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Professionnel Documents
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B.NAGARAJ
S. RENUKA
Department' of Electronics and Instrumentation 'Engineering
B.RAMPRIYA
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Kamaraj College of "Engineering & Technology
Virudhunagar - 626 001.
ANURADHA PUiBLICATIONS
KUMBAKONAM
CHENNAI
PREFACE
This textbook has been written as per,the latest syllabus of Anna University
to meet the requirements for the syllabus of B.E., E.I.E., and I.c-iE.
The primary aim of this book is to acquaint the students with the basic principles
of Sensors and Transducer systems and their applications for the measurement of
various variables.
ISBN: 978-81-8472-087-7
Price : Rs. 150.00
Branch Office
Head Office
'>,.'
'. . ' . ,
.... .. :"
" .
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. " ,
. . . ; .
CONTENTS
Unit 1
1.1 -1.42
1.1
Introduction
1.1
1.2
Measurement
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.4.
Calibration
1.. 18
1.5
1.19
1.6
1.29
1.7
1.32
1.40
Unit 2
Characteristics of Transducers
2.1 - 2.53
2.1
Introduction
2.1
2.2
2.1
2.8
2.14
2.4
2.33
2.39
Unit 3
3.1 .- 3.49
3.1
Introduction
3.1
3.2
Potentiometer
3.2
3.3
Strain gauges.
3.5
3.4
Resistance Thermometers
3.17
3.5
rrhermistors
3.21
3.6
3.28
1.1
8.7
Unit 4
3.34
3.36
4.1 - 4.36
4:.1
4.1
1.2
4.5
1:.8
Induction potentiometer
4.6.
1.4
4.7
4:.5
4.12
1.6
4.12
4:. 7
4.15
4:.8
Capacitive Transducer
4.17
UnitB
Other Transducers
4.32
5.1
UNIT I
All the successful achievements in science and technology are entirely due
to the ability to measure the state, condition or characteristics of the physical.
systems, in quantitative terms with. sufficient accuracy.
5.1
Piezoelectric Transducers
5.2
M.agnetostrictive Transducers
5.13
5.8
rc
5.22
5.1:
Digital Transducers
5.32
1.2 MEASUREMENT
5.38
5.6 .
Sensor
5.48
5..56
Transducer Engineering
1.2
1.3
Data storage
Playback/
element
Measured
quantity
Primary
- - - - . . Sensing
(Measurand)
element
Variable
Conversion
element
Variable
Manipulation
element
Data
Transmission
element
Data
Presentation
element
(i)
Measurand
(Input)
Process
ofComparison
(measurement)
Result
1------.
(Readout)
Tho primary sensing clement is the one which first receives energy from
the measured medium and produces an output depending in some way on the
measured quantity (measurand),
(ii)
Direct comparison
To measure the length of a bar, we compare the length of the bar with a
.standard, and find that the bar is so many inches long because that many ,
inch-units on the standard has the same length as the bar. Thus we have
determined the length by direct comparison. The standard that w~ have used
is called a secondary standard. Measurement by direct comparison is less
common than the measurement by indirect comparison.
Indirect comparison
Indirect comparison makes use of some form of transducing device. This
device converts the basic form of input in ~o ananalogous form, which it then
processes and presents at the output as a known function of the input.
Tho output signal of the primary sensing element is some physical variable,
such as displaceme.nt or voltage. For the instrument to perform the desired
function, it maybe necessary to convert this variable to another more suitable
variable while' preserving the information content of the originalSIgnal:',---An
element that performs such a function is called a variable conversion clement.
Transducer .Engineering
1.4 .
1.5
some applications require a distinct data storage/play back function which can
easily recreate the stored data upon command. The magnetic tape
recorder/reproducer is the example.
Bourdon tube
'ty
_-------~-.Pressure7~
Bulb
Temperature .Primary
- - - - . . Sensing
Measured element
quantity
Variable
Conversion
element
For the past years, a considerable number of systems of Units have been
used at various time periods. However, there are some systems of units which
have been accepted through out the world.
Linkage and
Pressure
Da1a
.Transmission
element
'-----v-----'
Tubing
Motion
Variab~e
Conversion
element
~
~bl~
Manipulation
element
Motion
Bourdontube
Data
Presentation
element
'-----v-----'
Scaleand
Pointer
Fig. 1.3 Pressure thermometer
Unit
We measure a physical quantity by the measurement system. The result of
the measurement of the physical quantity must be defined both in kind and
magnitude, The standard measure of each kind. of physical quantity is called a
"Unit", In general, we can write:
Magnitude of a physical quantity = (Numericalratiorx.rljnit)
(1.1)
The Numerical Ratio is the number of times the unit occurs in any given
amount of the same quantity and therefore, is called. the number of measures.
'Phis may be otherwisecalled a numerical multiplier.
Transducer Engineering
1.6
Types
()f
[A]
Units
Fundamental units
Derived units
Units which are fundamental to most other physical quantities are called
fundamental-units.
Fundamental units are measures of length, mass and time. Since length,
mass' and time are fundamental to most other physical quantities, they are called
the "Primary Fundamental Units",
Measures of certain physical quantities in the thermal, electrical,
illumination fields are also represented by fundamental units. These units are
'used only where these particular disciplines are involved and therefore they are
called Auxiliary Fundamental Units,
All other units which can be expressed in terms of fundamental units with
the help of physical equations are called Derived Units. Every derived unit
originates from some physical law or equation which defines that unit. For e.g.,
the area, A, of a room is equal to the product of its length l, and breadth, b.
Therefore, A
= 1 x b.
1.7
= [l~]
[1.1]
= [L 2].
The three fu.ndamental units are length, mass and time. Their
dimensions are: Length = [L]; Mass = [MJ; Time = trJ
1..
V loci
length
e OCIty = time
..' [Ll
[u] = [TJ
2.
Acceleration = velocity
time
3.
4.
5.
.
work
Power = -'-.time
= [LY l
..--.-.---------~----t-------------------------fl
.
2
'-2
[Pl = [ML
._-_._----,-_.~._.
__
...
__
.
-~----
r ] = [ML2 r
3]
[T]
._----I-------..___--__---~
[ML 2
7.
1.3.2 Dimensions
8.
= [MLr 2]
[L] = [MI~ 2 T- 2]
9.
torque
Stiffness =. --==--angle
[K] = [MI.I2
is 24
Note that the number of measures (6 x 4 = 24) 'as well as the units
2
Area, A
a constant x 1 x b ~
. (1.2)
Since I and b each have the dimensions of a length, [L], the dimensions of
area are
. . .-.-.-..--.. .
[TJ = [=ML 2 r
6.
m 2.
2]
-.-.--.,,------~------_+_--_--_.-----------.--D
10. S urJ:acc
e.
force
Tension =.--length
[Ll
Transducer Engineering
1.8
1.
I~'PS
1.9
Practical units
Practical units are derived either from the absolute units or by reference
to arbitrary standards, Table (1.2) shows the symbolsrand magnitudes of
practical units.
5." 81 system (six fundamental units, two supplementary units and twenty
".
-Quantity'
No.
1.
------".
Practical unit
Charge
Symbol
coulomb
ampere'
volt
ohm
2.
Current
_.......
8.
The most commonly used units in electrical work were eGS units. These
units involve the use ofunit of a fourth quantity in addition to units of mass, .
length and time. Two systems of eGS units are
..__. - -
4.
Potential difference
----_.__..__ ..
--
Resistance
----
5.
Inductance
henry
6.
Capacitance
farad
watt
joule
8.
Electromagnetic Units
Units based on electromagnetic effects are known as electromagnetic units
and the system is known as electromagnetic system of units. This system.
involves the">u~its of four quantities: permeability (u) of the medium and the
'units of length, class and time. The value of permeability of free space (vacuum)
is taken as 'unity in this system.
Absolute units
An abso' ute system of units is defined as a 'system in which the various
'units are all expressed in terms of a small number of fundamental units.
Absolute measurements do not compare the measured quantity with arbitrary.
units of the same type but are made in terms of Fundamental Units,
Energy
1. Charge
According to coulomb's law, the force exerted between two charges Q1 and
Electrostatic Units
Units based on electrostatic effects are known as electrostatic units and the
system is electrostatic system. This system involves the units of four quantities: -,
permittivity (E). of the medium and -the units of length, mass and time. The
value of permittivity of free space is taken as unity in this system.
--
(J2
is
1.10
Transducer Engineering
2. Current
1.11
Dimension of inductance
dI/dt
[E]
[1-]
= [1] / [1']
=
[E] [TJ
[1]
1I 2
1I 2
M
L 112
1
2
[1/2 M / L 3/2
= [E-
4. Capacitance
Force F =
Capacitance C = Q
E
Dimension of capacitance [C] =
~~~
mlm2
2
Ild
5. Resistance
2. Magnetizing force
Resistance II ., E
I
[Il]
= [.E:]
[1]
[H]
.
= [FJ =.
[m]
[MLr 2]
[1l 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L3/2r 1]
=[JJ-1I2M1I2L~ 1I2 r
6. Inductance
.Inductance I = , emf.
.
.
rate of change of current
1]
8. Current
..J
1.12
t. 13
Transducer Engineering
2n I
H=-r
[IJ
[H] = [L]
= [H]
[[oJ]
4. Charge
(ii) 'I'here are two .sets of dimensional equations for the "s'arne quantity.
= [IJ [TJ
=J.l- 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 L 1/2p- 1] [TJ =
[Jl- 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 t. 1/2]
5. Potential difference
Potential difference is work done per unit charge. The dimensions of
potential difference are
In, ~:.K.S system, metre, kilogramme and second are the three fundamental
mechanical units, In order to connect the electrical and mechanical quantities,
a fourth fundamental quantity has to be used. This fourth quantity is' usually
permeability. The permeability of free space is taken as 110 = 10- 7. The
permeability of J.l of any other .medium is given by f.l
= J.lrJ.lo'
1. Charge
IE]
[IJ.
[J.l-
1/2
r- 2 ]
1/2' 1/2'
1 = [Jl L
r-]
re]
= [1] I[T]
[E] [T]
[1]
C.G.S~units
T" ]
8. Inductance
[L}
[p.1/2M3/2 L 1/2
= practicalunit.of charge
= 1 coulomb
of mass
1.14
Transducer Engineering
2. Current
1.15
8. Energy
r: 2]
[Jl- 1 / 2 M 1 / 2 1/21' 1]
(ii) This
4. Resistance
expressions
of
Tho M.:K.S system in its rationalised form, utilizes four fundamental units.
They are metre, kilogram, second and ampere.
~rable
5. Inductance
Table .1.3 Rationalised M.K.S.A system
_.....
~.==::=~-
No.
;.==
Quantity
Symbol
.._ ._---ent
I
- ,_...__
_ ... _- --- ---- __
Charge
Q
Dimension
-"
6. Capacitance
2.
= 1 farad
3.
_1' ....
____ ........_ _ _ _ _
I~mf
"'_
.., ...........
4.
...
.......
IIl- 1 L- 1 r]
...---.--.-~,._._
..........
......
..-
....
>
[l]
..,.----
[Tl]
_._-
[ML 2
<I>
[ML 2
3 1- 1 ]
.......-.-...--....--._._..
Reslstance
_.-
7. Pouier
...
(magnetic)
.-
density
r:? I-I]
[M1'2 I-I]
[1]
_--...........
....
7.
MM{4'
Transducer Engineering
1.16
_....,.
No.
8.
Quantity
Symbol
Dimension
Magnetizin g force
[L- 1 1]
--
...
9.
Reluctance
10.
Inductance
1.1..
Electric flu x
If
[~ 1 L ~ 2
[ML 2
_ --_.
rf2 [2]
r: 2 1- 2 ]
\}J
[TIJ
[-2 Tl]
[ML'T 3 I-I]
-----
12.
Electric
density
flux
..-..--_--_ . .--
....
....
..-.
18.
field
Electric
: strength
_--
---
11:.
[~ 1 1~ - 2
Capacitance
..
_.~
1.17
8. Secondary standards
4-. Working standards
--
.,-..- ..
y4 [2]
..,__.
',~=J,
3. 8.1 Units
An international organizationof which most of the advanced and developing
countries, including India are members, called the General Conference of
Weights and Measures (CGPM).
Tho Eleventh General conference of Weights and. Measures which met in
October, 1960 recommended a unified systematically constituted, coherent
system of fundamental' supplementary and derived units for. international use.
'I'his system, called the International system of Units and designated by the
abbreviation, 81, Systems International d
Units has been accepted
internationally.
I
1.3.4 Standards
Standards of mass, length and such other physical quantities are physical
devices ,and systems representing the fundamental unit of the particular
quantity.
Standards have been developed for all the fundamental units as well as
some of the derived- mechanical and electrical units. They arc classifie-d-as
follows:
1. International standards
These standards are those defined and agreed upon internationally, They
arc maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and are
not accessible outside for calibration of instruments.
2. Primary standards
These standards are those maintained by national standards laboratories
in different parts of the world and they are also not accessible outside for
calibration. The primary standards established for the fundamental and some
derived units are independently calibrated by absolute measurements at each
of the national standards laboratories and an average value for the primary
standard is obtained with the highest accuracy possible. These are. used for
verification and calibration of the secondary standards.
Secondary standards
These standards are usually fixed standards for use in industrial
laboratories, where as working standards are for day-to-day use in measurement
laboratories.
Working standards.
Working standards may be lower in accuracy in comparison to secondary
standards. The accuracy of secondary standards is maintained by periodic
comparison with the primary standards, where as working standards may be
checked against secondary standards.
1.4 CALIBRATION
Calibration is an essential process to be undertaken for each instrument
and measuring system frequently. A reference standard atleast ten times more
accurate than the instrument under test is normally used. Calibration is the
process where. the test instru:dLent (the instrument to he calibrated) is compased
with the standard instrument. It consists of .reading the standard and test
. Transducer Eng')ineering
l.18
Then the one input under study is varied over some range of constant
values, which causes the outputs to vary over some range of constant
values.
1.4.1
1.19
Static characteristics
a.
