7.

Welding of Aluminium Alloys

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

84
Figure 7.1 compares basic physical properties

Property

Al

Fe

of steel and aluminium. Side by side with different mechanical behaviour, the following

Atomic weight

[g/Mol]

26.9

55.84

Specific weight

[g/cm]

2.7

7.87

fcc

bcc

Lattice

differences are important for aluminium weld-

E-module

[N/mm]

71*10

210*10

R pO,2
PO,2

[N/mm]

ca. 10

ca. 100

R mm

[N/mm]

ca. 50

ca. 200

spec. Heat capacity

[J/(g*C)]

0.88

0.53

[C]

660

1539

[W/(cm*K)]

2.3

0.75

Spec. el. Resistance

[nWm]

28-29

97

Expansion coeff.

[1/C]

Melting point
Heat conductivity

24*10

-6

12*10

Al2O 3

Melting point of oxydes

[C]

2050

- considerably lower melting point compared

with steel
- three times higher heat conductivity
- considerably lower electrical resistance

-6

FeO
Oxydes

ing:

Fe 3O 4

- double expansion coefficient

- melting point of Al203 considerably higher

Fe 2O 3

than that of Al; metal and iron oxide melt ap-

1400

proximately at the same temperature.

1600
(1455)

br-er08-01.cdr

ISF 2002

Basic Properties of Al and Fe

Figure 7.2 compares some mechanical properties of steel with properties of some light
metals. The important advantages of light

Figure 7.1

metals compared with steel are especially

shown in the right part of the figure. If a comparison should be based on an identical stiffness, then the aluminium supporting beam has a 1.44 times larger cross-section than the
steel beam, however only about 50% of its weight.
Figure 7.3 compares qualitatively the stress-strain diagram

of

Aluminium

and

steel. In contrast to steel,

aluminium has a fcc (face
centred

cubic)-lattice

at

room temperature. This is

why there is no distinct yield
point as being the case in a
bcc (body centred cubic)lattice.

Aluminium

is

br-er-08-02.cdr

Deflexions and Weights of

Cantilever Beams Under Load

not

subject to a lattice transFigure 7.2

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

85

formation during cooling, thus there is no structure transformation and consequently no

danger of hardening in the heat affected zone as with steel.

4
cm
2

low carbon steel

200C

400

1000
1200

600

800

1500

-2

Steel

-4

Stress

8
cm aluminium
6

100C
200

Al-alloy

2
300
400 500
600
-2
-4
-6
-8
-18

Elongation
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ISF 2002

-16

-14

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Comparison of Stress-Elongation
Diagrams of Al and Steel

Figure 7.3

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

cm

ISF 2002

Isothermal Curves of Steel and Al

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.4 illustrates the effect of the considerably higher heat conductivity on the welding
process compared with steel. With aluminium, the temperature gradient around the welding
point is considerably smaller than with steel. Although the peak temperature during Al welding is about 900C below steel, the isothermal curves around the welding point have a clearly
larger extension. This is due to the considerably higher heat conductivity of aluminium compared with steel.
This special characteristic of Al requires a input heat volume during welding equivalent to
steel.
Figure 7.5 lists the most important alloy elements and their combinations for industrial use.
Due to their behaviour during heat treatment can Al-alloys be divided into the groups hardenable and non-hardenable (naturally hard) alloys.

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

86

Al Cu Mg

ing consumables.
Al Mg Si

Cu

Aluminium alloys are often welded with conAl Zn Mg

sumable of the same type, however, quite

Mg

often over-alloyed consumables are used to

Al Zn Mg Cu

678

Al alloys together with preferably used weld-

hardenable alloys

Figure 7.6 shows typical applications of some

Al

Zn

Al Si Cu

and to improve the mechanical properties of

Al Si

the seam.

Si
Al Mg

The classification of Al alloys into two groups

Al Mg Mn

Mn

is based on the characteristic that the group

Al Mn

of the non-hardenable alloys cannot increase

br-er08-05.cdr

the strength through heat treatment, in con-

678

Mg and Zn because of their low boiling point)

non-hardenable alloys

compensate burn-off losses (especially with

ISF 2002

Classification of Aluminium Alloys

trast to hardenable alloys which have such a

potential.
The important hardening mechanism for this

Figure 7.5

second group is explained by the figures 7.7 und 7.8. Example: If an alloy containing about
4.2% Cu, which is stable at room temperature, is heat treated at 500C, then, after a sufficiently long time, there will be only a single phase structure present. All alloy elements were
dissolved, Figure 7.8 between point P and Q.
When quenched to room
Al - alloys
Al99,5
AlCuMg1
AlMgSi0,5
AlSi5
AlMg3

