Int. J. Rock Me~h. Min. Sci. & Ceometh. Abstr. VoL I0. pp. 133-150. Pergamon Press 1973.

Printed in Great Britain

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED UNDERGROUND

STORAGE CAVITIES: THEORETICAL AND LABORATORY
INVESTIGATIONS
D. E. S~SKINO,* H. R. HARDY JR~" and S. S. ALEXANDER~
(Received 20 May 1972)

Abstract--The increasing u ~ of oil and gas reservoir traps, salt cavities and other man-made
underground cavities for the storage of natural gas and other fluids necessitates a better
understanding of the loading and failure characteristics of such storage areas.
In the present study cylindrical models containing miniature reservoir cavities were fabricated for the experimental simulation of storage reservoir behavior. These were loaded under
typical in situ stress fields and subjected to internal pressurization. Tangential and radial stresses
on the cavity walls were inferred from theoretical solutions and the known boundary conditions and were compared with those predicted from measured levels of acot,stic emission.
The reservoir failures observed were tensile in form and occurred as predicted at/or near the
north or south poles of the cavities. The internal pressures necessary to cause reservoir failure,
however, were about 2-8-3"0 tintcs those predicted on the expectation of failure occurring
when the tangential tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the rock surroundingthecavity.
It was observed that the onset of acoustic emission began early in the pressurization cycle, at
about one third of the pressure required for the eventual ultimate faihnre of the model.
The acoustic activity and high failure pressures observed indicated that some kind of stressrelieving inelastic phenomenon probably commenced at a relatively low pressure, with the
ultimate I~ilure, easily recognized by the sudden drop in reservoir pressure, occurring considerably later. Tltese results stnggcst the possible use of acoustic emission as a useful means o f
monitoring reservoir stability in both models and full-scale field structures.

I. INTRODUCTION
THE analysis of the failure characteristics of u n d e r g r o u n d cavities is critical to m a n y lields o f
mining, petroleum and natural gas, and civil engineering. Until recently interest in the stress
c o n d i t i o n s of such cavities has been mainly motivated by the desire to better u n d e r s t a n d the
mechanisms associated with rockbursts and roof collapse. With the widespread practice of
storing gas in natural and m a n - m a d e u n d e r g r o u n d cavities, knowledge of the behavior o f
such cavities u n d e r internal pressurization has also become of considerable practical
importance.
The present study was established to evaluate the failure parameters of internally pressurized openings in rock-like materials under typical in s i t u triaxial stress conditions. The
overall state of stress in the vicinity o f the cavities was calculated by utilizing available
theoretical solutions and previous experimental work. The level of acoustic emission
(microseismic activity) occurring d u r i n g loading was monitored to give indications o f
reservoir instability during testing a n d possible prediction of i m p e n d i n g failure. The model
* Twin Cities Mining Research Center, U.S, Bureau of Mines. Twin Cities, Minnesota.
t Department of Mineral Engineering, The Pennsylvania State Unive~ity, University Park, Pennsylvania.
Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania.
R.Ch: lO/2--r,

133

134

D.F.. $ISKIND, H. R. HARDY JR AND S. S. ALEXANDER

cavity shapes tested were restricted to spherical and spheroidal due to the limited availability of theoretical solutions for even simple geometric-shaped cavities under conditions of
triaxial stress.
The studies carried out have been specifically orientated towards investigation of the
stability of underground gas-storage r-~rvoirs; however, the results arc applicable to a wide
range of engineering and g e o l ~
sRuations.

2. UNDIgRGROUND STORAGE

Generally, a gas-storage reservoir consists of a region of relatively high porosity and

permeability, bounded on top and in some way on the sides by an extremely low permeability rock (cap rock). Most reservoirs are old gas and oil areas and are associated with
structural or stratisraphic traps, in many cases, the rock surrounding thc trap is saturated
with water up to the water table, and as a result, the pressure of the contained liquid
and/or gas is equal to the hydrostatic head. In a relatively few traps, the original reservoir
pressures are abnormal due to hydrodynamic or nonequitibrium conditions. Normally,
the pressures used in gas-storage reservoirs approximate the original well discovery pressures, but a small number exceed these values by up to 30 per cent. A typical simple reservoir
is exemplified by the Herscher Dome in Illinois, a structural trap that has been used for
long-term gas storage (Em>oN[I ]) for some years.
3. ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUES
Acoustic emission or microseismic techniques have become invaluable tools in geophysics
and rock mechanics. Such techniques are considered as the basis of a promising ~
for
advanced detection of impending structural failure in studies on large-scale phenomena
such as failure of mine openings and microearthquakes (OUEaT and DUVALL[2], CttANDALL
[3], and OUVEa, RYALLand BaUNE [4] and in studies on small-scale structures in the laboratory (GOODMAN[5], SOIOLZ [6] and HANDYet ai. [7]). Acoustic emission techniques have
been used to locate failure planes (Scnot~ [8]) and the incidence ofcreep (HANDYet al. [7]).
Studies have also been made in an attempt to correlate acoustic emission and failure hLqory
(GoOnMAN [5], CHUGH, HANDY and STEFAr'~gO [9]). A summary of acoustic emission
techniques is given by KNILL, FRANKLINand MALONE [!0].
In the present studies acoustic emission was used to detect the pressure at which initial
cavity failure occurred. This technique could also be used to locate the point of failure
(focus) in the model, but this was not practical in the present study because of ~lUipment
limitations and the small size of the reservoir models. [nstead the failure location and
characteristics were investigated by direct visual examination of the model following the
completion of each test.
4. THEORETICAL SOLUTIONS