Select the apparatus that will allow you to vary all the significant
inputs over 'the ranges considered necessary. Select standards to
measure each inpu.t.
1:. IJy holding 'some inputs constant, varying others and recording the
outputs develop the desired static input-output relations.
Classification of errors
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic errors
8. Random errors
Transducer Engineering
1.22
1. Gross errors
V 20
RA
=-=-=
10 kQ
.c1
I
2
(b) Voltmeter resistance'
l~V = 2000
'The human being may grossly misread the scale. For eg., due to an
oversight, he may read the temperature as 31.5C while the actual reading may
be 21.5(~.He may transpose the reading while recording. For eg., he may read
25.8(~ and record 28.5C.
When 'human beings are involved in measurement, gross errors may be
committed. Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible,
one should try to anticipate and correct them.
One common gross error frequently encountered involves the improper
selection of the instrument. When a voltmeter is used to measure the potential
.difference across two points 'in a circuit, the input impedance of the voltmeter
chosen should be atleast 10 times greater than the output impedance of the
measuring circuit. As the output impedance of a circuit is normally not known
before hand, the selection of the voltmeter may not be made correctly, leading
to a gross error, The error caused by the improper .selection of a voltmeter is
shown by the following example.
x 40 = 80 k
(c)
10
10 3
80x 10 3
10 [80- 10]
=11.43kQ
o/'Apparent - Actual
10 error = .
A 1
x 100
ctua
Example 1.1:
1..21
10-11.43 "
11.4.3' x 100' = ~ 12.5%
This error is due to the appreciable current' drawn by the voltmeter which
is known asIoading effect.
Gross errors may be avoided by two means. They are
Solution
2. ~'I'wo, there or even more readings should be taken for the quantity
under measurement.
Rx
2. Systematic errors
Fig. 1.4 Example (1.1)
1.22
Transducer Engineering
(i)
Instrumental errors
1.23
s.
Random errors are unpredictable errors and occur even when all systematic
errors arc accou.nted for, although the instrument is used under controlled
environment and accurately pre-calibrated. before measurement. 'Over a period
of observation, the readings may vary slightly. The happenings or disturbances
about which we are unaware are lumped together and called "Random" or
"Residual". .Hence the errors caused bythesehappenings are called Random (or
Rosidual) errors.
where, Qs
Qa = lO lQ or
I
'Q~ ~
9Qand
Transducer Engineering
1.24
1.5.2 Erroranalysis
2. Deoiation
Deviation is departure of tho observed reading from the arith:metic mean
of the group of readin.gs. Let the deviation of reading xl be d 1 and that of reading
x2
1.25
'be d 2 , etc.
Then
1. Arithmetic mean
Thc jnost probable value of measured variable is the arithmetic mean of
the number of readings taken. The best approximation is made when the number
of readings of the same quantity are very large. Theoretically, an infinite number
of readings would give the best result. But practically, only a finite number of
measurements can be m.ade.
+ X2 + X3 + X4 + ... + X n
X=---------n
-:-
xl
a :.-: : 1
=---.----n
Xa
a> 1
x -)
arit.hmetic mean
n -) number of readings
Transducer Engineering
1.26
Standard deviation,
of ...
1'.27
6. Mc)de
Mode is the value which occurs most frequently in a set of observations
and around which other items of the set cluster.
For example, the frequency distribution of a set of 100 obs<;rvations is given
below
a=l
Temperature readings in C
4. Variance
32
30 \ 31
No. of readings
33
34:
35
36
15
22
87
d a2
a=l
=
n
1. Probability of errors
for n 20
L
=
>
n-l
d a2
for n
By the nature of the :andom errors, the uncertainty associated with any
moasuroment cannot be predetermined. Only the probable error can be specified
using statistical error analysis. The following are some of the statistical methods
of analysing the errors.
s 20
(i)
5. Median
Median is also 'used to indicate the most probable value of the measured
quantity when a set of readings are taken. When the readings arc arranged in
the ascending or descending order of magnitude, the middle value of the set is
taken as the median. For example, the temperature of a bath is noted by ten
observers as follows:
75.5(;,
73.7(~,
Histogram
When a number of multi sample observations are taken experimentally
there is a scatter of the data about some central value. One method of presenting
test "res'ults is in the form of a "Histogram". 'The technique is illustrated in
fig.(1.5) representing the data given in table (1,.4). This table (1.4) shows a set
of fifty readings 'of a length measurement. The most probable or central value
of length is. ~O mm.
TransducerEngi~eerina
1.28
1.29
. h ..
2 2
..fit exp (- h x )
Y=
Table 1.4
Length (mm)
Number of readings
89.7
89.8
19
90.1
1.2
90.2
-.~_
,_......-."
..
_ _....
..
__ _ _._
..
90.8
.J,~
__
__ _---.--_ ..
.._......-_ .. ..
~.,
90.0
_._._. __..
10
89.9
II-____.._
.._..__~ ...._.._ ..__ ..., ......_- . _ . _....._
.._..--..
where,
._-
No. of
observed
readings
Length(mm)
1.6.1
Specifying Odds
. ,
(ii)
'I'ho normal or Gaussian law of errors is the basis for the major part of
study of random errors.
The law of probability states the normal occurrence of deviations from
average value of an infinite number of measurements or observations can be
expressed by:
if
The probability of occurrence can be stated in terms .of Odds. Odds is the
number of chances that a particular reading willoccur when the error limit is
specified. Forexample, if the error limits are specified as 0.6745 0", the chances
ure that 50% of the observations will lie between the above limits or in other
words we can say that odds are 1 to 1.
The odds can' be .calculated by the following' formula,
.
.=. d'odds
I..:>ro b a bili
ility O'f .occurence
ds 1
o
+.
1.30
Transducer Engineering
Tho table (1.5) shows the corresponding values of Deviation and probability.
Deviation d
Probability (0/0)
50.0
0.6745
.............. __
68.8
Odds
- - - - .-
----.-----
2.15 to 1
--.---------------l-------.--------
95.1
......
_---_
(J
21. to 1.
99.7
3a
256 to i
1.6.2 Uncertainty
W= uncertainty interval
1. to 1
(J
1.31
This rneans that there is an uncertainty of 1.C in the result. Kline and
Mc(~lintock proposed that the experimenter specify certain odds for the
uncertainty.
So, 0 ==
900(~
16(~
(20, to 1)
Propagation of 'Uncertainties
Many times the data available is a single sample data and therefore the
statistical methods discussed earlier cannot be applied directly.
whore Xl' x2,X3
Hence, Kline and Mcfllintock have proposed a method based upon
probability an.d statistics which analyses the data employing uncertainty
distribution rather than frequency distribution.
.... X n .-)
'Kline and MC(~lintock suggest that a single sample result may be expressed
in terms of a 'mean value and an uncertainty interval based upon stated odds.
The result may be written as follows:
x=x W
(b to 1.)
wXl' wX wx
2'
where
Xl' X2'
W xn-)
x3 ... x n respectively.
uncertainties
in
the
independent
variables
Transducer .Engineering
1.32
1.7.1
eo'
1.,33
Classification of transducers
The transducers may be classified based on
(Ii) Transducer
'I'ransducer converts a specified measurand
transduction principle. For example, a properly cut
called a sensor where a..s it becomes a transducer
and input/output mechanisms attached to it. So.
element of a transducer.
Enorgy
Mechanical
Measurands
Length, area, volume, force, pressure, acceleration, torque,
mass flow, acoustic intensity and so on.
Thermal
--_.. ,-_.. ".__.. . _-_..-..-_..
Electrical .
_-~_._
...............-
__
"._.
__
._-_._----_._-~--_
_-----------_ _--_._-_._-------
..
CD Elastic effect
(g) IIal1 effect
(a) Variation.
of resistance
Magnetic
Chemical
Concentration,
composition,
oxidation/reduction
-------1
potential,'
R= pi
a
where,
.ll -) Resistanco in. ohm.
Transducer Engineering
1.34
I -) length of wire in m.
a ~) Area ofcross-section in m 2
As L is a function, of N, Jl r , A, I,
(i.e) L = I"(N, Jl r , A, I), when anyone of these quantities changes, the
inductance changes. This leads to the design of a variable inductance transducer.
(J=-d--
(J --)
capacitance in farad
Eo ~
absolute permittivity
Er ---)
1.35
Eo
E~A
Er ,
quantities changes, the capacitance varies. This leads to the. design of a variable
ca pacitance transducer.
absolute permeability
~lr~)
relative permeability
Transducer Enqineerlnq
1.36
1.37
one which absorbs energy from the input medium and converts it directly into
the output signal.
Example
A Thermocouple extracts heat energy from the input medium and converts
it into electrical energy (voltage).
Temperature transducers
Pressure transdu.cers
Flow transducers
The energy extracted from ," thestrained member is very small. The energy
for the outputsignal is supplied "by an external power source.
To
m~asure
To measure humidity
Acceleration/vibration transducers
vibration
Transducers may be, classified based on source of energy into two types.
Active transducer
Passive transducer
Selection of Transducers
i/p ,to be .1 passive 1 ~ o/p
measured ,Transducer, .
----+,
,."
J-
strain gauge
To measure pressure
Input to be
~
measured
Measured
-+
olltput
2. Therange of inputquantity,
1.38
Transducer Engineering
SI.No.
4:.
.......,_ ....
-"''-
~--~-~--'-._-
__
__
__
_-----_..._._--_ ...
._-~
..... .
,_
'
5.
.._ -.-..--'
Density of liquids
6.
~'loat
elements.
Manometer system
Diaphragms
Container weight
Thermoresistive elements
(i) Resistance Temperature detector (RTD)
7.
Viscosity
Capillary tube
Concentric cylinder system
(ii) Thermistor
8.
Thermocouple
Linear-Quartz thermometer
Pyrometry
9.
Displacement
1.0.
Absolute
displacement,
velocity
and acceleration
Seismic system
11.'
Vehicle attitude
Bourdon tubes
Membranes
___.._r... _ ..4__>60_U__
Force (weight)
__ _._ _-
8.
...
Hydrometer
Pressure
...
Gyroscope
2..
_.~
Dynamometer
SI.No.
Transducers available
_" . ......... . _.~~~~!~~!. q~~ntit~__
1.
Temperature
Bimetallic element
.~.
...
.. ...._.._.--.....
av;ii;-bl;----..--. .'.'--.'-"-"-
.._~!!~.si~a1.9~~!!ty ---.--___-~Tr;~~d;ce~s
"- --'--_.
....__
..__ _.-..Torque
Torsion bar
- - - - - .- _ __ ,.___...-.__
The correct type of transducer should'be selected for measuring the physical
quantity. The following table (1.7) shows the physical quantity and the
corresponding transducer types available.
~rable
1.39
Spring 'balance
Cantilever
Diaphragms
Pneumatic and hydraulic load cells
Column and proving ring load cells
Gyroscope
'...-....-~
.... _ - . . ................_ _
.~.
_ _....,. __....
__ .._......_.._:..."........__ ,_
..
_._~:.
1.40
Transducer Engineering
1.41
N 1 =826 5 (= 0.605%)
Su:m
N 2 = 628 8
x == _X_l_+_X_2_+_X_3_+_'._._x_n
(= 0.477%)
= 1.1,54 8 ( = 0.55%)
LX
n
N 1 = 826 5 ( = 0.605)
.where,
N 2 = 628 5 ( = 0~477%)
Difference
=~
Arithmetic mean
Readings taken
198 8 ( = 1:.04%)
n
4. List three sources of possible, errors in instruments.
Gross, systematic and random errors are produced in instruments.
5. Define Instr'umenral error. /
Those are the errors inherent in 'measuring instrument because of their
mechanical structure. It is 'usually divided into,
Number, of readings
. "
Average deviation D
= .
i. ltandard deviation.
Probable error has been used in experimental work to Hmo extent in past,
but standard deviation is more convenient in statistical werk,
>
Idl
11. 'I)efine
upits~
(J
n , '
'.
Transducer Engineering
1.42
Characteristics of Transducers
2.1
kilogram and defined as the mass of a cubic decimeter of water at, its
ternporature of maximum density of 40(~.
13. Mention the purposes of the measurement.
UNIT II
Moasurement is used,
Characteristics of Transducers
2.1
INTRODUCTION
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards
Transducer Engineering
2.2
Characteristics. of Transducers
5. Hysteresis
Staticcalibr'ation
2.3
When the sensitivity of instrument to' its desired input .is concerned,
its sensitivity to interfering and/or modifying inputs is also to be
.considered.
The desired input is varied over some range in steps and the output
2.2.2
Static sensitivity
Linear instrument
Output. q,
Output, tlo
o
........
..
. Sensitivity
AQo
........ -r-
0,
Output
At 'off- design
tetllRCtature
angular
rotation
I
1
= Aqi
-----------,
o
o
o
-- ---
Sensitivity
drift
~.::.:=----t
--------------------~----
At nominal design
temperature
Totalerror
due to temperature
Input, qi
(a)
In put pressure
(b)
Transducer Enqineennq
2.4
Fig.
..
S ensitivity
Charactetistics of Transducers
I1Qo
=~
oQi
where,
~Qo
2.5
Linearity
Assume that the input to a transducer 'x' is varied over its full range
and output 'y' is measured.
Let
y = ax+ b
where
a&b
The
The
s=
L
i=I
3. The straight line may be determined by the least squares fit method
mathematically. The input-output relationship of a transducer is
generally given by the equation
as
where
constants
...
.~
1. The straight line connecting the calibration point at zero input to that
at full-scale input.
aa =0= L
tbx,t + ax;~w~
- x v )
i=1
(2.1)
as_ O _
ab - -.
x ~ input quantity
n
~
L.J
i=1
.Y ~ output quantity
calibration factors,
... (2.2)
... (2.6)
2.6
Transducer Engineering
Characteristics of Transducers
2.7
..'{ (2.7)
... (2.8)
2.2.5 Accuracy,
This method of least squares can also be used for determining higher
- order polynomial, for a data set.
whichever is greater.
1. Point accuracy
This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.
The specification of this accuracy does not give any information about
the accuracy at other points on the scale. In ,other words, this accuracy
does not give any information about the general accuracy of the
instrument..
