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INTRODUCTION
For pressure measurement below atmosphere or vacuum, different gauges are
available. Manometers and bell gauges can go up to 0.1 Torr. Diaphragm gauges are
usable up to a pressure of 10-3 Torr. For pressure below this value, electrical gauges like
Pirani or Ionization Gauges are used. Vacuum measurement is broadly classified into
Mechanical Type, Thermal Type, Ionization Type, and Radiation Vacuum Gauge.
A standard manometric type mechanical gauge that is used down to 10 -4 Torr is the
McLeod Gauge.
Thermal type vacuum gauge can be further divided into Pirani Gauge and
Thermocouple Type Vacuum Gauge.
Ionization Gauge can be divided into Hot Cathode Type and Cold Cathode Type.
Pressures below 1 torr are best measured by gages which infer the pressure from the measurement of
some other property of the gas, such as thermal conductivity or ionization. The thermocouple gage, in
combination with a hot- or cold-cathode gage (ionization type), is the most widely used method of
vacuum measurement today.
Other gages used to measure vacuum in the range of 1 torr or below are the McLeod gage, the Pirani
gage, and the Knudsen gage. The McLeod gage is used as an absolute standard of vacuum
measurement in the 1010-4 torr (10310-2 Pa) range.
The Knudsen gage is used to measure very low pressures. It measures pressure in terms of the net
rate of transfer of momentum (force) by molecules between two surfaces maintained at different
temperatures (cold and hot plates) and separated by a distance smaller than the mean free path of
the gas molecules.
A McLeod gauge is a scientific instrument used to measure very low pressures, down to 10-4
Torr. It was invented in 1874 by Herbert McLeod. McLeod gauges were once commonly found
attached to equipment that operates under a vacuum, such as a lyophilizer. Today, however, these
gauges have largely been replaced by electronic vacuum gauges.
The design of a McLeod gauge is somewhat similar to a that of a mercury column manometer.
Typically it is filled with mercury. If used incorrectly, this mercury can escape and contaminate
the vacuum system attached to the gauge.
Ionization gauge
Ionization gauges are the most sensitive gauges for very low pressures (also referred to as hard
or high vacuum). They sense pressure indirectly by measuring the electrical ions produced when
the gas is bombarded with electrons. Fewer ions will be produced by lower density gases. The
calibration of an ion gauge is unstable and dependent on the nature of the gases being measured,
which is not always known. They can be calibrated against a McLeod gauge which is much more
stable and independent of gas chemistry.
Thermionic emission generate electrons, which collide with gas atoms and generate positive
ions. The ions are attracted to a suitably biased electrode known as the collector. The current in
the collector is proportional to the rate of ionization, which is a function of the pressure in the
system. Hence, measuring the collector current gives the gas pressure. There are several subtypes of ionization gauge.
Useful range: 10-10 - 10-3 torr
Most ion gauges come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode. A third type that is more
sensitive and expensive known as a spinning rotor gauge exists, but is not discussed here. In the
hot cathode version, an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam. The electrons
travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected
at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the
pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 103 Torr to 1010 Torr. The principle
behind cold cathode version is the same, except that electrons are produced in the discharge of a
high voltage. Cold Cathode gauges are accurate from 102 Torr to 109 Torr. Ionization gauge
calibration is very sensitive to construction geometry, chemical composition of gases being
measured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at
atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be
unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for
accurate measurement.
Mode of operation
A heated metal wire (also called a filament) suspended in a gas will lose heat to the gas as its
molecules collide with the wire and remove heat. If the gas pressure is reduced the number of
molecules present will fall proportionately and the wire will lose low heat more slowly. Measuring
the heat loss is an indirect indication of pressure.
The electrical resistance of a wire varies with its temperature, so the resistance indicates the
temperature of wire. In many systems, the wire is maintained at a constant resistance R by
controlling the current I through the wire. The resistance can be set using a bridge circuit. The
power delivered to the wire is I2R, and the same power is transferred to the gas. [3] The current
required to achieve this balance is therefore a measure of the vacuum.
The gauge may be used for pressures between 0.5 Torr to 104 Torr. The thermal conductivity
and heat capacity of the gas may affect the readout from the meter, and therefore the apparatus
may need calibrating before accurate readings are obtainable. For lower pressure measurement
other instruments such as a Penning gauge are used.