o
f
n

qL2 x 2 ( Ts , 2 Ts ,1 ) x ( Ts ,1 + Ts , 2 )
1 2 +
T( x ) =
+
2k L
2
L
2

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

Temperature profile is parabolic (not independent of x)

Heat flux (may be determined from Fouriers law) also dependent on x

If both surfaces are maintained at a
common temperature, Ts,1 = Ts,2 = Ts

e
h
/

qL2 x 2
1 2 + Ts
T( x ) =
2k L

t
t
h

/
:
p

Temperature distribution is symmetrical

Maximum temperature exists at the
mid plane, x=0

qL2
T ( 0) =
+ Ts
2k

Note that at the plane of symmetry (x=0),

the temperature gradient is zero:

dT
= 0 q" x =0 = 0
dx x =0
Mid plane is equivalent to adiabatic
surface
Hence, the problem may also be
treated as steady, 1-D conduction
with heat generation, subject to
B.Cs

dT
= 0 ; T( L ) = Ts , 2
dx x =0

Calculation of surface temperature Ts

If the B.Cs are not of the first kind, the surface temperatures may be
calculated using the surface energy balance
For convective B.C,
dT
k
= h (Ts T )
dx x =L
Differentiating the symmetrical
temperature distribution

dT qL2 2 x
=
2
dx
2k L
dT
qL

=
dx x =L
k

Ts may be eliminated in preceding equations

qL
k
= h (Ts T ) or
k

qL
Ts = T +
h

3.2 Radial Conduction in a Solid Cylinder

T , h

Heat diffusion equation is:

1 d dT q
r + = 0
r dr dr k

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a
or

o
f
n

d dT
qr
r =
dr dr
k

By integrating (for uniform heat generation)

dT C1 qr
dT
qr 2
or
=

r
=
+ C1
dr
2k
dr
r 2k

/
:
p

Integrating again
B.Cs are

tt

e
h
/

qr 2
T( r ) = C1 ln r
+ C2
4k

dT
= 0 ; T( ro ) = Ts
dr r =0

General solution

First condition results

from the symmetry

First B.C gives

Second B.C gives

dT
= 0 C1 = 0
dr r =0

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

qro
T( ro ) = Ts = C 2
4k

q ro
C 2 = Ts +
4k

Substituting the constants in the general solution, we get

tt

/
:
p

e
h
/

qro
qr 2
T( r ) =
+ Ts +
4k
4k

qro r
T( r ) = Ts +
1
4k ro
2

o
f
n

Calculation of surface temperature:

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

o
f
n

Either surface energy balance or an overall energy balance may be used

The second approach gives

q(ro2 L) = h (2ro L)(Ts T )

tt

/
:
p

e
h
/

or

qro
Ts = T +
2h

3.3 Radial Conduction in a Solid Sphere

Heat diffusion equation is:

1 d 2 dT q
r
+ = 0
2
r dr dr k
By integrating

dT
q 3
r
= r + C1
dr
3k
2

e
h
/

o
f
n

or

d 2 dT
qr 2
r
=
dr dr
k

or

dT C1 qr
= 2
dr r
3k

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

r 2+1 qr 2
Integrating again T ( r ) = C1

+ C2
2 + 1 6k

tt

/
:
p

C1 qr 2
T( r ) =
+ C2
r
6k

General solution

dT
= 0, C1 = 0
dr r =0

First B.C

Second B.C T( ro ) = Ts

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

gives

q ro
T( ro ) = Ts =
+ C2
6k

/
:
p

e
h
/

qro
C 2 = Ts +
6k

Substituting the constants

tt

qro r
T( r ) = Ts +
1
6k ro
2

o
f
n

o
f
n

4. Extended Surfaces (Fins) of Constant Area

tt

/
:
p

e
h
/

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

Heat transfer by convection:

Q = hA( TS T )

Stegosaurus

Applications
Cooling of IC engines
Automobile radiators
Electric power transformers
Tube-fin and plate-fin heat exchangers
Processor of a computer

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

o
f
n

Radiating fins in satellites, space shuttle, and experimental

robots on other heavenly bodies

tt

/
:
p

e
h
/

Fins are particularly beneficial when h is small,

as for a gas and natural convection
Selection of a particular fin configuration may depend on:
space, weight, manufacturing and cost considerations
extent to which the fin increase the pressure drop of flow

Straight fin
Uniform c/s area

Straight fin
Triangular,
trapezoidal

Annular fin

Pin fin

Fin designs are limited only

by imagination!