Output
This, means that the accuracy ,of the thermometer when the reading is
500C is O.5 percent,
In such cases, the transducer gives more accurate result only for
readings above 50% of the full-scale value.
'The .best way 'to express the accuracy is to specify it in terms of the
true value of the quantity being measured i.e., within 0.5 percent of
true value.
This: statement means that the errors, are smaller as the readings 'get
smaller.
2.8
Transducer Engineering
2.9
Characteristics of Transducers
. I.n 2ao there are three significant figures while in 230.0 Vi there are
four.
2.2.6 Precision
Hysteresis
2.2.8
In a system, it arises due .to the fact that all the energy put into the
stressed parts when loading is not recoverable upon unloading.
Output
Output
Unloading
(a)
Input
2.10
Transducer EnQineering
2.2.9 Threshold
Characteristics ofTransducers
,2.11
Dead zone
2.2.11
.It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is
no output of the instrument. (see fig. 2.5)
It will only move when the input is such that it produces a driving
In fig (2.4) which shows a gear train, the driven gear will not move
i.e. there will be no noticeable change in the movement of the driven
gear u~less the driving gear moves through a distance x which is the
backlash between the gears.
Measured
quantity
.
j,
100
80
Measured 60
quantity
c ClTOr
J+--ITlIRtnlltnent
40
20'-~~-~--
I
I
Dri
vengear
"Fig. (2.4) threshold because of Backlash
.,
So resolution defines the smallest meas urable input change while the
threshold defines the smallest measurable input.
Fig (2.5) shows the measured quantity and its value as indicated by
an instrument.
to respond after
2.12
Transducer' Engine2fjng
Characteristics of Transducers
'to1,
The instantaneous power extracted by the input device from the signal
source is,
1,
From equations (2.9) & (2.10), it is clear that a low input impedance
device connected across the voltage signal source draws more current
and drains more power from signal source than a high input impedance
device.
- When an ammeter is specified to 'be used between 0 and 100 rnA, its
range is 0 to 100 rnA and its span is 100 rnA (i.e. 100 rnA - 0 rnA =
100 rnA).
Voltage
signal
source
An ideal transducer is one which does not absorb any energy and hence
does not disturb the prevailing state of the measured quantity.
... (2.10)
e?1,
p=e't=1, 1,
z,
The range of the transducer is specified as from the low value of input
to the high value of input.
Z1, = ~
2.13
Input
device
z,
2.2.15
Input admittance
When the signal is of the form of current then series input devices, are
used.
The fig. (2.6) shows a.voltage signalsource and input device connected
across it.
Transducer. Engineering
2.14
.>
Characteristics of Transducers
2.15
Order of a transducer
Constant
current t
source
Input
device
".
d 3 (t)
d 2 (t) d (t)
Y
+3 Y
+ -y-- + 4y (t)
dt 3
dt 2
dt
... (2.11)
si->:
t
e.
t
"i
... (2.12)
r:
ei
1'
Input Impedance, Zi = -;- = ~
y (t)
output
... (2.13)
.2
= iZi
Therefore, the loading effects are small when their input admittance
is- large (i.e, when their input impedance is small).
Te~t
(t)--7
input
Inputs
... (2.14)
where,
Yi
.
"i
P = iei = Yi
2'.3
= x (t)
2. step input
8. ramp input
4. Parabolic input
1. Zero-order transducers
5. Sinusoidal input
2. first-order" transducers'
8. Second-order transducers
'I'he various test inputs are represented in the following table (2.1).
~rable (2.1.):~rest
inputs
2.16
Transduce,r Engin~ering
SI.No.
1.
-Name of the
input
Impulse input
=0 for t
2.
Step input
....
8.
Ramp input
ku(t)
...
x (t)=Kt
K
82
for r z 0
=0 for t~O
V!
Example
x(t)
Parabolic input
5.
x (t) =Kt2
for t ~ 0
= 0 for t~ 0
2.3.1
2K
s3
x(t)
Kw
8
+ 002
~~
x(t)
~-
..
where,
bill cot
Xi -)
where,
f'!
<;
Zero-order transducer
Xi
eo =E.b -L
...
4.
S
x(t)
... (2.16)
= 0 for t < 0
I'
If K=l
x (t) = u (t)
= unit step
Y(s) =K
,X(s) .
3(t)
x(t)=Kfort>O
2.17
Pictorial
representation
= 1 'for t =0
Characteristics of Tran.sducers
...
(2~15)
E b"
K:L volts/em.
,
x (t). ~ input
y (t)
output
Transducer Engineering
2.18
Oharacterlstlce of Transducers
2.19
/
where,
bo
K=-
ao
IL
at
T=-
ao
. ..
= static sensitivity
= time constant
Example
Fig. (2.&1potentiometer (zero-order instrument)
... (2.19)
-----+
------
- - - - - - -- . . . . - ..i--Temperatureoftluid
- ------..... - _------.- - - - -
_~.;=_~_......--Thermocouple
sensor
-...
------
... (2.17)
where,
where,
at,
'b
y(s)
ao
x (8) = [, at
]
-8+1
aO
... (2.18)
= (ts + 1)
Tt
~2 .. .Temperature
of the fluid
\
2.20
Transducer Engineering-
, Characteri'stios<,of' Transducers
2.21
., (2.20)'
where,
and rewritten as
. MS
. 't=QA
K, ,G (8) :;:-,.
,
1 +ts
where',
V'ce: T 1 - T 2
bo -7 S t a"le
't'
K. = ao
of
a]
iti
~t
seOS11Vl"Y .
' . -.
'
Vee T 1
ao
, V,=KT1
where,
.V- Thermocoupleoutput
... (2.23)
In volts,
1,
... (2.21)
,1
Y(s)=--', s 1 +1:8
... (2.22)
So,
... (2.24)
Equation (2.24.) reveals the fact that' y (t) assumes 'a final value of k
slowly with time.
2.22
Transducer Engineering
Characteristics of Transducers
y(t)
Larger r
o
I
,
----:~
Under steady state conditions, the amplitude of output attains the true
value after t seconds only.
Y(s)=--
Ks =1- .. Y()
82
... (2.26)
The first term of the net dynamic error dies with time and hence it
constitutes transient-error, whereas the second term Kt becomes the/
steady state error.
...
T
---+Time
... (2.25)
+ t --r]
Y (t) = K.[e:-tt i
Smaller r
2.23
1 + rs
1. + rs
... (2.27)
Y (t) = K e-tlT.
.t
kI
y(t)
y(t)
y(t)
KA
TFiQite
\
\
\
OL.ll:i::::::..:::..::_..+-
-.
o
o Lo
Fig. 2.12 Ramp of first-order transducer
..
...L-----~=----
,,
T--..o
"
""' .........
.....
--
01..--------;..;;:;..-_ _....
----+ t
.Fig. (2.13) Response of first-order system (a) for a prolonged impulse - input;
.
(b) for an ideal im/I;'ulse input,
Transducer Engineering
2.24
Characteristics of Transducers
2.25
Y (jro) _
(b)
X (jm) - 1 +jlp'tc
'
'
... (2'.28)
G (s) =Y (s)=. . . . 60 .
.
X (8) a~2 + alB + ao
~,
co
frequency response curves relating"'IMI andL! with -(=on) .are
"
con
'K
G (8)'=
2
a2 )+s(.a
00
ao
)+1. -'
... (2.28)
where,
'( b')
K - static sensitivity . =~
1.0
\y.\
becomes~
o.s
2
10
12
(a)
Transducer Engineering
2.26
... (2.29)
To have a quick indication of the measured values, the time taken for
the transduc'er-response to reach the steady - state --:\ralue should be
minimum.
The settling time is the time taken for the output to reach, and stay
within a specified percentage of steady-state. value.
For example, 1Q% settling time means, the time taken for the system
output to reach and stay within 90% to 110% of the steady-state value.
... (2.30)
Y(8)
Xes) =
r $2 2~s
1
1-,"+ ,..-,., + 1 I
Lro~
ron
... (2.31)
2.27
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
.
Y (8)
Kro~
82 +2~ron8 + ro~
=r
K
8
2~8
... (2.32)
.-
yo(t)
1.2
K
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
81-+-,-+1 1
Lro~ ron
J
0.2
0
4
S'
- order
10mnt
------- -.
... (2.33)
... (2.34)
2.28
Transducer Epsineering
,.
R(8)=A
2
Characteristics of Transducers
2.29
... (2.35)
Kro:
y(t)
... (2.36)
y (8) =
s
KA
r
2 :
2 s
.2~s
1
11
1 -+-+
Lro: ron 'J
By partial- fraction,
ron
... (2.37)
... (2.38)
but the steady state time lag and steady error becomes less.
. (. 1 + T
CJlnt )
y (t) = KAt - 2KA
ron [ 1 -e- cont
KA2;
e- 90n
1
y (t) =KAt---1 1- ~8in(mn"l-t.z t+f) I ... (2.39)
ron L 2~ l"'~
J
t
.;. (2.41)
where,
-12;~
... (2.40)
~= t a n , 2
2~ -1
It
.
IS
'.
. '
IS
(J)n
'.
Transducer Engineering
2.30
Characteristics of Transducers
..
2.31
ro
..
Writing ; - = 11, the ratio of the frequency of the forcing function to its
... (2.44)
t
T
x(t)=- for
~t ~
where'
... (2.42)
O~t~T
=1 for T
IS
<I>=tan~l
00
2sn
2
-V1-11
= IMI <I>
dy (t)
.
- - = 0 = Y (t) at t = 0
dt
6
~
y(t)
S
4
IMI3
'----'
'--'
~Response
2
1
(a)
co
Olo
Ol-
con
(4)
-30
Y (jrn)
X (jro)
=----------r
2
1
l- (~ J + 2~:~ +
... (2.43)
-60
.2
-90
120
-ISO
-180
(b)
Fig. 2.18 Frequency response Ch.a.. r.ac.t.. ~. . riStics of. second order system tor
<a) am.plitude (b) phase
.
.
2.32
Transducer
Engine~ring
Characteristics. of Transducers
However, for accurate analysis" the higher order equations can be taken
as it is and solved.
....
=i
0.7f11
1-----I
1
1
If all the frequency components of the input .lie within the bandwidth
of the transducer, then the transducer will-faithfully jreprcduce the
input.
If' the frequency components of,' the input signal are .outside the
bandwidth of the transducer, then-the output will be distorted.
Frequency. response
2.33
The term bandwidth is used to quantify the flat useful region of the
amplitude plot of the frequency response.
Transducer 'Engineering
2.34
naracteristics of Transducers
2.35
... (2.46)
... (2.47)
re~ponse
... (2.48)
t 1_)
T = _(t_"2_--_
. In Y (tl)
y (t 2 )
R (s) = 1
as
Therefore y
(t) = IJ-
K
8
1'UJ1'\2
,TT -
=.n.e
2~
-,-+-s+l
Y (s)
tIT.
... (2.45)
(J)
where
KIt
--yet)
.f
y(~)
--- ---
Yet)
_------------.. . . Time t
t
- -..
~ Time,t
Fig. 2.20 First-order transdocer .response for Impul. . Ilgn.l.
TranSducer Engineering
2.36
... (2.49)
~,ron
Characteristics of Transducers
1
~ron
is the time
e-~Clv 1
.rr::
... (2.53)
2.37
The time instances at which the maximum and minimum values of the
response curve occur can be found out by differentiatingy (t) with
respect to time and equating to zero as shown below.
t~
y(t)
... (2-.51)
t
As\
... (2.54)
:-Tr~n~duc~rE;nginee,ring
2.38
<I>
= tan-
Characteristics
of Transducers
2.39
I -1t~/~
~
.'. )
2 ' (bY de fiinition
"l'" ~
... (2.55)
=
... (2.56)
... (2.61)
)
sin o
Lt
... (2.62)
Y (t)
t~oo
=K(l- 0)
... (2.57)
:. Overshoot,
2n
tp =
(t)lmax=K
1 ri
1- ~
i.e.,
nO)",
2. Classify transducer.
-~O) ~~
~ in equation (2.59)
1- e
1. Define transducer.
ron 1 -
... (2.63)
... (2.58)
ron~
a=Ke-nS/~
Sin(ron~'" ~2 +cj))
1t
(J)n
1-
"J
j..
(2.60)
2.40
Transducer Engineering
Zero-order transducers
First-order -transducers
Second-order transducers
Higher-order transducers.
Sinusoidal input.
where, r (t) is the input, Y (t) is the output, K is the static sensitivity of the
transducer. Example for zero order transducer is potentiometer.
(b) Sensitivity
(d) Drift
Parabolic input
(a) Accuracy
(c) Reproducibility
2.41
,S
-,
Impulse input.
Step input
Ramp input
18.
ne linearity.
'Llltrity is a measure- of the maximumdeviation of-the plotted transducer
response from a specified straight line.
Transducer Engineering
2.42
Characterlsticsof Transducers
2.43
==
8=
2 sec
can
.The span of the transducer is. specified as, the difference between the higher
and lower limits of recommended input values.
19. What is .rise time?
Rise time is defined. as the time .required for the system to rise from 0 to
100 percent of its final value.
t = '1.39 sec
24.
Wh~t
Transducer. Engineering
2.44
ChQraclerlstlcs otTransducers
2.45
Noise factor,
27. (a) At the input, an amplifier has a signal voltage level of 3 J& V and
a noise voltage level of 1 J1 V. What is the signal to noise ratio. a~
the input?
(b) If the voltage gain of the amplifier is 20, what is the SIN ratio
at the output?
(c) If the amplifier adds 5.JI V of noise, what is SIN ratio at the
,output? Calculate also the noise factOr and the noise figure.
(a) SIN at the input is,
= 156
Noise figure,
nf= 10 logF
= 10log 1.56
= 1.93 dB
28. The dead zone in certain pyrometer is 0.125% of span. The
calibration is 400C' to 1900C. What temperature change might
occur before it is detected?
Dead zone
~ ..