(a) Introduction
In order to evaluate the stresses in the vicinity of an otmning in a material subjected to a
triaxial stress field, it is necessary to obtain a suitable solution to the general three-dimensional elasticity equations (Oseax and DUVALL [2], SADOWSKYand S~ttNIEaG It 1] and
Tr.azAGm and RtCtO, RT [12]). The st~sses associated with a three-dimensional ~ i n g
in a uniaxial stress field are given by OaEaT and DUVALL[2]. In the past, considerable work

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED UNDERGROUND STORAGE CAVITIES

135

has been done in two-dimensions, both experimentally and mathematically: however, the
problems investigated have generally been less complex than that considered in the present
study. It should be pointed out here that as engineering approximations, two-dimensional
solutions are commonly applied to three-dimensional openings of similar cross section,
with the additional closure in the third dimension and the corresponding added supporting
effect giving a built-in safety factor.
In the present study, the less complex case of a spherical cavity was considered and the
results extrapolated to flattened openings (e.g. spheroids or ellipsoids of revolution). The
medium was assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic and strictly elastic in all cases. The
general solution for a nonspherical cavity under internal pressurization was not derived
because of its complexity and since a two-dimensional finite-element solution was available
(HARDY and CHUGH [13]).
(b) The spherical opening
The problem of a spherical cavity in a triaxiai stress field requires the superposition of
three solutions of the uniaxial stress equation with linearity assumed. In the current study,
the overburden load was considered to be the major cause of the in situ vertical field (S:)
and the in situ horizontal stresses were considered due only to the effects of lateral constraint. The uniaxial solutions used assume the existence of a uniform in situ vertical stress

Sur foce

tt t

i
I

oL

/
;

"/!,,

,~..%

/r

,-':;A,,:Y, i
/11

"\I
:I

"y
L
~Sy

Fl(;. I. Spherical cavity loaded by itt .~itu ground stresses.

field in the vicinity of the cavity, and that all free surfaces are relatively remote. Figure !
shows the coordinate system and the sign convention as adopted from OaERT and DUVALL
[2] with tension being defined as positive in sign. Here the vertical component of the in
situ stress field is given by the following:
s: = sv = -pgz

(1)

where p is the average density of the overlying rock, z is the depth and g is the gravitational

136

D. E. SISKIND. 14_ R. HARDY JR AND S. S. ALEXANDER

constant. The condition of complete lateral constraint allows the horizontal m'ess field to
be calculated from the following:
s . = s

(2)

where v is Poisson's ratio and S, is the in situ vertical field defined in equation (i).
The str--~ses for the region around spherical opening in a uniaxiai stress field are given
by OUmT and DUVALL [2] as
s,

*" = 14 '-- 10v

[(

10v -

14 +

o.

r3

I--------~

((9--15,)a'
r3
S~

u,----- 1 4 - -

lOv

~-,, =

r z

rS

sin 2 0
(3)

r 5 J

sin20

12a'~ ]
rs/j

(4)

[(

(30v-- 15)a 3 + - ~ ]
"
r3

fi

S=
[10v*"* -~ 14 -- 10v
..,

100a ~
r~
+ -~-/j

[(

14-

(50 -

r~

14-

sin" 0

IJ

(10-

(5)

10~)a 3
24a s]
r~
+ ~
] sin 0 cos 0

(6)

(7)

where a is the radius of the spherical cavity and the other factors have been defined earlier
(see Fig. 1).
To obtain equations applicable to triaxiai loading three solutions of the uniaxial form
just presented corresponding to the x, y and x-dh'~tiom are combined, and the appropriate
expressions for the in situ stresses sutmtit~.ed from equatimts (I) and (2). M a ~ m u m stresses
are considered to occur on the cavity wall (r ~ a), and under this condition, equations (4)
and (5) reduce to the following:
="

[
14 - S,
- 10~, (30 sin 2 0

--

151, - -

3) +

S.
(30v sin 2 0 -- 15, -- 3~ + ~
ere = 1 4 _ 10v

v
i

(30 cos" 0 -- 6)]

(30, cos 0 -- 30v +

(8)
.

