CHEMISTRY REVISION

CHEMICAL BONDING
METALS
General Properties
High conductivity (electrical and thermal)
High melting and boiling point
Ductile and malleable (e.g. copper)
Insoluble in water

Structure
A regular 3-dimensional lattice of positive
ions through which a sea of free
electrons from the outer shells can easily
move. The positive ions and the sea of
electrons interact to form metallic bonds.

The free electrons can carry an electrical

current and the regular lattice means that
the vibrations of hot particles are easily
passed on to others. Metallic bonds are
strong so metals often have high melting
and boiling points. The regular structure
means that the layers of atoms can slide
over one another and reform their bonds
in a new shape so metals are malleable
and ductile.
Often, the more electrons a metal has in its outer shell, the higher its melting/ boiling
point because there are more metallic bonds.

IONIC COMPOUNDS
General Properties
High melting point
Electrical conductor if molten/ aqueous
Soluble in water
Brittle

Structure
Metals lose atoms in ionic compounds to
become positive ions and the non-metals
gain them to become negative ions. The
millions of ions held together in a regular
3-dimensional crystal lattice by the
strong electrostatic forces between the
ions.

The electrostatic forces that hold the ions

together need a lot of energy to break so
ionic compounds have high melting
points. When solid the charged ions are
held in fixed position in the lattice so are
not free to move and thus cant carry a
current. When it is molten or aqueous the
lattice breaks down so the ions are free
to move and carry a current. They are
brittle because if force causes the layers
to move over one another they meet ions
of the same charge so repel and shatter.
The greater the amount of charges an ionic compound has, the higher its melting/
boiling point because the ionic bonds are stronger.

SIMPLE COVALENT SUBSTANCES

General Properties
Low melting and boiling points
Liquid or gas at room temperature
Poor conductors of electricity
Soluble in water

Structure
Atoms share electrons in simple covalent
substances to fill their outer shells. Each
molecule is overall neutral
Covalent bonds are extremely strong so
it takes a lot of energy to break them.
However, bonds between the molecules
are weak so little energy is needed to
break them thus they have low melting
and boiling points. This is why many of
them are liquid or gas at room
temperature. The fact that the molecules
are neutral means they cant conduct
electricity, even when molten.

GIANT COVALENT SUBSTANCES

Giant covalent substances have high melting points because all the atoms are held
together by very strong covalent bonds so a lot of energy is needed to break them
apart.
Diamond
Graphite
Transparent and crystalline
Grey/ black shiny solid
Extremely hard
Very soft and lubricating
Electrical insulator
Electrical conductor
Very high melting point (over 3500c)
Very high melting (over 3600c)
Carbon atoms connected to four others Layers of carbon atoms in forming three
by strong covalent bonds in a 3- strong covalent bonds to the others
dimensional tetrahedral lattice.
hexagonal rings. The bonds between
the layers are weak. A fourth outer
All the outer electrons are bonded to electron from each atom (that isnt used
other carbon atoms with strong covalent in the bonding within layers) joins a free
bonds so diamond is very hard. This system of electrons between the layers.
means it also has an incredibly high
boiling point as a lot of energy is Graphite can conduct electricity along
needed to break the lattice. There are the layers but not through them
no free electrons so it cant conduct because the free electrons can carry a
electricity.
current. The weak bonds between
layers mean they can slide over each
other so graphite is soft and lubricating.
Carbon nanotubes are single layers from the graphite structure that are rolled into a
tube shape. They are extremely strong because every atom is connected by strong
covalent bonds but are also very small fibres and light. They can conduct electricity
through them because of the fourth free electron (that isnt involved in bonding). Due
to their great strength they are used in boat hulls, bicycle components, bullet-proof
vests, epoxy-resins for bonding high performance equipment in wind-turbines and
sports equipment. They have also been used in atomic force microscopes, bone-

tissue scaffolding and cancer treatment. In future they could be used in miniature
circuits but current technology doesnt allow us to arrange thousands in a pattern.

SMART MATERIALS
Smart materials are materials with properties that change reversibly in response to a
change in their environment.
thermochromic pigments change colour with changing temperature
photochromic pigments change colour with changing light intensity
hydrogels absorb/expel water and swell/shrink (up to 1000 times their
volume) due to changes in pH or temperature
shape memory alloys regain original shape when heated
shape memory polymers regain original shape when heated