=20 + 5 =25.Jl,V
29. A moving coil voltmeter has a. uniform (scale with 100 divisions,
the full scale reading) is 200 V and
25x 10- )
= 5.76
1~
=('. 60 x 10- 6
=(0.125/100) x 600
Id
=10lsea
e IV1S1on
Characteristics of Transducers
"
2.47
2.46
30. A circuit was tuned for resonance by 8 different students and the
value of resonant frequency in ~z was recorded as 532, 548, 543,
535, 546, 531 , 543 and 536. Calculate, (a) Arithmatic mean; (b)
Deviations from mean, (c) Average deviation, (d) Standard
.
(d) ' .. The number of readings is8 < 20, standard deviation
S=~.}:d2
n-l
= 6.54 kHz
(e) Variance,
2
. 2
V = S = 42.77 (kHz)
=
539.25 kHz
Initial temperature,
Time constant,
't=6sec
=5.75 kHz
32. A 6.25 mm 10Dg RTI) with a steady state gain of 0.3925 woe and a
time constant of 5.5 sec expertenees a step change of 75C in
temperature. B.efore the tell\p~r~tu.re change, it has a .stable 100 n
resistance. Write the time. dOlJlai'D equation for resistance and find
its value after 15 sec of .pplicati.oll of step input.
Gain of RTD is 0.3925 woe and a step input 75C is applied to it. This is
equivalent to the application of 0.3925 x 75= 29.44 Q step input in terms
of resistance.
... Change in value of resistance with time
Transducer Engineering
2.48
=
Hence in order to obtain the time domain equation for resistance, the value
of initial resistance must be added to .it,
:. Equation for resistance at any time 't' after the application of step input
is,
R t = 29.44 [1- exp (- t/5.5)] + 100 Q
-3mm
-- 7Q
= 0.429 mmJQ
7Q
=3mm
Characteristics of Transducers
2.49
84. A 10,000 Q, variable resistance has a' linearity of 0.1% and the
movement of contact arm is '320 (a) Determine the maximum
position deviation in degrees and the resistance deviation in ohm.
(b) If this instrument is to be used as a potentiometer with a linear
scale of 0 to 1.6 V, determine the maximum voltage error.
(a) Maximum displacement deviation
=
'0.1 x 10,000
100
= 10Q
=1.6 x 10- 3 V
'=
1.6mV
= .2.33 Q/mm
Transducer Engineering
2.50
2.51
Characteristics of Transducers
Zo = 10 kQ
Temper
ature
'roC
E o=6V
=--~-
1 + 10/20
=4V
fxd
d2
14.288
fxd 2
1.
397
-3.78
-3.78
398
1194
-2.78
-8.34
\ 7.728
23.185
399
12
4788
-1.78
-21.36
3.168
38.020
400
23
9200
-0.78
+ 17.94 0.608
13.993
401
37
14837
+0.22
+8.14
0.048
1.708
402
16
6432
,+ 1.22
+ 19.52
1.488
23.814
1612
+2.22
+8.88
4.,928
19.714
808
+3.22
+6.44
10.368
20.737
810
+4.22
+8.44
17.808
35.618
100
40078
.14.288
403
-----.-.
(4 - 6)
= 6x100
405
Total
Lfix d]
= 102.8
Deviation
d
397
4-04
TXf
Temperature C
Frequency
of
occurrence,
f
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
12
23
37
16
. D=
40078
100
1~:08 = 1.208 C
~1;~.~8
Yl= 0.6745
(J
'
= 400.78C
= 0.6745 x 1.38
= 1.380C
'Lfd 2 = 191.08
)
Transducer Engineering
2.52
.0.93
="100
=
2.53
Characteristics of Transducers
0.093C
1.38
= "100
0.138
=V2~
Deviation, x = 0.15 Q
Standard deviation, o = 0.1
:. Ratio,
x
t=o
=
0.15
0.1
= 1.5
= 50 s
3.1
Unit III
VariableResistance Transducer
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Transducer Engineering
3.2
3.3
Mandrel
(a) Linear(translational) POT
3.2 POTENTIOMETER
Basically a resistance potentiometer consists of a resistive element provided
with a sliding contact. This sliding contact. is called
a wiper. The motion of the
.
sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. A linear pot and a-rotary pot
are shown in figure 3.1 (a) and (b) respectively.
(b) RotaryPOT
The translational resistive elements are straight devices and have a stroke
of 2 mm to 0.5 m., The rotational devices are circular in shape and used for
measurement of angular displacement. They may have a full scale angular
+~
(a) Tranlational
""-
---J_,~+
Helix
Single-tum
(b) Rotational
Multi-turn
(c) Helipot
Xi -
Rp
3.5
3.4
Xt
1,
1,
Under the ideal circumstances, the output voltage varies linearly with
1 -----------
e,
-.J!..
e.
1 -~~-~---- :
...!!.
ei
:
:
e~'
.
I
I
I
.;;: dectasing
0,0
0,0
The change in the value of resistance by straining the gauge may be partly
explained by the normal dimensional behaviour of elastic material. If a strip of
elastic material is subjected to tension, as shown in figure 3.4 or in other words
positively strained, its longitudinal dimension will increase while there will be
a reduction in the lateral dimension. 80 when a gauge is subjected to a positive
strain, its length increases while, its areas of cross-section decreases 'as shown
in Figure 3.4.
--+
= Output
I nput =-=~
x
.Thus under ideal conditions the sensitivity is constant, and the output is
faithfully reproduced and hasalinear relationship with input. The same is true
of rotational motion.
Let 8i
(8'
tensi~e
force
3.6
Transducer Engineering
1 aA (2n/4)D
A
s = (Tt/4) n 2
Let us consider a strain gauge made of circular wire. The wire has the
dimensions: Length = L, area =A, diameter =D before being strained. The
material of the wire has a resistivity p.
Resistance of unstrained gauge R =
3.7
.an
as
2an
~L
(3.4)
as
=D
1 dR 1 aL 2 aD 1 a p
--=----x-+-Rds Las D as pas
Thus when the wire is strained there are changes in its dimensions. Let
L = change 'in length,
~
R = change in resistance
Now;Poisson'sratio
v=
lateral strain
__ a DID
longitudinalstrain - d LIL
:. 1. dR =.! aL + V 2 aL +! ap
(3.1)
(3.6)
aD=_Vx d L
D
L
or
(3.5)
Rds
Las
Las
(3.7)
PdS
~,
1 ap
pas
--=-. ----+--
~R s i.
si. Ap
as: - = - + 2 V - . - + II
L
L
p
we have
(3.8)
{3.2)
The gauge factor is defined. as the ratio of per unit changes in resistance
to per unit change in length.
It is evident from Eqn, (3.2), that the per unit change in resistance is due'
s uru
to:
Gauge factor Gt =
~L/IJ
(3.9)
~L
(or)
here
wi
AR
AL
J1=GfT=Gf x
(3.10)
~L
=strain=T
, A pip
=,1+2V+-E
(3.l1)
3.8
Transducer
=1
2V
En9in~ering
Variable Re.sistanceTransducer
3.9 "
Strain gauges are broadly used for two major types of application and they
11 pip
are:
of force,
torque,
pressure,
flow
and
acceleration
transducers
I1RIR
. I1p/p
Gf = l1L/L = 1 + 2V + l1L/L
Gf = 1 +2V
(3.12)
Eqn 8.12 is valid only when Piezoresistive Effect (i.e) change in resistivity
due to strain is almost negligible.
The Poisson's ratio for all metals is between 0 and 0.5,. This gives a gauge
factor of approximately 2. The common value for Poisson's ratio for wires is 0.3.
This gives a value of 1..6 for wire wound strain gauges.
Flexure
plate
Flexure
I''''''--frame
Fig. 3.5
(b)CircuitConnec~ion
Unbonded type strain gauge for rotationalmotion is. shown in figure 3.6.
3.10
Transducer' Engineering
The angular motion gives to the inner member which is pivoted to the outer
stationary member, increases the tension on' the 'wires and reduces the preload
on the. other two wires. For example, clockwise twist given to the centre beam
increases the tension on wires A and C and reduces the reloaded tension on
wires 13 andD. If' they are connected .in a bridge as shown then the output
voltage available is four times the voltage that would have been obtained due,
to a single wire..This .arrangement is useful for measurement of Torsional Strain
and angular displacement. This type of gauges can be used to measure only very
small displacements of the order of 0.004 cm full scale. Normally these gaugesare u~ed as sensors for force, pressure and acceleration. _In these cases the strain
wires serve as' the necessary spring elements to transduce force to displacement
and this displacement is sensed
as a resistance variation. The range of force
\
and deflection values, are decided by the size, length of wires and the number
of wires used.
3.11
This permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires. The wires
cannot buckle as they are embedded in a matrix of cement and hence f~ithfully
follow both the tensile and compressive strains of the specimen. Since, the
materials and the wire sizes used for bonded wire strain gauges are the same
as used for unbonded wire strain gauges, the gauge factors and resistances for
both are comparable..The most commonly used forms of strain gjiuges are shown
in figure 8.7.
~ ,
The nominal values of resistance for these gauges range from 40.' ,to 2000
ohms, but 120, 350~nd 1000 are common values.
Carrier (base)
Wtregrid
Terminals
1
W1.re grid
r;=
(b) Rosette
Wtre
Terminals
~
Base
Construction
A resistance wire strain gauge. consists of a grid of fine resistance wire of
'about 0.025 mm in diameter or less. The grid is cemented to carrier (base) which
may be a thin sheet of bakelite or a sheet of teflon. The wire is covered on top
with a thin sheet of material so as 'to prevent it from any mechanical damage.
The spreading of wire permits a uniform distribution of stress over the grid.
The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen under study.
(c) Torqueguage
Transducer Engineering
3.12
3.13
In figure 3.8, for example, the three linear grid gauges are designed with
fat end turns. This local increase in area reduces the transverse sensitivity which
is a spurious input since the gauge is designed to measure the strain component
along the length of grid elements.
Adhesives
Ethylcellulose cement, nitrocellulose cement, bakelite cement and epoxy
cement are -some of the commonly used adhesive materials. The temperature
range upto which they can be used is usuallybelowLffi'C.
Leads
The leads should be of such materials which have low and stable resistivity
ana also a 'low resistance temperature coefficient.
The recommended lead wire insulation material of the temperature range
is:
Nylon
Vinyl
65C to 75C
Polyethylene
75C to 95C
Teflon
75C to 2600
For foil type strain gauges, the manufacturing process also easily provides
convenient soldering tabs, which are integral to the sensing grid, on all four
gauges as shown in Figure 3.8.
Construction
This class of strain gauges is only an extension of the bonded metal wire
strain gauges. The bonded' metal wire strain gauges have been completely
superseded by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
Foil type of gauges are employed for both stress analysis as well as for
constructiop. of transducers. Foil type of gauges are mounted on a flexible
insulating carrier film about 0.025 mm thick which is made of polymide, glass
phenolic etc. Typical , gauge resistances are 120, 350 and 1000 Q with the
allowable gauge current of5 to 40 lIlA which is determined by the heat
dissipation capabilities of the gauge. The gauge factors typically range from 2
to 4.
.'
The sensing elements of foil gauges are formed from sheets less than 0.005
mm thick by photo-etching processes, which allow greater flexibility with regard
to s.hape.
3.14
3.15
Transducer Engineering
Gauge factor
Resistance and gauge 'factors of film gauges are identical to those of foil
gauges. Since no organic-cementing materials are used, thin-film gauges exhibit
/
a better time and temperature stability.
Nichrome
2.5
Constantan
2.1
Isoelastic
3.6
Nickel
-12
Platinum
4.8
l1
Semiconductor strain gauges are used/where a very hig gauge factor and
a small -envelope are required. The- resistance- of the semi conductors changes
with change in applied strain. Unlike in the case of metallic gauges where the
change in resistance is mainly due to change in dimensions when strained, the
semi conductor strain gauge depend for their action upon piezo-resistive effect.
Semi conducting materials such as silicon and germanium are used as
resistive materials for semi conductor strain gauges.
A typical strain gauge consists of a strain sensitive crystal material and
leads are_sandwiched ina protective-matrix. The production of 'these gauge
employs conventional semi conductor technology using semi conducting wafer
(or) filaments which-have a thickness of 0.05 mm and bonding them on a suitable
insulating substrates, such as teflon. Gold leads are generally employed for
making the contacts: Some of the typical semi conductor strain gauges are shown
in fig 3.'9. These strain gauges can be fabricated along with integrated circuit
(Ie) operational amplifiers which can act as a pressure sensitive transducers.
Top view
e-
-{---,P
AA - Cross sectionalview
(a) Unbondeduniformly
doped gauge
n
(b) Diffused p-type gauge
Advantages
1. High _gauge factor.
2. Hysteresis, characteristics are. excellent.
3. High fatigue life.
3.16
Transducer Engineering
3.17
Disadvantages
1. Very sensitive. to changes in temperature.
2. Linearity is poor.
/
FABX-50-12SX
2-Elem.ent Rosette
90 Stacked
(foil)
3-ElementRosette
45 Stacked
(foil)
3.3.8 Rosettes
In addition to single element strain gauge, a combination of strain gauge
called "Rosettes" are available in many combinations for specific stress analysis
(or) transducer application.
2-ElementRosette
90 Planar
2-ElementRosette
45 Planar
(foil)
(foil)
3.4 RESISTANCE
THERMOMETERS
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)
OR
RESISTANCE
3.4.1 Introduction
3-ElementRosette
60 Planar
(foil)
3-ElementRosette
450 Stacked
(wire)
Trensducer Enqlneennq
3.18
temperature changes, the change in resistance will be due to changes in both length
and resistivity. Materials used. for resistance thermometers have temperature
coefficient of resistivity much larger than the coefficient of thermal expansion.
.
"
s.ia
Two leads are attached to each side of the platinum wire. When this
instrument is placed in aIiquid or a gas medium whose tem,perature is to be
Resistance thermometers use conductive elements like nickel and copper ortungsten and nickel/iron alloys. The variation of resistance R with temperature
T for most metallic materials can be, represented by an equation of the form
R T = R 0 ( 1 + al T + a2 T 2 + ... an
t":
1.