(9)

It should be noted that under these conditions, all other stress components are identically
zero.
Values of*alSo and ,~]So are plotted in Figs 2 and 3 for a range of Poisson's ratio values.
Most noticeable is the tendency toward tensile-type stress concentrations i n ~ ' p o l c regions"
(0 -----0 or 18&), and large compressive sums concentrations at the eqtmtor (,0 -----90 ).

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED UNDERGROUND

STORAGE CAVITIES

u:

0 50

137

0-20

~--u'L-O.30

u =0

15

u'=0 - 4 0

/ /
=o4o/I
J

.8

E
30

60

Angle 0,

90

deg.

Fit;. 2. Variation of the tangential stress concentration factor (%/S,,) on the wall of a spherical cavity with
O for a number of values of Poisson's ratio.

Yl

t~

u :0-50

~3

o
u=O

~ -e 5

50

Angle e,

60
deg.

90

I-to;. 3. Variation o f the tangential stress concentration factor (%/Sv) on the wall o f a spherical cavity with 0,
for a n u m b e r o f values o f P o i s s o n ' s ratio.

138

D. E. SISKIND, H. R. H A R D Y JR A N D S. S. A L E X A N D E R

The shaded regions of Fig. 2 correspond to Poisson's ratio values in the range of 0-10 to
0-25 which includes the most likely values for rocks in the earth's crust. The polar stress
concentrations are strongly dependent on Poisson's ratio and can be compressive or tensile.
while the stresses at the equator are almost independent of Poisson's ratio and always highly
compressive (Fig. 2).
(c) Spheroidal openings
Openings of spherokial shape are defined as special cases of an ellipsoidal opening where
in the general equation
X2
y2
Z2
,4 +
I.
(lO)

,4 - - B ~ C

These are also called ellipsoids of revolution. For consistent notation with the spherical
case, the poles here are defined as the points (0, 0, C) and (0, 0, - C ) . Figure 4 illustrates a
spheroidal cavity loaded by in sire ground stresses.

Surface!- I llil ~

s,

"-.~AF, i (o,o;-c!...-"

Fl(;. 4. Spheroidal cavity Ioad~J by besitu ground strc'~.sc~.

TERZAG,! and RICtlAe'r [12] have examined the spheroidal cavity problem, and their
results in terms of stress concentration factors are given in Figs 5 and 6, for the two limiting
cases of the poic and the equator. The same assumptions arc made as in the spherical
cavity problem. For the value of B/C of unity in Figs 5 and 6, the problem de~,'z~ra~es to the
spherical ease. Additional stress concentrations for some other values of Poisson's ratio arc
also plotted in Fig. 5 from the previous spherical solution. As expected, the tangential
stress concentrations in the polar region (cavity roof) are either tensile or of low compressive vatue, it is also noted that the tendency toward tensile-type stress increases with increasing eccentricity. The high compressive stress concentrations at the equator are shown in
Fig. 6 and appear to be almost independent of Poisson's ratio.

(d) Comparison of biaxial and triaxial solutions

Solutions for problems involving two-dimensional stress fields arc often used as engineering approximations for three-dimensional situations. Listed in Table I arc safety factors for
various shaped elliptical openings, i n c l ~ n g t: 1 or circular, based on the catcalatiOns of

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED U N D E R G R O U N D STORAGE CAVITIES

139

z
,5

?. ,.o- \.=o.so

i:

"~

2B

"I

Sphericol data

"u=O
I

u=0.20
2

tO

Eccentricity,

20

50

B/C

F=(;. 5. Variation of the tangential stress concentration factor (~,,/S,.) at the poles of a spheroidal cavity for
various eccentricities. (After TEaz^(;m and RICHART [12].)

20

u=O.511u-'O.2

15

E
o

/
o

.g
!

I0

Eccentricity,

20

50

B/C

Fie;. 6. Variation o f the tangential stress concentration factor (~,/S,) at the e q u a t o r o f a spheroidal cavity for
various eccentricities (After T ~ a z ^ ( ; m a n d RICH^R'r [12].)