AlMg2Mn0,8
AlMn1

Typical use
electrical engineering
mechanical engineering, food
industries
architecture, electrical
engineering, anodizing quality
architecture, anodizing quality
architecture, apparatus-, vehicle-,
shipbuilding engineering, furniture
industry
apparatus-, vehicle-, shipbuilding
engineering
apparatus-, vehicle-engineering,
food industry

W elding consumable
SG-Al 99,5Ti;
SG-Al 99,5

tion, no precipitation will

SG-AlMg4,5Mn

take place. The alloy ele-

SG-AlMg5; SG-AlMg4,5Mn;
SG-AlSi5
SG-AlSi5

ments are forced to remain

dissolved, the crystal is out

SG-AlMg3;
SG-AlMg4,5Mn
SG-AlMg5; SG-AlMg3;
SG-AlMg4,5Mn

of equilibrium. If such a
structure is subjected to an

SG-AlMn1;SG-Al99,5T

age hardening at room or

base material - aluminium

percentage of alloy elements without factor

elevated

temperature,

ISF 2002

br-er-08-06.cdr

Use and Welding Consumables

of Aluminium Alloys

Figure 7.6

temperature in this condi-

precipitation of a second
phase takes place in ac-

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

87

cordance with the binary system, the crystal tries to get back into thermodynamical equilibrium.
Depending on the level of

stable condition

solution heat treatment

repeated hardening

solidification of alloy elements

in solid solution

hardening temperature, the

quenching

regeneration

oversaturated solid solution,

metastable condition

precipitation takes place in

warm ageing

cold ageing (RT ageing)

ageing at slightly
increased temperature
coherent
precipitations,
cold aged
condition

three possible forms: copartly coherent

precipitations,
warm aged
condition

coherent and partly coherent

precipitations, transition conditions
cold ageing -- warm ageing
temperature
rise

temperature
rise

herent particles (i.e. particles

longer warm
ageing
partly coherent
and incoherent
precipitations,
softening

from

the

matrix in their chemical

composition but having the

longer warm
ageing
stable incoherent
equilibrium phase
stable condition
ISF 2002

br-er-08-07.cdr

deviating

Ageing Mechanism

same

lattice

structure),

partly

coherent

particles

(i.e. the lattice structure of

the matrix is partly re-

Figure 7.7

tained),

and

incoherent

particles (lattice structure completely different from the matrix), Figure 7.7. Coherent particles
formed at room temperature can be transformed into incoherent particles by increase of temperature (i.e. enabling diffusion).
The precipitations cause a restriction to the

700
liquid

dislocation movement in the matrix lattice, thus

liquid and solid

Q

600

leading to an increase in strength. The finer the

copper containing
aluminium solid solution
500

At an increased temperature (heat ageing, Fig-

Temperature

precipitations, the stronger the effect.

400

300

ure 7.7) a maximum of second phase has precipitated after elapse of a certain time.
Consequently a prolonged stop at this tem-

aluminium solid solution

and copper aluminide
(Al2Cu)

200

100
copper content of
AlCuMg

perature does not lead to an increased

strength, but to coarsening of particles due to

mass-%

Copper

diffusion processes and to a decrease in

strength (less bigger particles in an extended

br-er08-08.cdr

space).

ISF 2002

Phase Diagram Al-Cu

Figure 7.8

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

88
After a very long heat ageing a stable condition is reached again with relatively large precipitations of the second phase in the matrix.
In Figure 7.7 is this stable final condition iden-

tical with the starting condition. A deteriorati-

solution heat treatment

500
P

on of mechanical properties only happens

quenching

Temperature

400

during hot ageing, if the ageing time is excessively long.

300

200

heat ageing

The complete process of hardening at room

100

temperature is metallographic also called age

age hardening

hardening, at elevated temperature heat age0

10

12

Time

14

ing. A decrease in strength at too long ageing

time is called over-ageing.
ISF 2002

br-er08-09.cdr

Temperature - Time Distribution

During Ageing

Figure 7.9 shows a schematic representation

of time-temperature curves during hardening

Figure 7.9

Figure

with age hardening and heat ageing.