~7.~
nH
S~VInconeI Sheath
(3.13)
The changes in resistance fordifferent metals are given in the form of graph
in figure 3.11.
. . . ~,I ~
~'::.~::~
....:0;.
~ ,:. ').-=
AluminaPowder
3 I-o---I----t--+--~r:o...-.,....--____t
Ro"
21--+-~~---I----4~---I
1.............--+-----t---+----1
400
measured, the sheath quickly reaches the temperature of the medium. This
changes in temperature causes the platinum wire inside the sheath to heat or
cool, resulting in a proportional change in the wires resistance. This change in
resistance' can be directly 'calibrated to indicate the temperature.
R t = R o {l+ at -"to
(3.14)
-,
R t = Ro (1 + a ~ t)
(3.15)
-_._---
Platinum
,
Max
-260
110
180
f----------
Nickel
Resistance elements are generally long, spring like wires enclosed ina metal
sheath. The construction 'of practical resistance thermometer is shown in figure
Min
Copper
Construction
Temperature Range C
-220
300,
1----,--.
-e,
. Tungsten
-200
1000
Va-riableResistance Transducer
3.21
Transducer Engineering
~----~-------------....-----.
3.20 .
'
~~OY'c1i.tQ-0
.Toget a fairly 'linear relationship. between the output voltage and the
temperature, the valuesof R 1 and R 2 of the above circuits are made atleast 10
times greater than that of the thermometer.
Advantages
R 4 is varied until' balance is' achieved. When better accuracy is required the
Good Reproducibility
Fast in response
Small in size
High Accuracy
'.
Disadvantages
.>,Cost is high
Fig. 3.14
Bridge~
Excitation needed
Introduction
Transducer Engineering
3.22
They are made of manganese, nickel, copper, iron, uranium and cobalt
oxides which were milled, mixed in proper proportions with binders pressed into
the desiredshape and sintered.
Construction
Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium. They are available in
variety of sizes and shapes. The thermistors may be in the 'form of beads, rods
and discs. Some of the commercial forms are shown in figure 3.16.
Glasscoated
Leads
:1
~.ad
:1=Leads.
(b) Probe
(a) Bead
Lead
Glass
Lead
J-<J.~
(c) Disc
(d) Rod
A thermistor in the form of a bead is smaller in size and the bead may
have a diameter of 0.015 mm to 1~25 mm. Beads may be sealed ill: the tips of
solid glass rods to form probes which maybe easier to mount than the beads.
Glass probes have a diameter of about 2.5 mm and a length which varies from
6 mm to 50 mm. Discs are .made by pressing material under high pressure into
cylindrical flat shapes with diameters ranging from 2.5 mm to 25 mm.
3.23
to detect very small changes in temperature which could not be observed with
a R'I'D or a th.ermocouple.
In some cases the resistance of thermistor at room temperature may
decrease as much as 5 percent for each 1C rise in temperature. This high
sensitivity to temperature changes makes thermistors extremely useful for
precision temperatur-e measurements control and compenaation.
Thermistors are widely used in applicationswhich involve measurements
in the range of -60C to 15C. The resistance of thermistors ranges from
0.5 Q to 0.75 M Q.Thertnistor is a highly sensitive device. The price to be paid
. off for the high sensitivity is in terms of .linearity. The thermistor exhibits a
highly non-linear characteristic of resistance versus temperature.
Characteristics of Thermistor
Three important characteristics of thermistor make them extremely useful
in measurement and control applications. These are:
(i) the resistance -' temperature characteristics
(ii) the voltage current .characteristics
Thermistors.
istor"Th't
Thermistor is .a contraction of a term "h
t ermaI resis
.
errms ors are
generally composed of semi-conductor materials. Although positive temperature
co-efficient of' units (which exhibit an increase in the value of resistance with
increase in temperature) are available, most thermistors have /a>negative
coefficient of temperature resistance ie. their resistance decreases with increase
of temperature. The negativefemperature coefficient of resistance can be as
large as several percent per degree 'celsius. This allows the thermistor circuits
where
RT - resistance' at temperature T
R o - resistance at temperature To
3.24,
Transducer Engineering
The value of
when To = 25C
3.25
= 298.K
=- (4000/2982) =- 0.045
(3.17)
R T dT
3.18.
106
4
o8 10
Due to self heating the resistance decreases and the current increases. As
the current is more the heating is also more and hence resistance will decrease.
Some kind of chain action takes place here, This process will continue until the
thermistor reaches the maximum temperature possible for the amount of power
available at which time a. steady state will exist.
Figure .3.19 show typical current time characteristic curves for' a
semiconductor material. The thermal dissipation constant for typical thermistor
ranges from 0.1 m W/oC for' glass covered beads to 7 m W/oC for relatively large
discs.' All are measured in still air. Other 'semiconductor temperature sensors
include carbon resistors, silicon and germanium devices.
~102
~
:E 10
Manganese &
'6
10- 2
Manganese,
10- 4
nickel &
cobalt oxide
10- 4
Platinum
nickeloxide
rn
15 ..... :
':'
~
~
~.
~
::::::
0
- - -T
RT dT
(3.18)
Volts
00
TT~!: . l
10 ..
......
00
~ o.~
..
..
..
..
.
..
....
..
lOrnA
--+
IDA
"Transducer Engineering
3.26
3.27
Disadvantages
SO
Current 40
rnA
30
20
Highly non-linear.
10
..........:+
S 6
Timein seconds
+ 180% at 200C.
Germanium doped with arsenic and gallium is used for cryogenic
temperatures where it exhibits a large decrease in resistance with increase in
temperature.
Applications
2. Vacuum measurement.
i~
...
:~
Compensated copper
.w 6
.1
t--+--+-:.'NM.l.
~-:-~. -I-!
~-I---I-~~:::t=--=*=~I---I----1
S t--t---t-I---".......-..........~t----+----+----t~-t- ......
31---+-~~~.....-..--+----t--t-......
2t--...;p..~---ll--o\t----+----I!---+--I
Advantages
ll--+--
Good stability.
r...-.....&-..--'-----'r....-'"""----a-...........I . - -.........- . .
40
Transducer Engineering
3.28
3.6.1
3.6.2 B.aslcprinclpJe
The two types of anemometers use the same basic principle but in different .
ways.
In the constant current 'mode, the fine resistance wire c~Fying a fixed
current is exposed to theflowvelocity, 'I'he flow'of current through the .wire
generates heat on account of t2 ;R loss. 'This heat is dissipated.from the surface
of the wire by convection to the surroundings. (The loss of heat due to conduction
andradiation is negligible). The wire attains equilibrium temperature when the
heat, generated. due to i 2.R l oss i s:';equ al tothe.heatdissipateddueto convective
loss.
Introduction
Hot wire anemometers are hot wire resistance transducer which are used
for measurement of flow rates of fluids. In hot wire anemometers resistive wire
is used as a basic .sensor, which' is heated initially by passing an electric current.
This heated resistive. wire mounted on a' probe is exposed to air' flow .or wind,
which is cooled because of fanning effect. The amount of cooling depends on the
velocity of air flow.
The resistance of the probe when it is hot is different from that when it is
cooled. This difference in resistance, or' this variation in resistance is converted
into a voltage variation. Broadly hot wire anemometers are commonly used in
two different modes.
s;
where
R w - resistanceofwire;Q,
3.29
Ceramic cement
where
Hotwlre-anememeter probe
A -heat transferarea;m 2,
Bw - temperatureof wire; C,
and
Sf - temperature
of flowing fluid, C,
(3.20)
Transducer Engineering
3.30,
For equilibrium conditions, we can write .the energy balance .for the hot
wire as,
(3.21)
" Now from h is mainly, a function of flow velocity for a given fluid density..
From King's Law, for a range of velocities, this function canbewrittenas,
3.31
(3.22)
where Co and C1 are constants and V is the flow velocity of fluid in mls.
Flow
--+ "-'-.............
- 0 1.......
A standard resistor 118 is connected in series with the hot wire anemometer.
A galvanometer is used to detect the' balance conditions. The current through
the hot wire is determined by measuring voltage drop across the standard
resistor R s with the help of a d.c potentiometer or an Electronic voltmeter (EVM).
R 4 is very large as compared to R 2 so that most of the current flows through
.ll4
SlopeIS
----~
",,""
121
i:
I
K1
:
I
{VI
{V--+
r and {V
3.32
Transducer Engineering
3.33
High resistance
milli-voItmeter
Fig. 3.24' Bridge circuit used for constant current Hot wire anemometer
VI
-+ V
Fig. 3.25 Relationship between out of balance voltage eo and flow velocilV
(calibration curve)
The value of any unknown value of flow velocity can be found from-the
calibration curve corresponding to the out, of balance voltage eo. Suppose while
measuring the velocity ofa fluid, an-out of balance voltage eOl is obtained; the
In. the. constant-current mode of operation, the current through the hot wire
is 'kept at a suitable value. The hot wire anemometer is connected in a bridge
circuit as shown in figure 3.24. The bridge iscalibrated first.
range 'of velocities .for which constant current type anemometer can-be-used -is
necessarily low because of the possibility of .th~ wireburn out when theflow
stops. This means that choice of lower value-of I' for the' upper .limitofvelccity
or a lower value of velocity-for an upper limit with a satisfactory value of I.
The measuring circuit of the constant current anemometer can be used for
the measurement of steady velocities as well as the rapidly fluctuating
components such as the turbulent components superimposed on an average
velocity.
Transducer Engineering
3.34
3.7
Humidity
Humidity is the measure of water vapour present in a gas. It is usually
measured as absolute humidity, relative humidity or dew point temperature.
3.35
Relative Humidity
])g- .saturation
pressure of vapour
Construction
A typical resistive hygrometer.is shown in figure 3.26. It shows a mixture
of lithium chloride and carbon which acts as conducting film. This is 'put' on an
insulating substrate between metal electrodes. A mixture of lithium chloride and ..
carbon exhibi~sa change in resistivity with humidity. This material 'with a
binder may be coated on ~ wire or an electrodes.
Resulting resistance changes over a wide range, e.g. 10 4 to 10 9 Q as the
humidity changes from 100 .to o percent. This makes it impractical to design a
single element to operate from 1 to 100 percent relative humidity.
Instead several clements are used, each in a narrow range,' with provision'
for switching elements. Resistance is measured either with' a whetstonebridge
or by a combination of current and voltage measurements. Most of these must
not be exposed to conditions of 100 percent humidity as the resulting
'Working Principle
The resistance of the element changes when it is exposed to variations in
"humidity. The higher the relative humidity, the more moisture the lithium
chloride will absorb, and the lower will be its resistance.
'I'he resistance of the sensing unit is a measure of the relative humidity,
Resistance should be measured by applying a.c to the whetstone bridge. D.C
voltage is not applied because it tends to breakdown the lithium chloride to its
lithium and chloride atoms. The current flow is a measure of the resistance and
hence of the relative humidity.'
3.37
Transducer Engineering
3.36
1. What is potentiometer?
2. Nickel chromium
3. Nicker copper'
4. Some other precious, resistive element
Resistance in Q
t.
Length of conductor in m
3. Classify potentiometers.
Potentiometers .are classified,
(a) Based on operation
(iii) Helipot
(iv) Non-linear potentiometer.
(b) 'Sensitivity
(c) Operating range
(d) Accuracy
3.38
Transducer Engin.eering
3.39
Y
. oung,s rno d.ulua
us iIS a rati10 '0 f S t ress and strai
strain, dR/R
dl / 1
12. What is resistance thermometer?
Linear approximation
Quadratic approximation
advantages
and
disadvantages
of resistance
temperatures,
(b) Material of the filament wire
(b) They are very accurate which make -them suitable for small
temperature measurenaent.
3.40
Transducer Enqineerinq
(d) Unlike thermocouples, they do not need a reference junction and this
favors them in many aerospace and industrial applications.
Variable HesistanceTransduoar
3.41
'.
(a)
Vacuum measurements.
(b)
Good stability.
23. List the' strain' gauge materials with its. gauge factor.
-
SI.No. Material
Nickel
.; 12.1
Manganin
+0.47
(c)
Nichrome
+2.0
Cd)
Constantan
+2.1
(e)
Soft iron
+4.2
(f)
Platinum
+ 4.8
(g)
Carbon
+20
(h)
Doped-'crystal
100 - 5000
<,
Transducer Engineering
3.42
.
ODID
. "
P Olsson s ratio, r = aLIL
3.43
.
Change in dimension '.
.Strain =0 al d'.
,'.
(dimensionless)
TIgIn , ImenSlon
where,
IIg
Scaling factor
Resistance of gauge material
Gf
9-auge factor
eRelatively small in size, low thermal. capacity and it offers high value
of temperature coefficient.
Transducer .Enginee~ilng
3.44
as possible.
~3. Why is dynamic
Nickel
R/Ro
instruments?
The time constant T cannot he reduced much below 0.001 sec in actual
practice, which would limit the flat frequency response to less than 160 Hz.
This is quite inadequate for turbulence studies since frequencies of 50 kHz
and more are ofinterest. This limitation is overcome by the use of electrical
dynamic compensation network.
34. What is piezoresistive effect?
Ifa metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on
the. fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. There is a
change in the value of resistivityofthe conductor, when it is strained. This
property is called piezo resistive' effect.
35. What is RTD?List, the general requirements of RTD.
I~TI) is also known as resistance thermometer. Resistance of material
changes with temperature changes..This property is used in' temperature
measurement.
Copper "
3
2
Tempemture (OC)
\:
.It hasdiameterofOi If mm
.~~
to 1.25 mm
3.46' .
Transducer Engineering
Lead
3.47
Lead
Thermistor
RTD
SI.No.
. . '
-~--_._-_.+._-~._._----_._---------
-----.-~,_.-
.._ ...._ _.
1!
_ _---".-
---t
(c)
10
10-2
._._.
(d)
10
-100
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~.---.---.,-_-_-,----,------L.---..
Resistive curvetorthermlstor
10
OoC
~ 10
.s
25C
60C
C1)
..
-l--1lt--~.--------..---
10-7
10-6 10-5
10-4 10-3
Current in (rnA)
V-I characteristics
It is classified as,
Transducer Engineering
3.48
= 100Q; e = 20 x 10- 6 ~ R = ?