140

D. E. SISKIND, H. IL HARDY JR AND S. S. ALEXANDER

TABLE I . STRESS CONCF.NTRATION$ ~' AND SAFETY FACTORS FOR
T W O - A N D THREIE-DIME~iONAL ELLIPTICAL OPENINGS AND TUNNELS

(After TERZAGHIand RICHART[12l)

(A) Tangential stress concentration (~,/S,) at pole (O = 0)
Ellipticity
Safety
(B/A)
Tunnel (2D)
Cavity (3D)
factor+
I:I
1: 2
I :4
I : I0
I : 20
I : 50

--0-25
0-50
0"63
-0-70
-0-73
0.74

0.00
0-20
0"30
-0.37
-0-40
0"42

-2'5
2- I
I-9
1"8
1"8

(B) Tangential stress concentration (adS) at equator (0 = 90 )

Ellipticity
Safety
(B/A)
Tunnel (2D)
Cavity (3D)
factor+
I:1
1:2
I :4
I : I0

1:20
I : 50

L2.7
4-4-8
--12
--22

--43
--- 105

-~2.0
n-3"2
~7.0
- 13
~25
~-65

1'4
1.5
I-7
1"7
1.7
1"7

* IkL~d on calculations where ~ = 0"2.

Ratio of stress concentration factors in two-dimensions
to those in three-dimensions.

TERZAGItl and RICtIAR'r [12J. These safety factors represent the differences between the
stress concentrations for a two-dimensional opening (i.e. a tunnel) and a three-dimensional
cavity o f similar vertical cross-sectional shape, for a Poisson's ratio o f 0-20.

(e) Additional stress fieid considerations

in the experimental phase o f the present study, a loading and failure cycle was completed
within a few minutes, a n d the material was assumed to b strictly elastic. I n preliminary
runs on solid test specimens, strain masurcmnts showed no inelastic behavior o r creep
over time periods o f l0 rain and under uniaxial loads o f up to 1000 psi (50 per cent o f the
ultimate strength). During the pressurization o f real underground rc~rvoirs, it is expected
that inelastic yielding and stress transfer may occur, and as a result, influenccth f o r m o f the
failure mechanism. T h e probability o f occurrence ogstress reticf will h o w e v e r tend to incrc.as
the safty factor in large reservoirs, with the transfer o f high local stresses into regions o f
greater volume and a consequent reduction in the level o f stress concntratiom.
It should be reiterated that a n u m b e r o f simplifying assumptions were m a d e in the analysis
presented which involve the nature o f the al~)iied stress field. MCNlVEN and EWOLDS~ [14]
recognize five pass/bit horizontal fields, i a ~
~ - a d i c m stress fields a n d the relatively
new concept o f residual tectonic stresses. T h a solutions are not directly related to the
present experimental study but should be c o m l d c r c d , if possible, in the evaluation o f field
conditions.

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED UNDERGROUND STORAGE CAVITIES

141

(f~ Internalpressurization
In order to evaluate the behavior of an underground cavity for storage, it is necessary to
obtain equations which express the behavior of the cavity under internal pressure. For the
case of a relatively deep cavity, simple approximations for spherical and cylindrical (tunnellike) openings can be made, with the surrounding medium again assumed to be isotropic
and homogeneous.
An approximation for a spherical opening under internal pressure can be derived from
the solution of the well-known thick-walled sphere problem (PRESCOTT [15] and TIMOSHENKO
and GOODIER [16]), where an internal pressure (--p~) generates normal and tangential
stresses as follows:

p, a 3 ( b3
or,=--

ba _ a

~ ~-3-- I

a, =O0=b3_a3

! +

(11)

112)

where a and b are the inside and outside radii of the hollow sphere.
If it is assumed that the outer boundary is remote from the cavity (i.e. b >/ 4a), and if
only the stresses on the cavity boundary are of interest (r : a), then equations (I I) and
{12) reduce to the following:
a, = -- pj

(13)

ao -,~ % =: (I/2) pi.

114)

The general equations for :in open-ended thick-walled cylinder under internal pressure
are as follows:
o, = b V LSa 2
oo

_.

Pia-"
b.rSSa2

! +

o: = 0

(16)
(17)

where a and b are the i,mer and outer radii.

By a reduction analogous to the spherical case described earlier, equations (I 5) and (16)
reduce to
o, = -- Pi

(18)

0 = Pl.

