GEOGRAPHY REVISION

NATURAL HAZARDS
LIVING IN HAZARDOUS AREAS
People still continue to live in known hazardous areas. This may be for a few
reasons: economic (dont/ cant lose jobs), social (family, friends, schools, facilities
nearby), technological (prediction enough warning, technology keep home safe,
emergency services cope) and perception (uncommon occurrences so not big risk).

TECTONIC HAZARDS
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Inner core: solid, 1300km, iron and nickel, 5500C
Outer core: liquid, 3500km, iron and nickel,
Mantle: soft molten rock (magma), upper hard, lower soft melting, 2,900 km, 3800C
Crust: solid, rock, 5-50km, plates

PLATE TECTONICS
The mantle is heated by radioactive decay within the core. From convection, heated
material rises towards the crust, cooling as it does so. If there is no gap, it moves
sideways, moving the plates with it, until it meets oncoming material and sinks. As it
sinks, the temperature increases and the process repeats.

PLATE BOUNDARIES
Destructive (Nazca, South American): Oceanic plate (basalt) is denser so is forced
beneath a continental plate at an angle. This is the subduction zone and a trench
can form. As it descends, friction and pressure build and thus it melts to form magma
(also due to heat of earth) which is lighter. The magma lies below the continental
crust due to the angle of descent and can rise up through cracks or fissures. This is
a volcano which can erupt if pressure builds. As the plates are solid they jerk past
one another and the sudden movement releases energy as earthquakes. You often
find a chain of volcanoes or long ridge of fold mountains along the boundary.

Constructive (North American, Eurasian): As plates move apart there is a gap

which is filled by rising (lighter) magma from the mantle. When it reaches the
surface, it cools and solidifies to form a new crust of rock. After many times and it
forms an under-water volcano which can eventually become an island (Surtsey,
Iceland). Often along the boundary, shield volcanoes make a mid-ocean ridge. There
can be minor earthquakes due to friction between the mantle and crust or because
magma rising does so in jolts.

Conservative (Pacific, North American): A plate boundary where the only

movement is horizontal so there are no volcanoes as magma is not involved.
However, as plates move past one another there are jerks from the slip-slip motion
(pressure builds as they stick and is released as seismic waves when they slip) and
so earthquakes.
Collision (Indian, Eurasian): Two plates of the same density push into one another
so they buckle, making fold mountains. The massive pressure causes huge
earthquakes. There are no volcanoes as the mountains and their roots can be huge.
There can also be hotspots which are plumes of melting magma rising underneath a
plate causing localised melting and thus volcanic activity.

VOLCANOES
Ash cloud (asphyxiation), lahar (water and ash) very dangerous, pyroclastic flow (hot
ash, rock, steam, gases) very dangerous, lava not very dangerous.
Shield:
Acidic
Composite:
(felsic) lava
Non-viscous
magma so
releases gas, no
pressure build-up
so frequent gentle
eruptions

Rock plug
Basic
(mafic) lava

Runny so fast,
gentle cones

Viscous magma
so traps gases,
pressure build-up
so infrequent
explosive
eruptions

Sticky so slow,
steep cones

Parasitic
Cones

PREDICTIONS
It is impossible to know exactly when and where an earthquake or volcanic eruption
may occur and the technology used to try is expensive and hard to interpret.
Earthquakes: laser beam faults (small initial movements), radon gas faults, water
level in well (pre-earthquake tension cracks), seismometers (foreshocks), recurrence
interval, animals, pressure sensors (ocean floor), GPS, GPS buoys

Volcanoes: seismometers (magma moving causing tiny earthquakes), heat-detect

satellite (magma heating ground), tiltmeter (change in slope of volcano), GPS
(movement of volcano), gas seeping from volcano (sulphur dioxide), magma sounds

REDUCING IMPACT
Earthquakes: shear wall and core (reinforced concrete), base isolators and moat
(rubber and steel) absorb shock waves rather than the ground, cross-bracing (steel
bars) provide strength, shock-proof glass, bolt to foundations, securing things to
walls (brackets) e.g. water heater to reduce fire, plywood panels prevent falling
bricks and strengthen walls, metal connectors strengthen joints, survival kit, inform
people about insurance, educate people, loans for building and recovery, land-use
zoning
Short-term aid should be used to provide water, food, shelter and medical care.
Long-term aid should be used to rehouse, bring back business, repair infrastructure
(gas, electricity, water) and repair transport links (roads, ports, airports).

CLIMATIC HAZARDS
TROPICAL STORMS
Hurricanes form above seas of at least 60m depth and 27C. The warmth provides
energy for the hurricane, transferred to it by evaporation. When the warm moist air
rises, it condenses to form clouds and releases heat. This adds to the storms power
and a low pressure zone is left near the surface of the water. The low pressure
sucks in air from the warm surroundings, which then also rises. A continuous upflow
of warm wet air continues to lower air pressure. To form a hurricane the air around
the central low pressure zone also needs to spiral at high speeds (around 75 mph).
For this to happen it must be between 5 and 20 north or south of the equator so the
coriolis effect makes it spiral. The faster winds blow, the lower the air pressure in the
centre, and so the cycle continues. The hurricane grows stronger as long as the sea
is warm. The eye of the storm is the central clear and calm area. As hurricanes move
inshore, their power reduces because their energy comes from moist sea air.

DROUGHT
When cold air sinks, contracting and getting warmer as it does so, it causes high
pressure. Warm sinking air means water vapour cannot rise and so clouds wont
form and thus no precipitation. Droughts occur when there is a long period of
abnormally dry weather (differs between countries due to different climates). On the

windward side of a mountain, water vapour rises. It will therefore cool and condense
to form clouds meaning precipitation and thus little on the leeward side. Drought in
Australia is often caused by El Nio, the reversal of ocean-currents in the Pacific
(upwelling in Peru) that happens every 3-7 years, which causes high pressure.

PREDICTION
It is impossible to know exactly when and where a tropical storm or drought may
occur but weather stations can be used to do so.

REDUCING IMPACT
Tropical Storms: storm shutters, hurricane shelters, embankments or levees, loans
for building and recovery, strengthen houses and roofs, flood walls, land-use zoning,
trees shelter from winds, swamplands/ salt marshes/ mud flats allowed to flood
Drought: dams, irrigation systems, walls reduce water run-off, vegetation, stone
piles condense water, reservoirs and wells, drought-resistant crops, concrete water
coolers use groundwater, cloud seeding (silver iodide, salt or dry ice), seawater
greenhouses