GP= (tlRIR)
e
~ll=4x 500 x 5 X 10- 6
= 0.01 Q
GP= (tlRIR)
e
~
= 4 x 20 x 10-- 6 x 100
= 8x 10- 3
= 1000 Q; GP =-
=?
GP= (tlRIR)
e
~ R = - 133 x 500 x 10- 6 X 1000
=-
66.5
GP=(tlRIR)
E
Ll R
= ~ 12 x 120 x 0.01
= -144.72 Q
3.49
4.1
UNIT IV
4.1.1
Jl~
.. Inductance, L = N 2 Jl (A / l)
=N2 Jl G
... (4.1)
where Jl - effective permeability of the .medium in and around the coil; HIm.
G = A / l - geometric form factor
A - area' of cross-section of coil: m 2 , and
Transducer Enginee.ring
4.2
4.3
..
LiJ
8
5 fi
=t]
e
~~
~~
t-.::I
~
tIJ
{iv) The effects ofchanges in supply voltage and frequency are reduced.
.The differential arrangement .consists of a coil which is divided into two
parts. In response to a physical signal, which is normally a displacement, the
inductance of one .part increases from I~ to L + Ii L while that of the other part
decreases from L to' L - AL.The change is measured as the difference of the
two resulting in an output of 26. L instead 6. L when only a single winding is
used. The differential arrangements are shown in figure 4.1.
4.1.3 Transducers work.ingon principle of change of Mutual Inductance
NOI~~n<INI
.nas
NOIJ.JfiClNI 'IVlll.!lW
\
~
2i:
f~/-
Transducer Engineering
4.4
M=K~I.llL'2
.ee
(4.2)
where .l.ll and 1~2 -self inductance of t\VO coils andK - coefficient of coupling
Thus mutual inductance between the coils can be varied by variation of
self-inductances or the coefficient of coupling. However, the mutual inductance
can be converted into a self-inductance by connecting the coils in series. The
self-inductance ,of such an arrangement varies between 1+ 1..12 - 2M to
./"'1 + /"'2 + 2M with one of the coils being stationarywhile the other is movable.
The self-inductance of each coil is constant but the mutual inductance changes
dependingupon the displacement of the movable coil.
The different arrangements of measurement of translational and rotary
displacements are shown in figured.L.
In, the differential arrangement, the fixed coil is divided into two parts. The
movement of the movable coil increas~~he mutual inductance of one part by
/j. M and decreases that of the other by ~ ItJ.
4.1.4 Types of Inductive ,Transducers
4.5
frequency. The frequency of supply voltage should not exceed 20 kHz for iron
core transducers to keep the core losses to acceptable values. Hence for accurate
measurements the frequency of the input displacement should not exceed 2kHz.
The advantages of iron cored coil transducers are:
(i) Their size is much smaller-then that air cored transducers on account
4.6
4.3
4.7
Transducer, Engineering
INDUCTION POTENTIOMETERS
Two coils coupled to each other, such that the orientation of one of them
with respect to the other determines the induced emf in one of them, may be
used for measurement of angular .deflections over a range of 90. The two
coils shown in figure' 4.2 constitute an equivalent of a transformer with variable
coupling between primary and secondary. The mutual -inductance M is maximum
when the coils are coaxial, and zero when they are in quadrature. If'O, is the
angle between the coil axes, the mutual inductance and the induced emf in the
secondary coils are given by
... (4.3)
where K =a constant
En! sin w ex
Provision of a closed magnetic circuit with 'iron core yields some of the'
advantages.
Figure 4.2 (a) shows such an arrangement, with the two coils mounted, one
on the stator and oth.er on the rotor. The rotor is usually dumbbell shaped or
of any other suitable shape, which, as far as possible, provides uniform gap over
the e.ntire periphery. The coils may be concentrated or distributed over the
periphery. The concentrated coil system gives an output voltage which is
proportional to 8i over a very small range 'around the null point as seen-from
Eq 4.2 (b), where as provision of distributed windings results ~in the extension
of the linear range to. 90 0 The devices of this kind belong to the class of
induction potentiometers, under the patent names of linvar, indpot, etc. They
are normally designed for 'use at excitation frequencies of 50 Hz 'OF- 41lO :H~,
providing sensitivities of the order of'L volt/degree of rotation. The devices are
available in different sizes ranging from 10 mm to 75 mm in diameter. The need
for provision of a pair of slip rings and brushes to deliver the output signal
'makes the induction potentiometer less popular as compared to microsyn, for
which the range of measurement is limited to 5.
Secondary
winding P
Fonner
Arm
........... ' - - . . . . . _ _ - - - - 1
Displacement
(a)
'----------'
(b)
~ransformer
(L.V.D.T.)
Transducer Engineering
4.8
4.9
with the primary voltage. Therefore, the two differential voltages are 18'0 out
of phase with each other.
A.C excitation'
A.C excitation
re-r
~
Arm
r:J=
Primary
winding
Core
I
Displace:;:q------~_--IIDisplace~q------------I
=1~l I~l
,.
Sl
82
Secondary ..........- - 1 - - - - . 1
windings
E s2 ' In, order to convert the outputs from 8 1 and 8 2 into a single voltage signal,
the two secondaries 8 1 andS 2are connected in series opposition as shown in
fig. 4~.i1: (b).,r!'hustheoutput voltage of the transducer is the difference of the
two v~ltages. Differential output voltage,
<,
... (4.4)
When the core is' at itsnorma,I(NifLL) position, the flux linking with both
the secondary windings is equal and hence' equal emfs are induced in them.
Thus at null position:Es 1 = E s2 . Since the output voltage of the transducer is
the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage Eo is zero at null position.
Now if the core is moved to the .left of the NULL position, move flux links
with winding Sf and less with winding 8 2 . Accordingly output voltage E s1' of
the secondary winding S l' is greater than ~s2' the output voltage. of secondary
.....: . '.', ,_.-~
~ ....
..........,.~.,.<-: - -.
As the core is moved in, one, direction from the null position, the differential
voltage i.e. the difference of the two secondary voltages, . ~ill'i~crease while
maintaining an in..phase relationship with the voltagefromtheinput source. In
the other, direction from the null position, the differential-voltage will also
increase but will be 180 0 out of phase with, the voltage' 'from the source.. By
comparing the magnitude and phase of the output (differential). voltage with
that-of the source, the amount and direction 'of the movement of the core and
hence of displacement may be determined.
"
Transducer Engineering
4.10
4.11
Figure 4.6 shows the core of an LVDT at three different positions. In fig
4.6 (b) the core is at null position, it is symmetrical with respect to both the
secondary windings. This is called the null position. At this position E s1 = E s2
and hence the output voltage Eo =
o.
, fig 4.6 (a) and is at A, E s 1 is greater than E s2 and therefore ~pase angle cj> = o.
When the core is moved to the right towards B shown in fig 4.6 (c) E s2 is greater
than E s1 and hence the output voltage is negative or aphase angle of 180.
The characteristics are linear up to 0 - A and 0 - B but after that they
become non-linear as shown in fig 4.6. Ideally the output voltage at the null
Linear
+=180
range
Primary
winding
Djsplace~J-----r----:--:::--,
Fig~
Figure 4.5 shows the variation of output voltage versus displacement for
various positions of core. The current is practically linear for a limited range of
displacement from the null position, 'Beyond this range of displacement the curve
starts to deviate from a straight line.
Primary
winding
Primary
winding
position should be equal to zero. However, in actua1 practice there exists a small
voltage at the null position. This may be on account of presence of harmonics
in the input supply voltage and also due to harmonics produced in the output
voltage on account of use iron core. Theremaybe either an incomplete magnetic
or electrical unbalance o;both which result in a finite output voltage at the null
position. 'Ibis finite residual 'voltage is generally less than 1%of the maximum
output voltage in the linear range. Other causes of residual voltage are stray
magnetic fields and temperature effects. The residual voltage is shown in fig
4.7. However, with improved technological methods and with the use of better
a.c sources, the residual voltage can be reduced 'to almost a negligible value.
Fig. 4.6 Core of LVDT at different positions
Trans~ucer En~ineering
4.13 .
Primary
AC Excitation
Coil
Pressure, P " - - - - - I I
Secondary
windings
winding
Magneqccore
_ A.C
~----,P~
source
v - output
Core
Advantages
Transducer Engineering
4.14
An increase in pressure
1:J 1
over
]:J2
4.15
moves the short end of the force beam. The force beam pivots,and the long end
moves a magnetic .material in the reluctive detector. 'lbesignal from the
reductive detector is converted from a.c power to d.c power, and sent to an
amplifier. 'I'he amplifier responds by activating an inductive motor that moves
the force beam back towards its original position. Very little flexing ever occurs
in the diaphragm, even over the entire range of the instrument, As a result, the
diaphragm lasts along time.
Disadvantages
.:
(a)
Pressure cell
(d)
4.16
Transducer Engineering
4.17 .
The primary coil of the system shown in fig 4.11 is excited from a relatively
high frequency source as the reluctance variation with the thickness of the
sample will be very small. However, it is possible to measure variations in the
thickness of conducting material sheets. The induced emf of the secondary coil
may be used for direct indication and calibration.
An alternative is shown in fig 4.11 where the test object of magnetic
material forms a ,low reluctance shunt pathforthe magnetic flux across the gap
(J. The induced emfs of the search coil serve as the output 'signals of the
transducer-The primary coil is excited from a constant voltage source of suitable
frequency.
= LQ L r =
permittivity of medium,f/m
Er "
relative permittivity
EO -
where band' 1 are the width and length, respectively of the test piece, and ~r is
the relative permeability of the material.
The thickness of sheets .of'magnetic 'material as well as insulating material
'may ,be obtained by any of the arrangements as shown in figure 4.11. In the
case of insulating material, the 'sheet iskept between the yoke, and a magnetic
material backing of known. ,thickness. The reluctance of the path is al~ost
governed by the thickness of insulating sheet.
Measurement of thickness of test pieces ranging from 25 f.! m to 2.5 mm is
possible by the above methods with an accuracy of 2 - 5%.
4.19
4.18
Fixedmetal
block
Moving tube
,--
Displacement
These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement, force and
pressure in most of the cases. The change in capacitance may be caused by
.change in dielectric constant as in the case in measurement of liquid or gas
+-~
(a)
increases
Decreases
Fixed
plate \
levels.
The capacitance may be measured with bridge circuits. The output
1~
.+--
Capacitance
increases
~.I>ecre8ses
f - frequency of excitation in Hz
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high. This
fact calls for a careful design of the output circuitry.
, The capacitive transducers are commonly used for measurement of linear
displacement. These transducers use. the following effects:
. (i) change in capacitance due
Displacement
where e - capacitance
(b)
de
(ii) change in capacitance due to change in distance between the two plates.
4.8.1
Capacitance
s=-=E
ax
w
-{1m
d
... (4.7)
aC 1
S----
- ,c ax - x
... (4.8)
Transducer Engineerin/9
4.20
... (4.9)
D2
...
4.21
EA
Emax=T=
2
1tEr
... (4.11)
2d
Sensitivity,
... (4.. 10)
s == oC = 2n E
f 1m
ax loge (D21D 1)
Min. -z---+-
--
Min.
e - angular
displacement in -radian
_ OC _ E r 2
S
k
as - 2d
... (4.13)
Max.
change in distance between the two plates. One is a fixed plate and the'
displacement to be measured is applied to other plate which is movable. Since,
the capacitance, (J, varies inversely as the distance x, between the plates the
Fixed plate
M
ovmgp Iate
,/
Max.,
C,)
MID.
Displacement, a
-
Max.
(b)
r------....,;,-.-
I
I
I
I
~u
Max.,
.~~
. I
I
CI)
Movable plate
where
... (4.12)
.
E 8r 2
Capacitance at an.gle 8 is C = - - '.
2d
Capacitance
. - Increases
- + Decreases
(a)
Min. ---t------~....t
o +- Displacement ---,+I
x
Min.,
--, I
Max.
(b)
Fig. 4.16 Capacitive transducer using the principle of change of capacitance with change of
'.'
distance between plates
Transducer Engineering
4.22
response of this transducer is not linear and as shown in figure 4.16 (b). Thus.
this transducGr is useful only for measurement of extremely small displacements.
Capacitive Hygrometer
Capacitive Microphone
Sensitivity
,ac
EA
x
s=-=-2
ax
... (4.14)
From this equation it is clear that the sensitivity of this type of transducer
is not constant but varies over the range of the transducer. Thus, as explained
earlier this transducer exhibits non-linear characteristics.
The relationship between variation of capacitance C with variation of
distance' between plates, x, is hyperbolic and is only approximately linear over
a small range of displacement. The linearity can be closely approximated by use
of a piece of dielectric material like mica having a high dielectric constant. In
this type of transducer, a thin piece of mica thinner than the minimum gap
distance is inserted between the plates.
4~23
c
Tank
.....--Vapours
.Rotor-~~~~
Plates
The electrodes are two concentric cylinders and the non-conducting liquid
acts as the dielectric. At the lower end of the outer cylinder there are holes
which allow' passage of liquid. In case these holes are small, they provide
mechanical damping of the surface variation.
The value of capacitance for the capacitor is
... (4.15)
4.8.3
Liquid
h2
m,
Transducer
4.24
E1 -
Engin~ering
... (4.16)
A
E
4.25
rl -
EO -
Er
E0
is th.epermittivity of 'air
ex
! ..
(4.18)
sc
ex =(X+:rJ+~x
ixedplate
Solid insulation
n------~
Movableplate'
:U=
Fig. 4.19 Simple .capacitiv~ Displacement Transducer
Ax
... (4.19)
' .
>
'I,
.E
L\C
Cx -
L\ X
.... (4.20)
t
X+-'
E. r
Transducer Engineering
4.26
another fixed electrode as shown in figure 4.20 (a). The circuit connection is
shown in figure 4.20 (b), which is a unity ratio arm wheatstone bridge.
~:::cttode
x
C2
.1
~M"ovmgeecm
1 ode
~ .<.conduCtingplate)
..