(19)

In a deep cavity or circular closure that can be approximated by a sphere or a cylinder,

equations (13) and (14) or (18) and (19) will apply. These results are sulticiently accurate as
a first approximation to represent a number of geologic structures such as symmetrical
domes, low plunging anticlinal traps, some salt domes and possibly some stratigraphic
traps. They would not however apply to very elongate or flat traps, or to any structures
close to the surface.
For an elongate reservoir, such as a broad dome with a relatively small vertical dimension

142

D.E. SISKIND, H. R. HARDY JR AND S. S. ALEXANDER

and for some isolated traps, an elliptical shape could be assumed. In such cases the normal
and transverse stresses will be dependent on the angle 0. Such a problem is extremely diffic ult
to solve analytically; however, HAar)v and Cttu6tt [13] have successfully applied finiteelement techniques to this type of problem (e.g. an internally pressurized elliptical opening
in a biaxial stress field).
(g) The failure of spherical carities
The spherical cavity is the simplest case investigated in the present study. Here the stresses
are given by equations (8), (9), (13) and (14). Here in a region in danger o f compressive
failure due to the triaxial in situ loading (e.g. note the high value of oo/S~ at 0 = 90), the
addition of internal pressurization will reduce the likelihood of failure due to the superimposed tangential tension introduced by this pressure. Conversely, for a region already
under tension (or low compression) in the absence o f internal pressurization, an increased
probability of tensile failure will develop with the addition of internal pressure.
The stability of pressurized spherical openings can be evaluated by solving (8), (9), (I 3)
and (14) for given loading conditions, Poisson's ratio and rock strengths. The model
cavity experiments described later in this paper were run using a material with a Poisson's
ratio o f 0-22, making the effect of internal pressurization a stronger influence on failure than
the effect of the applied in situ stress field.
In the present study it was assumed that failure would occur on the cavity boundary
when the tangential stress (% or oe) exceeded the tensile strength of the surrounding rock at
any given point. For a spherical cavity in a material with a tensile strength of 400 psi, a
vertical stress of 2000 psi and a Poisson's ratio of 0-22, the failure pressure should be approximately 950 psi.
(h) Failure of spheroidal carities
For a spheroidal cavity it is ne~essary to use the two-dimensional finite-element solution
of HAar)v and CnuGn [13] in order to estimate the internal failure pressure. Here, it was
found that the addition of an internal pressure of 500 psi only increased the tangential stress
in the polar region by about l0 per cent of the applied internal pressure. In an eilipsoidal
cavity, the corresponding stress change would have to lie in the range of 5-10 per cent,
based on the comparison of the thick-walled cylinder and thick-walled sphere solutions.
As in the spherical case there is a strong dependence on Poisson's ratio.
5. SCALE MODEL STUDIES
(a) Introduction
Aside from full-scale lield studies, the best experimental technique for studying the
behavior of underground cavities is the use of scale models, in the current study the outside
diameter of the models used were restricted to a maximum size o f 2~ in. due to thefimit_ations
of the loading equipment available. The reservoir cavities themselves were limited to t in.
in the largest dimension to insure that the presence of the outer boundaries of the model did
not seriously affect the stress field in the region of the cavity. As a result, direct strain
measurements using gages mounted on the cavity walls could not be made, and the stresses
within the models had to be calculated from the in situ loading conditions and theapplied
internal pressures.

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED UNDERGROUND

STORAGE CAVITIES

143

(b') Tire model material

Considerable work has been done on the problem of using artificial material to simulate
rock, i.e, OBERT and DUVaLL [2]. In this study, the reservoir models were made by casting
a suitable shaped cavity into a cylindrical test cylinder. Two different methods of forming
the reservoir were used. The development of the material used in the present study was
based on the work of ROSEYBLaD [17] where a rock-like model material was made from a
mixture of Hydrocal* B-II plaster, quartz sand and water (1.0:7.6:1.4 parts by weight
respectively).
A number of modifications in the Rosenblad procedure were made in the present study.
The quartz sand was limited to a maximum size of 354 Ix (0.0139 in.), and the final mixing
ratios were 1-0:2.0:0-8 of Hydrocal, sand and water. The mixture was dry-tumbled and wetpoured into a mold treated with a suitable mold-release agent. A cure schedule of two days
at 46"C in the mold and at least two additional days alter extraction was used. The cast
material was tested and found to have a tensile strength of 400-500 psi, a compressive
strength of about 2000 psi, a Young's modulus of approximately 0.9 ,'< 10~ psi and a
Poisson's ratio in the range of 0.2-0.3.
(c) Reserroir casting
The first approach to the problem of casting a reservoir cavity was to fabricate a miniature
reservoir of copper and place this in the test cylinder during casting. Subsequent tests with
such reservoir models showed that they were unsatisfactory t\~r the present study, v, ith the
copper inserts having too great an inherent strength.