Externally finned tubing

Internally finned tubing

4.1 Fin Equation and Solution

Assumptions
Conduction is one-dimensional {along the length of fin, T(x), and steady
Heat loss (gain) is only by convection (no radiation)
Thermal conductivity is constant
Heat transfer coefficient is uniform (this can introduce serious errors!)
Energy balance gives

Q x Q x + x Q conv = 0
dT
where Q x = kA c
dx
dQ x
Q x + x = Q x +
dx
dx

Q conv = hPdx ( T T )

(3.1)

Substitution gives

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

d
dT
kA c
dx hPdx ( T T ) = 0
dx
dx
If k, Ac are
constants
We define

t
t
h

We get

d 2T
kA c 2 hP( T T ) = 0
dx

= T T

/
:
p

and

e
h
/

m2 =

or

o
f
n

d 2T hP
( T T ) = 0

2
kA c
dx

hP
kA c

d 2T d 2

= 2
2
dx
dx

d 2
2

m
=0
2
dx

Fin equation

General solution

( x ) = C1e mx + C 2e mx

or

( x ) = C3 cosh mx + C 4 sinh mx

4.1.1 Long Fin

T( 0 ) = T0

B.Cs are:
or

( 0 ) = T0 T = 0

Second B.C gives C 2 = 0

Substitution gives

; T( x ) = T

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

o
f
n

; ( x ) ( T T ) 0

( 0 ) = 0 = C1

First B.C gives

( x ) = 0 e

mx

or

T T
=
= e mx
0 T0 T

= 0 ( m ) e mx
dx

/
:
p

e
h
/

By Fouriers law, heat transfer by fin is

d
hP
mx
Q = kA c
= kA c 0 ( m ) e
= kA c m0 = kA c
0
x =0
dx x =0
kA c

tt

Q = hPkA c 0

4.1.2 Short Fin with Adiabatic Tip

General solution ( x ) = C3 cosh mx + C 4 sinh mx
( 0 ) = 0

B.Cs:
First B.C gives

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

d
;
=0
dx x =L

0 = C3

because

dT
=0
dx x =L

(cosh 0 = 1 ; sinh x=0)

( x ) = 0 cosh mx + C 4 sinh mx
Differentiating

e
h
/

d
= m0 sinh mx + mC4 cosh mx
dx

/
:
p

d
= m0 sinh mL + mC 4 cosh mL = 0
Second B.C:
dx x =L

tt

C 4 = 0

o
f
n

sinh mL
cosh mL

sinh mL

Substitution gives ( x ) = 0 cosh mx

sinh mx
cosh mL

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

or

cosh mx cosh mL sinh mL sinh mx

( x ) = 0

cosh mL

or

cosh m( L x )
( x ) = 0
cosh mL

By differentiating

d( x )
m sinh m( L x )
= 0

dx
cosh mL

or
or

tt

e
h
/

d
m sinh mL
Q = kA c
= kA c 0

dx x =0
cosh mL

/
:
p

By Fouriers law

o
f
n

Q = kA c m0 tanh mL

Q = hPkA c 0 tanh mL

m=

hP
kA c

4.1.3 Short Fin with Convective Tip

B.Cs: ( 0 ) = 0
First B.C gives

o
f
n

( x ) = C3 cosh mx + C 4 sinh mx

General solution

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

dT
d
= h{ T( L ) T }
; k
= h( L ) because k
dx x =L
dx x =L

0 = C3

(cosh 0 = 1 ; sinh x=0)