4.27
Fig. 4.20 (a) and 4.20 (b) Two fixed plate capacitive-transducer and its circuitry
- .... (4.21)
Dielectric block
where
X'-
E -
strain
For large linear displacements, capacitive transducers where the plates are
fixed and the dielectric medium is moved as shown in tigure 4.21 can be used.
f1fJ
Insulation
(a)
Electrode
Fig. 4.22 Electrode of thickness of insJ,llating materials
Two metal electrodes are placedon the' two sides of the insulating material
being tested. This arrangement forms a parallel plate .capacitor, the two
electrodes acting as the two plates with the insulating material acting as the
dielectric. The capacitance naturally depends upon the thi~kness of the
insulating material under the test. Thus by measuring the capacitance 'of this
arrangement,the thickness of the insulating material maybe determined.
L:t~~Et-Electrode
Insulation
(b)
Testpiece
Fig. 4.23 Capacitive .strai:n< transducers _usin:g (a) -plate"separation (b) igap changing .by arching
Transducer Engineering
4.28
The gauge
fact~r (
= f...
c;
4.29
If one pressure is greater~t~~n the other the diaphragm deflects to the low
pressure side, giving an output eo"in~ proportion to the differential pressure. For
the opposite pressure difference. eo exhibits a, 1800 phase change. The high
impedance level re quires a cathode follower amplifier at eo' A direction sensitive
d.c output can be obtained by conventional phase sensitive'dkmodulation and
filtering,
4.8.t~.6
Insulator
Surface of
movingobjec-t....--.-*"'-~~I
High gain
amplifier
(4.22)
Transducer Engineering
4.30
4.31
between the outer metallic layer and aluminium rod undergoes variation because
of the amount of moisture absorbed. When equilibrium is reached with the moist
atmosphere the resistance and capacitance of the capacitance are measured.
Insulation
Porousconducting layer
Wetsample
---.
(a)
/' acsupply
rr
10
C R
(PF) (0)
'I'wo identical capacitors, one holding the test sample and the other the dry
sample, may be used in an ac bridge circuit, and the equivalent loss resistance
as well' as the capacitance may be measured' by balancing the bridge. As the
capacitance value increase with moisture and equivalent shunt resistance falls,
the arm with dry sample may be shunted by a variable capacitor and resistor
as shown in figure 4.26, and their values may be calibrated against the moisture
content. Otherwise, the unbalance voltage may .be directly used, for calibration.
One particular advantage of solids is that no additional means are necessary
for them to compact the test material between the electrodes for good contact
as is the case with resistive moisture transducers.
10 ----+----f--o
50
100
----+ Relative humidity
(b)
Fig. 4,~27 (a) A capacitive hygrometer; (b) characteristic curves showing the effect of
humidity on Rand G
The variation of both components is shown in figure 4.27 (b) and can be
used as a measure of the relative humidity. To some extent, the resistance
variation is linear, but capacitance variation is non-linear.
4.8.3.9 Capacitioe Microphone
the microphone at any instant of time. This is actually the case 'of sufficiently
low sound frequencies but reflection and diffraction effects distort this uniform
field at higher frequencies. The diaphragm is generally a very thin metal
membrane which is stretched by suitable clamping arrangement. Diaphragm
thickness ranges from about 0.0025 to 0.050 mIIl:~ The diaphragm is deflected
Transducer Engineering
4.32
4.33
p.
_Pi
rom
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
3. What is LVDT?
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is the most common
mutual inductance element. This can be considered to be a versatile
transducer element for most of the electromechanical measuring systems
with regards to resolution, hysteresis, dynamic response, temperature
characteristics, linearity and "life.
(D Low hysteresis.
(g)
I..JOW
power consumption.
4.35
Transducer Engineering
4.34
As the moving plates have very little 'mass, design of transd'ucer with
fast response characteristics is possible.
j:
Condenser microphone.
Transducer Engineering
4.36
5.1
Other 1 ransducers
UNIT V
Other Transducers
5.1
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
where,
Height of liquid
Height of cylinder
Thicknes shear
Face shear
Transverse
change
tTo-----'
(a)
I
I
,:
Q(t)
t-oJ
Cr
(b)
~ - - - - - - - - -'
Fig. 5.1 (a)
5.2
Transducer Engineering
Other Transducers
5.1.1
They
Of all the materials that exhibit the effect, none possesses all the
desirable properties, such as stability, high output, insensitivity to
temperature extremes and humidity, and the ability to be formed into
any desired shape'.
Rochelle salt provides the highest output, but requires protection from
moisture in the air and cannot be used above about 45C (115F).
'.
Such devices are known as piezoelectric transistors and are used for
measurement of small pressure .and force.
Conversion' of electrical energy- into mechanical energy is
usingthe same device.
possibl~
by
Piezoelectric phenomenon
temperatures up to 200C.
5.3
For th~ three Siatoms, the .six oxygen atoms are lumped in pairs,
thereby forming a hexagonal crystal.
Under stress-free conditions, all charges are balanced, but when a force
is applied along the x-axis, the balance is' 'disturbed and electrical
charge is developed on the two faces A and B as shown in fig. 5.2(b).
This is known as "longitudinal effect".
Transducer Engineering
5.4
Other Transducers
5.6
Application of shear stress ~ about any of the threeaxes may also yield
charge on the faces perpendicular to the x-axis.
(a)
A-....l---.:.--i-I----
... (5.1)
't
to the crystal.
Fig. 5.2 (a) Arrangement of atoms of a piezoelectric crystal and the crystal axes
(b) Crystal.under longitudinal effect (c)
force along the y-axis also distorts the. arrangement of atoms, and
charges are developed on the two faces A andB, as shown in fig. (5.2(c))
.cc t"
'
"and is referre d .to as "transverse ellec
Due to the symmetry along the optical axis, no effects 'are noticed when
force is applied along the a-axis.
(c)
The characteristic features of the longitudinal effect are that the charge
generated is independent of area of the crystal and its thickness in the
x-direction.
Transducer Engineering,
5.6
5.7
Other Transducers
electric fields.
These materials are known as ferroelectric materials (equivalent to
ferromagnetic materials), and after polarization, their behavior is
similar to the piezoelectric materials.
Three such common substances which are popularly used for
piezoelectric transducers are Barium titanate (BaTi0 3 ), lead
The current gain of the transistor decreases' with increase of force, and
the capacitance between base and collector changes in a similar fashion.
P'iezoetectric, semiconductors
' J
F... :
'p
p
~Nf
+
.. ,
400
Current 0.1
(mA)
-20 -10
Cae
200 '
(PF)
0.1
0.2
Current (mA)
1.0
0......Q
........
4
---+ F(g)
---.
2
4
---+ F(g)
3g
(a)
Transducer Engineering
5.8
of the surface,
5.9
,Other Transducers
Multiple forces can also be applied at more than one point of the
surface, 'and summed by using ,one single 'crystal.
To increase the charge sensitivity, more than one element can be used
to form a, transducer system and such combinations are known as
bimorphs or multimorphs (or piezopile), depending on whether they are
(a>
correspondingly.
Fig. 5.6 (a) Bender type bimorphs (b) Twister type bimorphs
V o = het
... (5.2)
where e ~ strain
Parallel
, Series
(a)
(b)
Transducer Engineering
5.10
Other Transducers
5.11
,If accuracy and stability are of primary interest, metallic alloy resistive
strain gauges are chosen, especially when static strain is monitored
over a long period of time,
Spindle
Bender bimorph
Sound --+
pressure --+
waves
--+t-------=-~.I\.IA'
,are measured
using multimorphs
..
+ Vo
Vo _
Housing
Coolingcavity
1--+--...::
. . -If+,:-~h4---
Piezopile
Thin walledtube
,,~--.-_
Diaphragm
p
Transducer Engineering
5.12
K 1 +K2
where
g33' g31 ~
spring-rate of piezopile
... (5.3)
a -b
)
V o = P, ( g33 ba + b - g31 b
where
Kl
r, = -K-1 -
5.13
Other Transducers
outer radius
~)
inner radius
The
Length
mode
Prestress
force
O'-------lL----i.---..&.:=---
Metallicbody
The outer and inner surfaces' are metallized 'and used as electrodes.
Thetu1>e cavity may be sealed against the external pressure and the
blast pressure
applied to the outer surfaces..
is
(a)
Force
(b)
Other Transducers
5.14
5.15
Transducer Engineering
0.6
0.3
I
I
--+ H(Alm)
-0.3
Nickel
They are rugged -in constructional features and, when used as active
transducers, the output impedance is low.
Nickel-iron
~::_--;
0'=20
-1.6
alloy
the material.
When B; and permeability decrease with increase-in stress, it is known
as "negative magnetostrietion".
I
I
Magnetostriction Phenomenon
~1
~~~"
-.I::.:~;:~ J ~
5.2.1
~~
- 7
-0.6
,,'
III
//:-0.8
Tension
H increasing
<?>mpression
Operating a
o
--+Stress
(a)
(b)
Torsion+
Strong tension
Transducer Engineering
5.16
Other Transducers
5.17
The materials are sensitive to the polarity of stress and hence the
transducers enable measurement of alternating forces.
Application of stress
the material.
-+ MJ,
depending on
s= M
0'
-,
B=Bo
0',
Force
SAN do (I)
cit
Laminations
where A
area of coil
number of turns
... (5.4)
Transducer Engineeri99
5.18
The mass of the core itself serves as proof mass to some extent and
additional mass is provided by a brass cylinder of at least an equal
mass, as shown in fig. 5.15.
5.19
Magnetostrictive torsion transducer consists of a nickel wire of 0.5 1 mm diameter kept stretched between the poles of a permanent
magnet and having a small stylus rigidly attached to it at the midpoint.
The wire is prestressed by twisting it, before being installed into the
position.
,.l
Two pick-up coils of fine wire arc .wound round the wireon eitherside
of the mid-point, as shown in fig. 5.16.
Any displacement of stylus to one side or the other increases the torsion
Diaphragm
on one side and decreases it by an equal amount on the other side. '
mass
Coi1s-~.-....
Laminations
Other Transducers
Nickel wire
-~ ........
Stylus
Permanent tDagnet
5.20
Transducer Engineering
Other Transducers
En= Bbv(volts)
where B
-t
velocity, mls
b-t width, ni
The electrons and .the free charge carriers assume ,a velocityalong the.
length of' the strip, which is proportional to electric field along the
direction of motion.
. The .magnetic field exerts ..a force (known-as Lorentz force) on the
. electrons moving at. a 'velocity .v,with the result that some -of them
drift towards the edges of the strip, .
" The . edge .surfaces act like charged electrodes and the potential
difference measured 'between P.an~l Q is .known as. Hall.potential En
L -t
The build-up of the charge on the edge surfaces will, in turn, develop
an electric field (Hall field) 'of such' a polarity' that ,counteracts the
collection of charges on .the surfaces.
The. force on ,the electrons due-to Hall field and the Lorentz force
balance ..each other finally.
14
Bel)=eEJI b
8.
If e is the charge of electron, then the Lorentz force Bev and the force
due to Hall field are equal to .each other. Hence,
'..
... (5.7)
Transducer. Engineering
5.22
Other .. Transducers
As. the element can respond to quick changes in the field, it is equally
applicable .for 'measurement of amplitudes of vibration of objects and
count the number of fast moving objects across the magnetic' field.
,Hallelements
5.3.1
Film Sensors
The .deposition techniques used are .different for the ,t];rick and thin film
.i
sensors.
.'
5.23
Thick film process had been in use for producing capacitor, resistor
arid conductors-and for sensor development.
---.
---..
Ferromagneticobjeet
(a)
(b)
Step 1
Step'2
Step 3
Step 4
,Fig.' 5.18 (a) Hall effect displacement transducer (b) Hall effect proximity transducer
In all the above applications, the current through the element should
be held constant at about 5 - 20 rnA dc .using constant current sources.
and
5.3 I,CSE,NSPR
Although conventional sensors are commercially still very much in use, over'
the last three decades, the use ofsolidstate sensors also have been increased.
In this category,the semiconductor micro and .nano-sensors, ceramic and
chemical sensors using new materials and technologies .such as Ie technology,
VIJSIchips, arid micromachining techniques are Included.
.F or' ~semiconductormicro:,sen~ors, the
IC ,technology comprismg of
photolithographicetching,deposi~ion,metallization, and assembling is essential
and this is .the basis for thick and thin 'film, chemical and electrochemical, and
biologieal.sensors. IC.;elementsa-renowextensively used in the measurement of
temperature, flow. and magnetic field.
The substrates used. for developing thick film over, them are alumina
(96% or 99.5%)andberylli~(99.5%).
Transducer Engineering
5.24
Pressure.Bensing
pressure
is - possible
by making thick film diaphragms
:'
:
.
or capacitive devices made with alumina (AI203) and Bi2Ru207, or
~-
~.-
can
be
checked
for
concentration
using
films
of
'.
The deposition level is controlled by 'controlling the flow rates of the vapors.
Humidity:
It is sensed by
(i) resistive films made from Ru02 (spinel type) I glass and
(ii) Capacitive films made from glass ceramic I Al203 . On the other hand,
5.25
Other Transducers
Starting from the same basic material, 8n804 , one can produce
8n02 - based sensors for H 2, CO',and NH3.
The other thick film variety is the ceramic metal or 'cemet' which
consists of gold/silver/ruthenium/palladium based complex oxides in an
insulating medium, mainly' glass' (lead borosilicate).
This film sensor processing. differs from thick film technology mainly
in the' film' deposition techniques,
AI electrode
A 'number of techniques are used for thin film deposition such' as:
(a) Thermal evaporation
(i) Resistiveheating
. 'tOss in
Fig.5.19A
PEeve ,proc:essi~gsyst~m'
5.26
Transducer Engineering
Other Transducers
5.27
This is another versatile technique which can be used both for thick
and thin film sensor fabrication.
