SURVEYING

ASSIGNMENT 1
NAME

: ANURAG ANAND

ID NO

: 2014A2PS562H

INSTRUCTOR : VINAYAKA RAM

INTRODUCTION

Latitude and longitude are angles that uniquely define points on a sphere. Together, the
angles comprise a coordinate scheme that can locate or identify geographic positions on
the surfaces of planets such as the earth.
A latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the equator which is
measured in degrees. There are a total of 180 parallels of latitude and their lengths are not
equal - become smaller towards the poles. An equator is at 00 and divides the earth into
Northern hemisphere, at 900 to the north and Southern hemisphere, at 900 to the south.
The equator lies at 00, the Tropic of Cancer lies 23.50 N and the Tropic of Capricorn lies
23.50 S, while the Arctic circle lies 66.50 N and the
Antarctic circle lies 66.50 S.

The fixed line of reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole is the prime
Meridian and the angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime Meridian is a
Longitude. There are 360 meridians of longitude and each meridian is semi-circle. All

meridians are of equal length, but they are not parallel and neither is the distance between
two meridians equal.
The system of latitude and longitude is an important co-ordinate system that not only helps
us find the exact locations on earth but also solves the confusion of date and time at
different places.

HOW TO MEASURE LATITUDE

It's possible to measure latitude by comparing your position on Earth with the position of
either the sun or the North Star (Polaris). Measurements using the sun are possible on a
clear day in the northern or southern hemispheres, when the sun is easy to find. However,
measurement of latitude isn't as straightforward as you might think. Accurate readings can
only be taken at noon, when the sun is at its highest in the sky. To complicate matters
further, the sun rises higher in summer than in winter, and this must be allowed for in any
calculation.

1. Make a quadrant similar to the one shown here. The aiming beam needs to be
pivoted about its central point so that it can swing up and down. The protractor
should be centred on the pivot, from which the plumb line should be suspended.

Using a compass ,mark out a line on the ground that runs north to south. Make sure
that your quadrant is set up so that its aiming beam is parallel to this north-south
line.

2 Measuring latitude using the sun can only be done at noon, when the sun is at its
highest point in the sky. To determine when it's noon (without a watch or radio)
place a stick at the southernmost end of your north-south line. Use a plumb line
to make sure that the stick is vertical. When the shadow cast by the stick crosses
the north-south line, it's noon.

3 As soon as it's noon, align the sighting nails on the quadrant's aiming beam with
the sun. DO NOT USE THE SIGHT LINE TO LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE
SUN.

Instead, watch the shadows formed by the nails on the ground as you tilt the aiming
beam up and down. At first, the nails will cast two separate shadows, so move the end
of the beam up or down so that these two shadows move closer together.

Two shadows on the ground - beam aimed incorrectly

When the shadows coincide, the beam is aimed exactly at the sun. Using the
protractor , measure the smaller angle between the beam and the plumb line.

One shadow - beam aimed correctly

If the sun is directly over the Equator, this is your latitude reading.

The angle to measure when using the sun or North star .Note that the horizon is always 90
to the plumb line.

4 Unfortunately, this reading is only correct on 21 March and 21 September (the spring
and autumn equinoxes). At midwinter (21 December) you should deduct 23.45 from
your reading, and at midsummer (21 June) add 23.45. This is because of the way in
which the 'tilted' Earth orbits the sun.

Using the North Star to measure latitude

How to locate the North Star :

1. First, locate the Plough (Ursa Major), which is sometimes called the Big Dipper.
2. Look along the back of the 'Plough blade'. About four blade-lengths along is the North
Star. The constellation Cassiopeia is about the same distance from the North Star, but
on the opposite side of it from the Plough.
3. As the North Star is roughly in line with the Earth's axis of rotation, it never changes
position, and measurements can be taken with the quadrant at any time of the night,
whatever the season.
Use the sight line on the top of the aiming beam to align the beam with the North Star.
Use the protractor to measure the angle between the beam and the horizon (which is
90 to the plumb line). This angle is your latitude.

How to measure Longitude

1. Set up a local meridian. You can do this by using the 2-stick method for finding local
noon during the day. This will give you a north-south line (meridian) as a reference point.

2 Set up an occulting stick. This stick should be reasonably tall, but no taller than you
can comfortably work with. It should be aligned with one of the posts of your local
meridian.

The stick is called an occulting stick because it blocks (occults) the light of stars that
appear to pass behind it.

The stick should be tall enough that you can observe a star at least 10 degrees (1 fistbreadth) above the north or south horizon but no more than 30 degrees (3 fist-breadths)
above the horizon. Suggested stars to observe for this experiment include Altair (the
brightest star in Aquila), Antares (the brightest star in Scorpio), Fomalhaut (the brightest
star in PiscisAustrinus), Procyon (the brightest star in Canis Minor), Rigel (the secondbrightest star in Orion), Sirius (the brightest star in Canis Major), and Spica (the brightest
star in Virgo).
The stick should be set up perpendicular to the ground (vertical). You may need to
use a plumb line to verify the sticks position.

3. Set up a sighting tube pointing at the stick. A tube 1 foot (30 cm) long and no more than
2.5 inches (1 cm) in diameter aligned with your meridian will let you focus on a single,
bright star passing behind the stick. Mount the tube on a tripod to steady it.