7.10

shows

the

380

strength increase of AlZnMg

The difference between age
hardening and heat ageing
is here very clear. Due to
improved

diffusion

condi-

tions is the strength increase

320
0.2% yield stress s0.2 in N/mm

1 in dependence of time.

water quenching (~900C/min)

air cooling (~30C/min)

260
120C
200
RT
140

80
10-1

in the case of heat ageing

much faster than in the case
of

age

hardening.

quenched

100

101

10

10

Ageing time in h
ISF 2002

br-er-08-10.cdr

Increase of Yield Stress During

Ageing of AlZnMg1

The

strength maximum is also

reached considerably ear-

Figure 7.10

lier. The curve of hot ageing shows clearly the begin of strength loss when held at a too long
stoppage time. This figure shows another specialty of the process of ageing. During ageing, a

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

89

second phase is precipitated from a single-phase structure. To initiate this process, the structure must contain nuclei of the second phase. However, a certain time is required to develop
such nuclei. Only after formation of nuclei can the increase in strength start. The period up to
this point is called incubation time.
500
110

N/mm

Tensile strength sB

Figure 7.11 shows the effect of the height of

ageing temperature level on both, mechanical
properties of a hardenable Al-alloy and on in-

135

400

150
180

300

190
205

230

260C

cubation time. The lower the ageing tempera-

200
110

N/mm
400
0.2% yield stress s0.2

ture, the higher the resulting values of yield

stress and tensile strength. If a low ageing temperature is selected, the ageing time as well as

135

300

150
180
190
205C

200

the incubation time become extremely long.

230
260
Fracture elongation d2

Figure 7.11 shows that a the maximum yield

stress is reached after a period of about one
year under a temperature of 110C. An in-

190

180

205

150

135

20
10

crease of the ageing temperature shortens the

duration of the complete precipitation process

30

110C
260

230
30
min

10

-2

10

-1

1
day
0

10
10
Ageing time

1
week

10

1
1
month year

103 h 104

br-er08-11.cdr

ISF 2002

Influence of Ageing Temperature

and -Time on Ageing

by a certain value raised by 1 to a power. On

the other hand, such an acceleration of ageing
leads to a lowering of the maximum strength.

Figure 7.11

As the lower part of the

400

figure shows, the fracture

N/mm

elongation

Tensile strength Rm

300

is

counter-

AlMg5

proportional to the strength

AlMg3

values, i.e. the strength

200

increase caused by ageing

is accompanied by an em-

100

brittlement of the material.

Al99,5

0
0

30

70

Age Hardening of Al Alloys

Figure 7.12

Strain
ISF 2002

br-er-08-12.cdr

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

90

Figure 7.12 shows a method of how to increase the strength of non-hardenable alloys. As no
precipitations are present to reduce the movement of dislocations, such alloys can only be
strengthened by cold working.
Figure 7.12 illustrates two essential mechanisms of strength increase of such alloys. On
300

one hand, tensile strength increases with in-

N/mm

creasing content of alloy elements (solid solu-

250

tion strengthening), on the other hand, this

increase is caused by a stronger deformation

Rm or Rp0,2

200

of the lattice.
150

Figure 7.13 shows the effect of the welding

process on mechanical properties of a cold-

0,7

100

worked alloy. Due to the heat input during

0,5
50
HV30

0,4

Rp0,2/Rm

0,6

(recovery), in addition, a grain coarsening will

0,3
0,2

0
80

60 40 20 0 20 40
Distance from Seam Centre

welding, the blocked dislocations are released

start in the HAZ. This is followed by a strong

60 mm 100

drop in yield point and tensile strength. This

br-er08-13.cdr

strength loss cannot be overcome in the case

ISF 2002

Non-Hardenable Al Alloy

of a welding process.

Figure 7.13
400

Figure

7.14

illustrates

the

90 days RT

N/mm

Rm

350

mechanisms in the case of a

21 days RT

hardenable aluminium alloy.

welding heat, the precipitations are solution heat treated

Rp0,2

250
90 days RT

Stress

As a consequence of the

1 day RT

300

21 days RT
200
4 mm plates of: AlZnMg1F32
start values:
Rp0,2=263N/mm
Rm=363 N/mm
welding method: WIG, both sides,
simultaneously
welding consumable:
S-AlMg5
specimens with machined
weld bead

1 day RT

150

and the strength values de100

crease in the weld area. Due

to the age hardening, a re-

50
80
br-er-08-14.cdr

strengthening of the alloys

40

20

20
60
0
40
Distance from seam centre

Hardenable Al Alloy

takes place with increasing

time.

60

Figure 7.14

80

100

mm

140
ISF 2002

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

91
Figure 7.15 shows another
problematic nature of Alwelding. Due to the high
thermal expansion of aluminium, high tensions develop during solidification
of the weld pool in the
course of the welding cycle. If the welded alloy indicates a high melting inter ISF 2002

br-er-08-15.cdr

val,
Hot Cracks in a Al Weld

cracks

may

easily

develop in the weld.