5/Bin. -- / - i Styrofoam
I reservoir

F~aper disc
~-~--XlFb~a-~Y Deadspace
lliL
~:,:.
( Ios`t in
I
finishing)
Copper 'tube

(A)RESERVOIR INSERT

--Mold

,s
....

Mold bose

(B) MOLDING ARRANGEMENT

/M

i~2lSin

_~;

Epoxy adhesive

ii
M : machined surface
(C) MODEL READY
FOR ASSEMBLY

(D)'FINAL MODEL

FIG. 7. Details of reservoir model fabrication.

* Hydrocal is a gypsum cement manufactured by the United States G y p s u m C o m p a n y , Pennsylvania.

144

D. E. SISKIND, H. R. H A R D Y J R A N D S. S. A L E X A N D E R

A second type of reservoir model was developed, and the procedure involved is outlined
in Fig. 7. The basis of the technique is the use of temporary styrofoam reservoir forms
prepared to the desired cavity shapes which are cast in place in the test cylinder. After the
Hydrocal had been cured, the cylinder was split open, the exposed faces were machined
smooth with a lathe and tool post grinder, and the reservoir space was cleaned and inspected.
Epoxy adhesive was then spread on the plane surfaces, the reservoir cavity walls and particularly around the inlet tube, in the thinnest layer possible, using a small brush. The twohalves
of the model were then pressed together, separated momentarily to remove any excessepoxy
and to insure that all surfaces were epoxy "wet', and then rejoined for curing.
(d) Experimentalprocedure
The prepared reservoir models were tested under triaxial conditions in the conventional
manner (e.g. OBERT and DUVALL[2]. The triaxiai vessel and the essential features of the
acoustic emission monitoring system are shown in Figs 8 and 9. The acoustic emission
pick-up was located in the top end of the loading piston. This area was electric.ally shielded,
and the entire vessel and electronic system was insulated with sheets of plexiglass from the
platens of the testing machine used to apply the necessary axial loads.
T

machine
platen

"'3g

~int
Acousti
det
Reservo*r
nq p~ston
O-rinq
Trioxiol vessel
Top end cap
Model contoinin~J
reservoir
Rubber locket
Bottom end cop

Confining
oil in!

FtG. 8. T r i a x i a l vessel f o r testing reservoir models.

During tests on the reservoir models, the axial loads and confining pressures were first
increased simultaneously until they reached prcdeermined levels. These par'Jm~ters were
then held constant while the reservoir cavities were pressurized (using oil) up to .the failure
point. Failure of the reservoirs could be detected by both the sudden drop in reservoir
pressure and by the reduction of the pumping force. After removal from the loading system,
the models were examined. It was found that the oil diffusion pattern around the reservoir
g ave a good indication of the failure location.

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED UNDERGROUND STORAGE CAVITIES

145

Piezoelectric
crystal on model
loadinq piston

Tope
recorder

60 ips for
recording
1,5igs for
play back

Filter
IOkHz-lOOkHz I

[ ~60d8

Filter
IOkHz-~kHz[

for6O,ps
4kHz-15kHz

forlS,~s

I time

Gain and
control

Fz. 9. Acousticemission detection system.

The microseismic detection system itself consisted of a lead zirconate titanate crystal,
preamplifier, filter, tape recorder and oscilloscope. Recording was done at 60 in/see, and
the overall band width of the monitoring system was 16 kHz-60 kHz. Following the pressurization experiments, the tape containing the recorded acoustic emission data was played back
into an automatic counting system (H^gov, KIMIILEand KIM [18]). In some cases photographs of the acoustic emission data were taken using 'open shutter' techniques and allowing
the acoustic emission pulses to trigger the oscilloscope.

6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
(a) Reserroir failures
A total of twelve of the type-2 reservoirs were fabricated using the method described
earlier, and of these, seven were successfully tested. Table 2 lists the loading conditions,
reservoir geometries and reservoir failure pressures. Four of the models contained essentially spherical reservoirs, and the remaining three had elliptically shaped cavities (spheroids).
Most notable were the high values of the reservoir pressures at failure. Also listed in Table 2
are the theoretical applied tangential stresses at the poles and equators of the model
reservoirs due to the equivalent in situ loading (based on the curves of Figs 2, 3, 5 and 6).
The total tangential stress at the poles and the equator of the reservoir models at failure
due to the equivalent in situ loading and the internal pressures are given in Table 3 (based
on Figs 2, 3, 5 and 6, equation (14), and the finite-element data obtained for pressurized
elliptical cavities from HARDY and CtlUGI! [13]).
The data presented indicates that the reservoir cavities had high values of tensile stress
at the poles at the time of failure. The four spherical reservoirs (41, 42, 44, 36) had approximately the same stress, average of the order of 1700 psi, which is significantly greater than
the material tensile strength of 400-500 psi. The models containing spheroidal cavities (38
and 39) had lower tensile stresses at the poles and higher values of compressive stress at the
equator with failure by tension at the poles still expected.