4. Wait for the star to disappear behind the stick. Record this time in Universal Time to the
nearest second .
5. Wait for the star to reappear from behind the stick. Record this time also in Universal
Time to the nearest second . These two times will help you figure your longitude.

6. Calculate what time the star was directly behind the stick. To do this, subtract the time of
your first observation (when the star went behind the stick) from your second observation
(when it reappeared, divide by 2, and then add this to the time of your first observation.

7. Convert the calculated time (transit time (t)) to degrees. To do this, divide the transit time
by 24 (24 hours in a day) and multiply by 360 (the number of degrees in a circle).
8. Record the date of your observation. complete date: month, day, and year.
Count the number of days from January 1, 2000 to the date of your observation. Youll
want to find first the number of days in the years from 2000 to the year just before your
observation year, then the number of days from January 1 of your observation year to the
month and day of your observation.

To find the number of days in the intervening years: Each year not divisible by 4 has 365
days; each year divisible by 4 (a leap year) has 366 days. You may find it easier to count the
number of years prior to the year of your observation, multiply by 365, and add 1 for each
leap year.

Once you have this figure, simply count the days from January 1 to the month and day.
(Some calendars identify each days ordinal position within the year; you can also find this
information online.)

9. Subtract 1.5 from the number of days. This will give the number of days elapsed from
January 1, 2000 to when you observed the star pass behind the stick
10. Convert the number of days elapsed into the number of centuries elapsed. Divide the
number of days elapsed by 36,525, the number of days in a century. The result will be less
than 1 until January 1, 2100.
Elapsed time (=T).
11. Calculate sidereal time for midnight UTC. Sidereal time is expressed as the difference
between a given point in the sky relative to the point in the sky representing the vernal
(March) equinox. It is normally expressed in hours and minutes, but for the purpose of
finding longitude, we need to express it in degrees.

To calculate sidereal time for midnight Universal Time (represented as 0), the formula is
0 = 100.4606 + (36,000.7701 * T).
If the result is larger than 360, subtract 360 to find the sidereal time in degrees.
12. Calculate your longitude. To find your longitude (represented by ), in addition to
the sidereal time you just found, you need to know the right ascension of the star (a)
and its transit time (t) you found earlier.

The formula for longitude is = 0 - a + (1.0027 * t).

Results will be expressed in degrees west of the Prime Meridian, or West longitude. If you
get a result greater than 180, subtract it from 360 to get your longitude in degrees of East
longitude.
This longitude will not be completely accurate, as it does not take the precession of Earths
axes into account, but it will be accurate enough for casual use.

Applications of latitudes and

longitudes

1 The latitude and longitude lines are used for pin pointing the exact location of any
place onto the globe or earth map. The latitude and longitude lines jointly works as
coordinates on the earth or in the map. The distance between the equator and prime
meridian along with direction indicates the location of any place on globe or map.

Locate the nearest latitude and longitude lines. Note the degrees written on these
lines

Together they also define the climate condition, geographical location, and time zone of
the place. Considering the Greenwich at the midpoint of the state, a global time zone has
been determined e.g. Kolkatas GMT (Greenwitch Mean Time) is +5:30 as the
geographical coordination of Kolkata is 223411N, 882211E. In the geographical

coordinating grid system, the latitude of Kolkata is 223411N while the longitude of
Kolkata is 882211E. This can also be presented into Decimal numbers like 22.3411N
and 88.2211E.

2Latitude has an important bearing on the weather of a place. It has effects on wind
direction, polar auroras and other physical characteristics of places.
Latitude and temperature are related. In general, as latitude increases (that is, as the
numbers used to define a locations latitude get larger), air temperature gets colder. This is
true as we travel either north or south of the Equator. Other factors, such as elevation and
being downwind of large bodies of water, can also have a large effect on a places average
temperature. But latitude is extremely important in determining whether most places are
warm or cold. Latitude is also important in determining temperature over the course of the
seasons each year, since when places at northern latitudes are experiencing summer, those
at southern latitudes are experiencing winter.
The temperature map below illustrates that places closer to the Equator (lower latitudes)
are warmer in general than places farther from the Equator (higher latitudes).

Owing to its use and significance there can be various types of Latitude like:
* Common Latitude
* Reduced Latitude

* Rectifying Latitude
* Conformal Latitude
* Geocentric Latitude
* Astronomical Latitude
The change in longitude has effects on time, it is why when sun is over the head at some
places, there is still dark midnight at the other places. As the Earth spins on its axis by
around 15 degrees per hour. This movement has some bearing on the time zones of the
world. Due to these effect the need for different time zones arose. This study also offers a
beautiful insight into the changing climate on the different parts of the earth.

3 Latitude and longitude lines are also used for navigational purpose. Using the radar, the
control room operator informs the pilot to where to land the aircraft. In the same way, the
ship employees can find the path using the navigational instruments.
Today, navigators in airplanes, on ships, and even cars can locate their positions on a map
by using a global positioning system (GPS) receiver. This device receives signals from a
network of satellites in fixed orbits above the Earth and then calculates its own location by
a process called triangulation. Based on the signals from three satellites, a GPS device can
determine latitude and longitude; with a fourth signal, it can also determine elevation.
Some airplanes can actually fly by wire, navigating solely via GPS satellites for hours at
a time.