( x ) = 0 cosh mx + C 4 sinh mx
Differentiating

e
h
/

d
= m0 sinh mx + mC4 cosh mx
dx

/
:
p

Second B.C gives

k ( m0 sinh mL + mC4 cosh mL ) = h ( 0 cosh mL + C 4 sinh mL )

tt

sinh mL + h

cosh mL
mk
C 4 = 0
cosh mL + h
sinh mL
mk

Substituting the constants

o
f
n

sinh
mL
+
cosh
mL
mk
( x ) = 0 cosh mx
sinh mx

h
cosh
mL
+
sinh
mL

mk

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a
or

h
( x ) cosh mx cosh mL sinh mL sinh mx + mk ( cosh mx sinh mL cosh mL sinh mx )
=
0
cosh mL + h
sinh mL
mk

e
h
/

h
( x ) cosh m( L x ) + mk sinh m( L x )
=
0
cosh mL + h
sinh mL
mk

or

tt

/
:
p

m sinh m( L x ) h
m cosh m( L x )
By differentiating d( x )
mk
= 0

h
dx
cosh mL +
sinh mL

mk

By Fouriers law

o
f
n

m sinh mL h
m cosh mL
d
mk
Q = kA c
= kA c 0

h
dx x =0
cosh mL + mk sinh mL

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

sinh mL + h
cosh mL
mk
Q = kA c m0

h
cosh mL + mk sinh mL
or

tt

e
h
/

sinh mL + h
cosh mL
mk
Q = hPkA c 0

h
cosh mL + mk sinh mL

/
:
p

hP
m=
kA c

Comparison of various fins

Case
A

Tip Condition
Convection heat
transfer:
h(L)= -k(d/dx)x=L

Temp. Distribution (/b)

cosh m( L x ) + ( h ) sinh m( L x )
mk
cosh mL + ( h ) sinh mL
mk

Fin heat transfer

sinh mL + ( h ) cosh mL
mk
M
cosh mL + ( h ) sinh mL
mk

Adiabatic
(d/dx)x=L=0
Given temperature:
(L)= L

cosh m( L x )
cosh mL

M tanh mL

( L

) sinh m( L x ) + sinh m( L x )
sinh mL

Infinitely long fin

(L)=0

T T ,

e mx

sinh mL
M

hP
m
kA C
2

b = (0 ) = Tb T ,

(cosh mL L

M = hPkA C b

b )

4.2 Fin Performance

Fin represents a conductive resistance to heat transfer from the
original surface
There is no assurance that the heat transfer will be enhanced through
the use of fins
Temperature distribution and Heat transfer
for fin with adiabatic tip

A = PL

( mL) 2 = hP L2 = hPL L = hA L
kA c

kA c

L
=

kA c
1
hA

Conductive resistance
Convective resistance

kA c

4.2.1 Fin efficiency

o
f
n

Ideally, the fin material should have a large thermal conductivity to

minimize the temperature variation from its base to the tip
As k tending to infinity, the entire fin would be at the base temperature,
thereby providing the maximum possible heat transfer enhancement
Efficiency: Ratio of actual heat transfer by a fin to the heat that would
be transferred if the entire fin were at the base temperature (Q/Qmax )
Real situation

T0

tt

/
:
p

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a
Ideal situation

e
h
/

T(x)<T0 for heat transfer

to take place

x
For infinite k, T(x)=T0
The heat transfer is maximum

Q max = hA( T0 T ) = hA0

Q
=
Q max
For long fin

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

hPkA c 0
hPkA c
kA c
1
=
=
=
=
hA0
hPL
hP L mL

For fin with adiabatic tip

o
f
n

hPkA c 0 tanh mL tanh mL

=
=
hPL0
mL

e
h
/

As (mL) tends to infinity, tanh (mL) tends to 0; efficiency tends to 0

/
:
p

As (mL) tends to 0, tanh (mL) tends to (mL); efficiency tends to 1

(100%)

tt

It is not generally advisable to design toward a particular value of

efficiency

4.2.2 Fin Effectiveness

Q with fin
=
Q without fin

hA0
A
=
=
hA c 0
Ac

o
f
n

Q = Q max

i
.
s
w
o
l
f
t
a

tanh mL PL tanh mL P
kP
=
=
tanh mL
Fin with adiabatic tip =
hP
mL A c
Ac
hA c
kA c
qf
qf
hPkAC tanh(mL )
kP
f =
=
=
=
tanh(mL )
q hAC (Tb T )
hAC
hAC
If the fin is long enough, mL>2, tanh(mL) 1 ,
it can be considered an infinite fin (case D of table3.4)

/
:
p

e
h
/

kP
k P
f
=

hAC
h AC
In order to enhance heat transfer, f > 1 .