146

D. E. SISKIND, H. R. HARDY JR AND S. S. ALEXANDER

TABLE 2. DATA FROM MODEL RESERVOIR I'ESTS:
LOADI?',G CONDITIONS AND INDUCED STRESSES FOR ZERO INTERNAL PRESSURE

Reservoir
model No,

41
42
44
36
39
38
40

Eccentricity

I'0
1-0
1.0

I "2
1.9
2'3
3"2

S~
Axial
load
(psi)

S~
Confining
pressure
(psi)

2720
2760
2770
1950
2720
2740
2720

750
770
790
550
700
750
700

Calculated tangential stress

due to the triaxial loading
conditions prior to the
application of internal
pressure
(psi

v
Poisson's
ratio

Pole
( 0 = 0 , 180)
- 130
140
140
0
460
460
700

0"22
0"22
0.22
0-22
0"21
0-22
O-21

Equator
(0 = 9 0 )

4900
5000
- - 5000
- 3600
- 7300
7300
I 0,000

TABLE 3. DATA FROM MODEL RESERVOIR TESTS DUE TO rilE EQUIVALENT ill .'i#li
LOADING AND INTERNAL PRE~tSURIZATION

Reservoir
Rc.'scrvoir
model
failure pressure
Calculated tangential stresses (psi)
No.
Eccentricity
(psi)

(0 -

Pole
O o r 180 )
1900

41

I-0

3500

42

1.0

3500

1900

44
36
39
38

I -O
1.2

2600
3300
3000
4500

1400
1600
600.-800
700-900

1.9

2"3

>

Equator
(0 = 9 0 )

-3100
3200
-- 3700
-2000
- 5000
-

- 4000

M o d e l 40 r e p r e s e n t s a n e x a m p l e o f a m o d e l having a cavity with a relatively large eccentricity (3-2). Values o f the t a n g e n t i a l stress a t t h e poles a n d e q u a t o r in this reservoir d u e
only to the e q u i v a l e n t in situ triaxial field were o n the o r d e r o f + 7 0 0 psi a n d - - IO,000 psi
respectively. T h e p o l a r tensile stress in this case is higher t h a n all the o t h e r reservoirs
tested, a n d it was n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t failure here o c c u r r e d a t a 25 per c e n t lower i n t e r n a l
pressure t h a n m o d e l 38 for e x a m p l e w h i c h had a less eccentric cavity.
All reservoir failures o c c u r r e d in the p o l a r regions. This was expected because o f the large
tensile stresses at these points. T h e simplified failure process a s s u m e d in this study d o e s n o t
p r e d i c t w h a t occurs after the initial escape o f the fluid from the r e s e r v o i r cavity, a n d only
the first fracture was e x p e r i m e n t a l l y observable.
(b) Acoustic emission results
Figures !0 a n d I I illustrate the v a r i a t i o n o f a c o u s t i c emission rate d u r i n g reservoir
pressurization. M o s t n o t a b l e in each case is t h a t t h e onset o f activity o c c u r s a t a fraction o f

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED UNDERGROUND STORAGE CAVITIES

147

3C
Model 41

A T = I - 2 5 see
I--

<3

"*-20

Total time - 2 0 sec

.D I0
E
Z

Reservoir pressure,

psi

EnG. 10. Acoustic emission r a t e - - M o d e l 41.

30;
Model 42
~ T : I. 25 sec
Total t i m e - 2 0 sec

t.-

<3

I0

r--ll

Reservoir pressure,

psi

FtG. I 1. Acoustic emission r a t e - - M o d e l 42.

the ultimate failure pressure (Ps). The greatest amount of activity occurred at or near the
ultimate failure pressure, with a build-up of activity beginning at values of pressure of about
one-third to one-half of the ultimate failure pressure. The expected reservoir failure pressures,
assuming failure occurs when the tensile stress at the cavity pole exceeds the tensile strength,
were calculated and are indicated in Figs 10 and 1 1 as Pt,- These calculated pressures are
about one-third to one-fourth of the ultimate failure pressures; however, they agree reasonably well with the reservoir pressures observed at the onset of acoustic emission (Po).
Table 4 presents a comparison of theoretical and experimental data. The ratios of the
tangential stresses at the poles at the time of ultimate failure to the tensile strength (,to/To)
are listed and range from 1.4 to 3.8. Comparing this to P.,'/Po, the ratio of the ultimate failure
pressure to the pressure at the onset of acoustic emission, it seems that they are in moderately good agreement.