Figure 7.15

A relief can be afforded by

preheating of the material, Figure 7.16. With an increasing preheat temperature, the amount
of fractured welds decreases. The different behaviour of the three displayed alloys can be explained using the right part
of the figure. One can see

100
%

that the manganese content

maximum of this hot crack

2
60
1
40

X
X

20

susceptibility is likely with

Mg

Cracking susceptibility

hot crack susceptibility. The

Weld cracking tendency

influences significantly the

80

Si

X
X

about 1% Mg content (corresponds with alloy 1). With

increasing MG content, hot
crack

susceptibility

100

300

Preheat temperature

400

500
0

Alloy content
1: AlMgMn 2: AlMg 2,5 3: AlMg 3,5

ISF 2002

br-er-08-16.cdr

de-

Influence of Preheat Temperature

and Magnesium Content

creases strongly (see also

alloy 2 and 3, left part).

200

Figure 7.16

To avoid hot cracking, partly very different preheat temperatures are recommended for the
alloys. Zschtge proposed a calculation method which compares the heat conductivity conditions of the Al alloy with those of a carbon steel with 0.2% C. The formula is shown in Figure

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

melting point pure aluminium

Recommended preheat temperature

600
C
500
400
300
200

Welding possible without preheating:

AlMg5, AlMg7, AlMg4.5Mn,
AlZnMg3, AlZnMg1

100

mild steel (0.2%C) without preheating

660

lated

temperature of melt start (solidus temperature)

preheat temperature
heat conductivity

Al Zn Mg Cu 0,5 Al Zn Mg Cu 1,5

in C
in C
in J/cm*s*K

Al Si 5
Al Cu Mg 1
Al R Mg 2
Al Cu Mg 0,5
Al Mn Al Mg 2
Al Cu Mg 2
Al Mg 3
Al Mg 3 Si Al Mg Mn

TS
Tvorw.
lAl-Leg.

7.17, together with the re-

745
l Al-Leg.;
Al 99,98R Al99,9
Al99,8
Al 99,7 Al 99,5
Al 99
Al R Mg0,5
Al Mg Si 0,5 Al Mg Si 0,8 Al Mg Si 1
E Al Mg Si 1
Al Mg 1

TVorw. = TS -

92

calculation

result.

These results are only to

be regarded as approximate, the individual application is subject to the
information of the manufacturer.

Increasing better weldability

ISF 2002

br-er-08-17.cdr

Figure 7.17

Recommendations for Preheating

Another major problem during Al welding is the strong

porosity of the welded joint.
It is based on the interplay
of several characteristics
and hard to suppress.
Pores in Al are mostly
formed by hydrogen, which
is driven out of the weld
ISF 2002

br-er-08-18.cdr

Figure 7.18

Excessive Porosity in a Al Weld

pool during solidification.

irregular
wire
electrode
feed

too thick and water containing oxyde layer

by too long or open storage
in non air-conditioned rooms

Solubility of hydrogen in

humid air
(nitrogen, oxygen, water)

aluminium changes abrupt-

nozzle deposits and too steep inclination

of the torch cause turbulences

poor
current transition

VS

humid air

too thick oxyde layer

(condensed water)
dirt film
(oil, grease)

dissolves many times more

just forming crystal at the

H2
H2

festes
Schweigut
base material

melt-crystal, i.e. the melt

of the hydrogen than the

feuchte Luftpores
Poren
solid weld metal

ly on the phase transition

same temperature.
Grundwerkstoff

ISF 2002

br-er-08-19.cdr

Ingress of Hydrogen Into the Weld

Figure 7.19

7. Welding of Aluminium Alloys

93

This leads to a surplus of hydrogen in the melt due to the crystallisation during solidification.
This surplus precipitates in form of a gas bubble at the solidifying front. As the melting point
of Al is very low and Al has
a very high heat conductivity, the solidification speed
of Al is relatively high. As a
result, in the melt ousted
gas bubbles have often no
chance to rise all the way
to the surface. Instead,
they are passed by the solidifying front and remain in
the weld metal as pores,
Figure 7.18.
Figure 7.20

To suppress such pore formation it is therefore necessary to minimise the hydrogen content in the melt. Figure 7.19 shows possible
sources of hydrogen during MIG welding of
Al.
Figure 7.20 and 7.21 show the effect of pure
thermal expansion during Al welding. The

wedge

flame

large thermal expansion of the aluminium

along with the relatively large heat affected
zones cause in combination with a parallel
gap adjustment a strong distortion of the
welded parts. To minimise this distortion, the
workpieces must be set at a suitable angle
before welding, Figure 7.21.
br-er08-21.cdr

ISF 2002

Examples to Minimise Distortion

Figure 7.21