tt

However, f 2 will be considered justifiable

If f <1 then we have an insulator instead of a heat fin

kP
k P
f
=

hAC
h AC

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f
t
a

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n

To increase effectiveness, the fins material should have higher

thermal conductivity, k

It seems to be counterintuitive that the lower convection

coefficient, h, the higher effectiveness. Therefore, fins are more
effective if h is low

e
h
/

Observation: If fins are to be used on surfaces separating gas and

liquid, fins are usually placed on the gas side

/
:
p

P/AC should be as high as possible.

tt

Conclusion: It is preferred to use thin and closely spaced (to

increase the total number) fins

4.2.3 Overall Surface Efficiency

Applicable for fin array
Q t = Q fin + Q base

= NhA0 + hA b 0
= h0 ( NA + A b )
A t = NA + A b

i
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o
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f
t
a

A b = A t NA

Q t = h0 { NA + ( A t NA ) }

e
h
/

A
A
= hA t N + 1 N 0
At
At

A
= hA t 1 N (1 ) 0
At

tt

/
:
p

= hA t o 0

Qbase

Q = Q max

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f
n
Qfin

Ab: base area exposed to coolant

A: surface area of a single fin
At: total area including base area
and At=Ab+NA
N: total number of fins

Qt
A
o =
= 1 N ( 1 )
hA t 0
At

5. Transient Conduction

tt

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:
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e
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/

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f
t
a

o
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n

5.1 Lumped System

No Internal Resistance:

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f
t
a

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n

It is assumed that the temperature variation in all three

spatial directions is negligible and therefore temperature
varies only with time T(t)

This assumption is reasonable if internal resistance inside the

solid is small compared to the external resistance in the fluid

tt

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:
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/

o
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Consider a hot metal that is initially at a uniform temperature,

Ti , and at t=0 is quenched by immersion in a cooler fluid

i
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f
t
a

The temperature of the solid will decrease for time t>0, due to
convection heat transfer at the solid-fluid interface, until it
reaches bulk temperature of fluid
If the thermal conductivity of solid is very high, resistance to
conduction within the solid will be small compared to
resistance to heat transfer between solid and fluid

/
:
p

e
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/

Temperature gradients within the solid will be negligible, i.e.,

the temperature of the solid is spatially uniform at any
instant

tt

o
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n

The energy balance on solid:

E out = E st

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f
t
a

dT
hA s (T T ) = Vc
dt
Initial Condition: T ( 0 ) = Ti

let

( t ) = T ( t ) T

e
h
/

d
hAs = Vc
dt
or

/
:
p

dT d
=
dt dt

; ( 0 ) = Ti T = i

hA s
d

=
=
where, time constant
dt
Vc

tt

d dt
=

Vc
=
hAs

By integrating

t
ln = + C1

=e

or

t +C1

=e

( 0 ) = i ; i = C2

= i e

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h
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p
tt

or
=e
i

or

or

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f
t
a
e = C2 e

C1

T( t ) T
=e
Ti T

T ( t ) = T + ( Ti T ) e

o
f
n

hA s
t
Vc

hAs
t
Vc

i
The time required for the solid to reach temperature T is: t = ln

The total energy transfer, Q, occurring up to some time t is:

t
0

t
0

t
S 0

Q = q dt = hAS dt = hA i e

-t

dt

Validity of Lumped Capacitance Method

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f
t
a

o
f
n

Need a suitable criterion to determine validity of method. Must relate

relative magnitudes of temperature drop in the solid to the
temperature difference between surface and fluid
Tsolid ( due to conduction)
( L / kA) Rcond hL
=
=
=
Bi
k
Tsolid / liquid ( due to convection) (1 / hA) Rconv

e
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/

For a large Biot number conductive resistance controls and for a small
Biot number convective resistance controls

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:
p

The lumped capacitance method is valid when

tt

hLc
Bi =
< 0.1
k

where the characteristic length:

Lc=V/As=Volume of solid/surface area

Then the error in temperature calculation is less than 5 % using lumped

parameter approach

5.2 One-dimensional, Transient Conduction

o
f
n

When the lumped capacitance analysis is not valid, we must

solve the partial differential equations analytically or
numerically

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a

Exact and approximate solutions may be used

Tabulated values of coefficients used in the solutions of

these equations are available

/
:
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/

Transient temperature distributions for commonly

encountered problems involving semi-infinite solids can be
found in the literature

tt

o
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n

Thermal History T(x,t) in 1-D Cartesian, k = const.,

q=0, convective BC, uniform initial condition

i
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o
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f
t
a

1 T 2T
= 2
t x

(
x
,
t
)
T
(
x
,
t
)

T
x
*
2

=
=
= C n exp( n Fo) cos n
i
Ti T
L
n =1

tt

e
h
/

( )
( )

4 sin n
Cn =
2 n + sin 2 n

/
:
p

k t
Fo = 2
c L
One Term Approximations or Heisler Charts can be Used for Fo >0.2
hL
n tan n = Bi =
k

Graphical Representation of One-Term Approximation - Heisler Charts

Temperature Distribution:

Mid plane Temperature

o
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6. Two-dimensional, Steady Conduction in a Slab

tt

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a

Method of Separation of Variables

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o
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f
t
a

o
f
n

In many problems we need to consider heat transfer in two

directions

2T 2T
+ 2 =0
2
x
y

Solution involves partial differential equations

e
h
/

Need analytical, graphical or numerical approaches

/
:
p

Analytical methods involve mathematical series and

functions.

tt

Exact solutions

Limited types of problems can be solved

y
T2

GDE and B.Cs are

=1

2T 2T
+ 2 =0
2
x
y

T(x,y)

T1
=0

T1
=0

/
:
p

tt

e
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/

Assume the solution of the form

T( 0, y ) = T1 ; T( L, y ) = T1

=0

T( x ,0 ) = T1 ; T( x , W ) = T2

T T1

T2 T1

+ 2 = 0 B.Cs:
2
x y
2

GDE:

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f
t
a
T1

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n

(To get
homogeneous
BCs)

( 0, y ) = 0 ; ( L, y ) = 0
(1)
( x ,0 ) = 0 ; ( x , W ) = 1

( x , y ) = X( x ) Y( y )

(2)

Substituting (2) in (1) and dividing by XY

2

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2

1d X 1d Y
2

=
=

X dx 2 Y dy 2
d2X 2
+ X =0
2
dx

or

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n

d 2Y 2
Y = 0
2
dy

and

General solutions are

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:
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X = ( c1 cos x + c 2 sin x )

tt

and

Y = c 3e

+ c 4e

o
f
n)

= XY = ( c1 cos x + c 2 sin x ) ( c3e y + c 4 e y )

( 0, y ) = 0 c1 = 0

i
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s
w
o
)
(
l
f
t
a( )

= c 2 sin x ( c3e y + c 4 e y

( x ,0 ) = 0 = c 2 sin x ( c 3 + c 4 )
= c 2 sin x ( c 4 e y + c 4 e y
( L, y ) = 0

e
h
/

y
y
)

=
c
c
sin

x
e

e
or
2 4
y

c 2 c 4 sin L e e

/
:
p

The only way to satisfy this is

tt

c 3 = c 4

n
=
L

=0

sin L = 0
n=0 precluded (unacceptable)

nx ny L
ny
= c 2 c 4 sin
e L
e
L

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f
t
a

Denoting 2c2c4, new constant may depend on n

nx
ny
( x , y) = c n sin
sinh
L
L

o
f
n

Infinite solutions present, as the problem is linear, general solution, by

superposition is

e
h
/

nx
ny
( x , y) = c n sin
sinh
n =1
L
L

tt

/
:
p

( x , W ) = 1

nx
nW
c n sin
sinh
=1
n =1
L
L

nx
A n sin
=1
n =1
L

nW
where A n = c n sinh
L

Comparing with Fourier series

2{ (1) + 1}
An =
n
n +1

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:
p

i
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s
w
{
o
l
f
t
a

nx
f ( x ) = A n sin
=1
n =1
L

An
2 (1) n +1 + 1}
cn =
=
nW n sinh nW
sinh
L
L

e
h
/

Substituting cn in the general solution

ny
sinh
2 ( 1) + 1 nx
L
( x , y ) =
sin
n =1
n
L sinh nW
L

t
t
h

n +1

o
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n