0. E. SISKIND, H. R. HARDY JR AND S. S. ALEXANDER

148

Shown in Fig. 12 is a typical acoustic emission event obtained during one of the reservoir
model tests. Examination of several sets of such events selected over the complete loading
and Failure cycle did not reveal any obvious trends in the characteristics of the events,
except For increases in the rates of occurrence as the reservoir approached the Failure point.
It is interesting to note that iarge magnitude events appeared to be scattered throughout the
test rather than being concentrated near the Failure point as might have been expected.
Little dispersion was Found in the acoustic emission pulses. A constant period of about
20 ~sec seemed to pe rsist as Far down the wave train as could be measured; however, in
some of the better photographs, a predominant Frequency of about 56 kHz seemed to
characterize the beginning of the pulse. slowly dropping off to about 48 kHz after about
2 t~sec. This was not usually noticeable because of the short duration and rapid decay of the
events. It was expected that perhaps there would be a change in dominant Frequency as
the Faiture point was approached, but none was Found.
There was a distinctive ringing effect probably caused by reflections within the loading
ram and the specimen. The durations of the main pulses were about 200 @ec but the ringing
resulting From the multipath arrivals continued For several milliseconds. The basic envelopes
of the pulses were typical exponential decay curves observed in most acoustic emission
studies.

7. CONCIAJSIONS

The objective of this study was the examination of the faiture characteristics of internally
prcssurizcd cavities subjected to triaxial it1 situ stress fields. The experimental resutts
indicate the Following primary conclusions:
(I) The onset of acoustic emission activity is a sign of the beginning oF reservoir
instability with :m increasing rate of events indicative of continuing and increasing
instability. In the present study, the onset of such activity in each model~rescrvoir
approximatcty coincided with the point at which the tensite stress at the cavity wall
in the polar region exceeded the tensile strength of the model materiat. These
results are summarized in Table 4.

TAULE
4. RESERVOIR
STRESSES
ANDACOUSTIC
MSSAON
DATA
PO

Model No.
41
42
44
36
38

Tan&tiul
stress at
failure (psi)
(8 = 0, IW)
I)(x)
1900
1400
1600
?OO+OO

dTl

Pf
Rgswvoir
prssure at
ftilure ipsi)

Reservoir
pressure at
onset
mierwcismif
iwtivity (psi)

P,lPu

3soo
3500
2600
3u10
4500

1200
1608
1200
WI0
3700

2.9
2.2
2.2
2-3
I$!

3-n
3.8
2-8
3.2
Id-I-8

To is the tcnde strength of the model material.

FI(;. 12. Typical acoustic emission pulses---Model 42.

RM f.p. 14gl

A STUDY OF PRESSURIZED U N D E R G R O U N D STORAGE CAVITIES

149

(2) The most critical reservoir parameters were found to be the values of the tensile
strength and Poisson's ratio of the rock surrounding the cavity.
(3) The results obtained could be applied to some full-scale reservoir cavities of regular
geometry; however, extreme eccentricities, angular cavities, a predominance of
preexisting fractures and inelastic behavior present in many cases must be
taken into account.
(4) The analyses presented are based on the assumption that the internally pressurized
cavities are empty or devoid of solid material. As already discussed, real storage
reservoirs are usually filled with material which is relatively porous but capable of
transmitting stress. It is probable that the stress concentrations caused by loading
such filled reservoir cavities would not be as high as those found in the present
study, due to the support provided by this porous rock. Problems of this complexity
are best attacked analytically using finite-element techniques.
(5) The primary results of this study are the predicted polar locations of the cavity
failures and the unusually high failure pressures possible in such cavities. For
example, at ultimate failure the model reservoirs tested had values of tangential
stresses in the polar regions in the range of 2.8-3.8 times the tensile strength.
(6) There exist a number of logical extensions of the present work in the areas of model
and field studies. Stresses could be directly measured in models ktrge enough to
have internally mounted strain gages. The instrumentation of a full-scale reservoir
for seismic detection would be of considerable value in addition to the extension of
the analytical techniques presented to related geological problems such as the
intrusion of laccoliths, etc.
,.h'knowh,dements-The research described was supported by funds supplied by the Pipeline Research
Committee of the American Gas Association as part of a continuing project (PR-12-431 with the Department
of Mineral Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University.
The majority of the material presented in this paper forms part of a Ph.D. Thesis in Geophysics at the
Pennsylvania State University by one of the attthors (Siskindl.

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D. E. SISKIND, H. R. HARDY JR AND S. S. ALEXANDER

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