Ie Technology
Starting with a polished Si, Ge, or, GaAs wafer".on which film
deposited by
IS
(d) .Metallization
Material
Variable
Flow
Humidity
Principle
Thermoanemometry
Capacitance change
Magnetic field
Ni81~'e19'.NiCo, 'C072FegB20
Magnetoresistive effect
Oxygen
ZnO
Variation in electrical
conductivity
Piezoresistive effect
(Diaphragm)
At this ,. stage, the mask patterns are transferred to the film surface by
lithographic process.
Pressure
Polysilicon
Radiation
Au
Bolometry
Strain
CrNi
Piezoresistive effect
'I'emperature
Pt .
Resistance variation
Transducer Engineer'ing
5.28
Other Transducers
"()xid'ation' can be dry (in dry oxygen) or wet (in steam' vapor).
5.29
Etching
It is essential for surface polishing, removing contamination, drawing
pattern, a.nd opening windows in the in-between insulator (Si02, say) and
fabrication,
specifically
three
dimensional
features by
micromachining
techniques.
Substrates used for etching are Si, GaAs, metals and insulators. .Etching is .
Other Transducers
5.31
Transducer Engineering
5.30
5.3.7 Nano-Sensors
Lasers and UV sources have been used when the penetration depths '
are limited to 200 um and 20llm respectively.
(DI~IE).
<a>
(b)
(c)
~'ig. 5.22 (a) shows the microstructure, while Fig. 5.22 (b) shows the
operation mechanism of aGMR.
--+
Current
3
2
'(b)
Operation scheme of aGMR
(d)
1. Antiferromagneticexchange film
2. Ni-!4'e GMR free film
Fig.(5~21l (a)
,,'
Transducer Engineering
5.32
Other Transducers
5.33
2. Absolute encoder
Transducers dealt with so far are analog transducers whose output signals
are in analog form. The ease and versatility provided by digital signal processing
circuits and digital computers necessitates the development of digital
transducers providing digital output'signals directly. As there are only a few
such digital transducers, the analog outputs of analog transducers are converted
into digital signals using analog-to-digital converters. With the increasing
application of digital computers, digital transducers that are compatible with
the' digital nature of the computer are under development. Direct digital
transducers provide output signals in the form of rectangular pulses of constant
duration and amplitude, the presence or absence of which' in its time slot is
taken to stand for either l's orO's. However, transducers are treated as digital
type, if theyprovide pulses whose pulse rate is counted.
These encoders present a digital readout for each angular position and do'
not. require a datum.
.All encoders require a sensing system of either the contacting. type using
brushes, or the, noncontacting optical technique.
~~
,
. .~e encoders shown in figs. (5.23) and (5.24) consist oftwo distinct regions
signifying the two logic level signals, 0 and 1.
The linear encoder of fig. (5.23) for the contacting type has a pattern
ofmetallic areas on a matrix of nonconducting areas.
All the metallic areas get connected together and energized through a
fix~d brush that rests on a continuous track and is in contact for all
positions.
23
15 14 13 12
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
~--,----r-,---,-....,---r--"""':"''''''':'''''''::-'''''':--=-'
, ./':
Stationary brushes
2
Digita~'
5.4.1
Displacement Transducers
.Oneaf the direct digital transducers is the digital encoder for linear
and angular displacements. It is also known as linear or angular digital
encoder (I~DE' or ADE).
;, Such transducers are available in different sizes with differing
resolution and accuracy.
Readoutlamps
20_ _~~..-;lS
21 ---..c:~
2
23
Collector
1. Incremental encoders
These encoders require a counting system which adds increments of pulses
generated by an encoder, a sensing system and some 'datum from which
increments are added or subtracted.
,
, , / 'c'
Transducer Engineering
5.34
The- encoder shown has four tracks, resulting in digital output in four
bits.
The scales and discs shown in figs. (5.23 and 5.24) are encoders
providing digital outputs in four bits.
The angular digital encoder of fig. 5.24 is also known as shaft angle
encoder and is normally meant for a total angular displacement of
360.
Simple arrangements using a pulley ora cable are shown in fig. 5.25.
.-.--..
Rack
5.35
Other Transducers
'.
Pinion
Encoder
disc
Encoder
disc
Cable
Tension
spring
Array of
Photocells
(1))
Arrayof
Photocells
Fig. 5.27 (a) O.ptical 'encoder; (b) Arrangement of light sources and photosensors
Fig. 5.26 Incremental digital encoder
Transducer Engineering
5.36
Other Transducers
200kHz
suppy
5.37
Logic
r. output
I coil
The 'light sources are kepton one side .and the photosensors on the
other side of the encoder as shown in fig. 5.27 (a).
1
Reoil
Instead of having a large number of light sources, a single lamp and a lens
is used as shown in fig. 5.27 (b) to flood the encoder on one side, while the
sensors receive light through a' narrow 'slit .located accurately with respect to
the reference line.
Magnetized,'
portion
Each toroidal core has two coils namely reading coil and interrogate
coil.
The reading coil develops. output 'signal due 'to transformer action only
when the toroidal core is against, the noninagnetised portion.
I
I
I
I
I
r!}
Fig. 5.29 Variable reluctance speed sensor.
Tran~ducerEngineer(ng
5.38
Other Transducers
.When the teeth are against the stator poles the reluctance is less and
I"
I
I
hence eo is more.
(When the slot of the toothed shaft comes against the stator pole, the
reluctance is .high and hence the voltage induced across eo is small.
I
_ I
. Whenever the teeth crosses the' pole a voltage pulse appears across
L.....
eo
'.
speed.
The output of the transducer is a series of pulses, this can be interfaced
with any digital equipment.
Serialb~
(a)
,.....------------Analog.interface
Communication
interface
Sensor/
Serlalbus
(b)
'.
The number of pulses per second is equal to the rotor speed and the
number 'of -teeth in the serrated rotor
. Fig. 5.30 (a> Typical intelligent sensor and actuator and (b) Simplified version of (a>
5~5
,SMART S'ENSORS
5.40
Transducer. Engineering
Intelligent. sensors are also called smart sensors. The initial motivation
behind the development of smart sensors include processing and bus interfacing
for communication.
Other Transducers
5.41
Sensors
ASPV
Converter
Microcontroller
Bus
Prlmarysensors.
-'E~xisting;sensors of
These three systems, namely the supply, amplification, and filters, comprise
the Analog signal processing unit (ASPU). Smart sensor also requires a data
conversion module either from analog to digital (AID) or from-frequency to digital
(F/D) which interfaces with the microprocessors for information.' This supply
may be required to provide different output to different stages of the system.
In the thermocouple form' of sensors, no excitation to/the sensors is needed while
for resistive bridge" an extremely stable supply is, required. In stages of electronic
processing units, ac supply or else pulsed form supply may be required for phase
sensitive detection in the processor 11nit.
5.5.3 Amplification
As the output of the sensors are small, amplification is essential in all smart
sensors. If the gain requirement is very high, noise becomes a problem. However,
stage wise approach with adequate compensation realizes the 'requirement, the
design and layout being critical.
5.5.2 Excitation
Excitation is a ge.neralized term used for supply to the primary sensors and
the processing units.
(a) Compensation for the non-ideal behavior of the sensors and
(h) Provision for communication of the process data with the host system.
.Traditional sensors thatary being used, have varying requirements of
compensation and signal processing objectives.
Thus, for each type of variable a different-kind of processing is' required.
'l'he smart sensor isiintended to sense as weIr' as do the sensing-related
processing within itself. Further, it communicates the response to the host
system sp that the efficiency and .accuracy of information distribution are
enhanced with cost reduction.
5.5.4 Filters
Analog filters are often used as the digital type consume large real time
processing power.r 5.5.5 Converters
Transducer Engineering
5.42
5~43
Other Transducers
m=2n-l
VI
V2
... (5.8)
Vo
~!
IJ
... (5.9)
. 1
f=2RC
... (5.10)
V - (Converter
5.5.6
Ring oscillator realized with MOS technology is one popular V (or signal to frequency converter).
f converter
The resolution,
R n is given by
eLK
Counter
Pulseshaper
5.44
Transducer Engineering
R=l(f
n.frer)I
x
...
Other Transducers
(5~11)
Compensation
1. Non linearity
2. Noise
3. Response time
4. Drift
5.45
3. Response time
Because of the presence of storage and dissipative elements, a sensor is
likely to have quite inferior time response characteristics and the dynamic
correction of sensor becomes necessary.
6. Interference
7. Data .communication
4. Drift
1. NonLinearity
Analog processing shows serious nonlinearity which at. one time, was
solved by piecewise linear segment approach modelled by linear
electronic circuits.
A very common technique in use is to refer the look-up tables while
other are polygon interpolation,polynomial interpolation, and cubic
splines interpolation .techniques of curve .fitting.
Besides, there ate other unwanted signals that may be picked up due
to external magnetic fields (sort of an interference) when the struct-ore
is not adequately screened.
5. Cross sensitivity
Transducer Engineeri~g
5.46
7. Data communication
compensation.
5.47
01her Transducers
Some other protocols that find use are High Level Data Link Control
(HDLC), Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC), Factory
Instrumentation Protocol (FIP).
Some of these signals are released, some stored and some destroyed.
For indication purposes only, the signals are coded and displayed over
appropriate display modules as is done in digital meters, indicators &
recorders.
The fig. 5~35 shows a typical Ie temperature sensor-based smart sensor.
Reference source
sm-a-rt sensor.
Transducer Engineering
5.48
The, basic multiloop connection method is presented in fig. 5.37 -& fig. 5.38
shows the hardware requirements for microprocessor-based field devices."
~~....:t------ ::~~::::::&5
Fig. 5.37 The basic l1lultiloop connection
eLK
Duplexer
Microcomputer
Other Transducers
5.49
Ie Active
'I'he fibre is exposed to the energy source that affects the measurand arid
a consequent change in the optical propagation in the fibre is detected and
related to the measurand.
2. Passive
Temperature measurement
The
measured'~
Transducer Engineering
5.50
The detector will detect the phase difference of the optical outputs from
these two fibres.
From laser
source
Reference
path fibre
Other Transducers
This propagates the radiation from the formed cavity which is being
heated by heat of the process.
The detector system consists of one lens and '. two narrow band filters
of close range middle wavelengths, two photomultiplier tubes in two
measuring channels fed by a beam-splitter .and a mirror.
(a)
Fig. 5.39 Temperature measurement using optical fibres (a) Phase difference method
5.51
ill
are used.
The 'reference path fibre and measuring path fibre are coupled by 3
dB fibre couplers.
Dual channel .
filter-detector
system
3dB- couplers
Detector system
Measuring
path
With an input power of 0.1 IlW, for 1C change there occurs 20% optical .
flux 'change' and the system has a resolution of 1 in 10 8 .
.Other.Transducers
Transducer Engineering
5.52
Optical pulse from a pulsed laser source is sent along a fibre over a
distanceconvering a few kilometres,
~
(a)
Coupler
Fibre
Fibre
Level
Level
(b)
From the pulse delay time, the location can also be identified.
c
5.53
The bottom end of the fibre is shaped like a prism so that-with large
difference in refractive indices of the fibre and the. medium like air,
there is internal .reflection and the light travels to be detected as shown
in fig. 5.43 (a).
When liquid level rises 'to cover the bottom of the fibre; light refracts into
the liquid and the detector fails to show any output, as shown in fig. 5.44 (b).
This single position level detection' has been extended for discrete
multistep detection covering the entire height of the tank.
In this, a step-index multimode fibre is used and the fibre goes down
carrying thelight but in the return upward path.its cladding is exposed
and the fibre is also given a zig-zag rise with small bend radius at
regular intervals in length.
But with liquid rising in the tank, refraction of light into liquid occurs
at each bend /and the intensity detected by the ~'"dete~tbrBe~Om~s less.
This is because the refractive indexo~ air is such, with respect to that
of the fibre, that no refraction can take place.
however, the fibre IS placed in a. liquid mediulll of a different
refractive index, it is possible that light refracts' into the liquid and
total internal -reflection inside the fibre stops, stopping light
1,
Fig.(5.45(a)fs!lows the system and fig. (5.45(b)) depicts the .intensity versus
height plot.
5.54
Transducer Engineering
Other Transducers
'5.55
Level
'La
<a)
...
L.-t
Detector output
(b)
-+
Fig. 5.47 (a) and (b) show how light loss occurs in microbends of a.
fibre.
Lost light
Cladding
. Because of the fibre, mounted across the flow, vortex shedding occurs
in the channel and the fibre vibrates', which in turn, causes phase
modulation' of the optical carrier wave propagating through the fibre.
(a)
Force appUecl
Tension acijust
Fig. 5.46 Fluid flow sensing using. fibre'optics...
Consequently, more light is lost and the receiver detector indicates less
intensity.
measured.'
5.57
Other Transducers
Transducer Engineering
5.56
"1m
_,
,2
. Newton/m":
Magnetostrictive accelerometer.
Hysteresis
Temperature
Eddy current
Input impedance.
'g.
Digitaldisplace~ent transducer
5.58
Transducer Engineering
Optical encoder
Magnetic encoder.
/ /"'/';
'//~59
. Other Transducers
0.7 to 7 mm. They are very useful for measurement of local strain.
f).
f3 is the difforenr
Ul
propagating and radiation modes. I" ..r u... Iuminium coated multimode
with 120 ~. diameter, the optimum MI)Art,,, .u found to be 3 mm. In this
sensor, the convolution spacing dependIn tM p..... ure. The light received
'by the detector varies according tAt lIMt convolution spacing. which is
proportional to the pressure.
5.60
Transducer Engineering
5.61
Other Transducers
are opened at another end and face the. target. These are reflected by the
target and received and sensed through receiving cables. The intensity of
the received light depends or inversely proportional to the displacement of
target (distance).
I~M
34 are some of
tc
sensors.
R = R o (1 + a
T)
Output
g.p.t
= 12
x 10- 3 x 0.5
10 6 x 2 x 10 a
= 12V
31. What is digitiser?
Digital encoding transducer or diIPti"er enables a linear or rotary
displacement to be directly converted into digital form without intermediate
form of analog to digital (AID) conversion.
Other Transducers
5.62
Transducer Engineering
Loading effect.
5.63
Nickel
(v) Hysteresis
-(c) Transducer response