Steel Structures

M.Sc. Structural Engineering

SE-505

Plastic Analysis and Design of

Structures

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
The objective is to find out a mechanism (independent or
composite) such that M Mp every where (or at lest at the selected
points answer may only be an upper bound and may not be the
right answer.
1.

Determine the location of all possible hinges and thus the number
of these hinges (H). Hinges may form at concentrated load points,
connections, and points of zero shear in case of members subjected
to UDL.

2.

Determine the total degree of indeterminacy of the structure (I).

3.

The number of independent mechanisms (M) is calculated as

under:
M = H I

Steel Structures
Independent mechanisms include beam mechanism, panel or
sway mechanism, gable mechanism and joint mechanism.

Sketch each mechanism one by one and give convenient virtual

deformation (displacement or rotation) to any point, assuming all
the hinges of this mechanism to be just formed.

Calculate the external and internal works done. External work

done will be by the load multiplied with its corresponding
deformation. Internal work will be done only at the plastic hinges
and calculated as the plastic moment multiplied with the rotation.
External WD =

load virtual displacement

Internal WD = Moment at the hinge virtual hinge rotation

Steel Structures
6.

Using the principle of virtual work, evaluate the collapse load for
the mechanism under consideration.
WE = WI

7.

Solve all the independent mechanisms and then form composite

mechanisms by combining two or more independent and other
composite mechanisms.
The composite mechanisms must be formed in such a way that
plastic hinges are eliminated reducing the internal work done and
hence the collapse load.

8.

Find the lowest collapse load.

9.

Check to see that M Mp at all sections, if possible.

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Example

P
B

C
L/2

E
L/2

Determine the collapse Load.

L/2

L/2

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution:

P
B

C
L/2

E
L/2
L/2

Mech-1

A
= A = B

Mech-2

L/2

L/2

A is the virtual
displacement
given by us other
displacements
are as as a result
of A

I=1

C=2

No. of Possible
Hinges, H = 3
No. of
Independent
Mechanisms, M
=HI=2

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)

L
WE = P
2

WI = 0 + 2 M P + M P
WI = 3 M P
Virtual Work Principle

WI = WE
L
3M P = P
2
6M P
PC =
L

Same for other mechanism - 2

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Example:

P
2m

2m

2MP

P
2m

P
5m

5m

MP
I=2

Mech-1

No. of Possible
Hinges, H = 5

Mech-2

No. of Independent
Mechanisms, M =
HI=3

Mech-3

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Beam Mechanism - 1

WE = P 2 + P = 3P
3

WI = 2M P + 2M P + M P
2
2
WI = 5.5M P

WI = WE
5.5M P = 3P

P = 1.83M P

2
/2
3/2

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
4

Beam Mechanism - 2

WE = P 2 + P 4 = 6P

WI = 2M P + 2M P 3 + M P 2
WI = 10M P
WI = WE
10M P = 6P

P = 1.67 M P

2
3

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
5

Beam Mechanism - 3

WE = P 5 = 5P

WI = M P + M P 2 + 0
WI = 3M P
WI = WE
3M P = 5P

P = 0.6M P

Final answer is the smallest

PC = 0.6M P

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Example:
4.5m

4P

4P

4.5m

6m

6m

6m

14Mp

12Mp

6m

16Mp

I=2

4.5

Mech-1

H=5

Mech-2

M=3

Mech-3

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Beam Mechanism - 1

WE = 4P 4.5 = 18P
WI = 0 + 12M P 2 + 12M P
WI = 36M P
WI = WE
36M P = 18P

P = 2M P

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Beam Mechanism - 2

WE = 4P 6 = 24P
WI = 12M P + 14M P 2 + 14M P
WI = 54M P
WI = WE
54M P = 24P

P = 2.25M P

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Beam Mechanism - 3

WE = 24P
WI = 14M P + 16M P 2 + 0
WI = 46M P
WI = WE
46M P = 24P

P = 1.92M P

PC = 1.92M P

Steel Structures
I for Rigid Frames
Real hinge
I for rigid frame = no. of closed
loops x 3 Releases at the
bottom from fixed end any
real hinge in the super structure

I = (5 5) 3 4 1
I = 70

Steel Structures
Elimination of Hinges in Mechanism Method
Combined mechanisms are obtained in such a way that number of
plastic hinges are reduced.
There are two different ways in in which hinge can be eliminated:

1. If all members of the joint rotate through same

angle in same direction in mechanisms to be
added.
2. When a member rotates by equal amount but in
opposite direction in the mechanisms to be
combined.

Steel Structures
Joint Mechanism
Joint mechanism shows the rotation of a joint w.r.t the
structure.
2M

Hinge will be in
column as its MP
is smaller

MP

Now this joint

can rotate
2MP

4MP
MP

Hinge may not form in

this column although it
is the weakest, as it
cant take moment

Steel Structures
Joint Mechanism (contd)
Location of hinge depends on loading and end conditions of
other members
100kN

Let, MP = 100 kN-m

MA = 100 x 4 = 400 kN-m = 4MP

A
2MP

4MP
MP

4m

Hinge will form in member AB

although its strength is greater
than other members.
Joint mechanism determines location of hinges at joint of more
than two members.

Steel Structures
Joint Mechanism (contd)

CW rotation of joint

CCW rotation of joint

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Example: Calculate the collapse load
Solution:

I=3
H=6
M = 63 = 3
2 Beam mechanism and
1 sway mechanism
Joint mechanism is not
required as no joint is
having more than 2
members.

P
P

2m

P
2m

2m

2MP
4m

MP

MP

4m

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Mec
h
#
1

Type
of
Mech
Beam

Shape of Mech

P 2 +
P

/2

= 3P

1.5

Beam

WE

2
3

P 4 +
P 2
= 6P

WI

PC

MP +
2M P 1.5
+ 0.5M P

1.5M P

= 4.5M P
MP +
2M P 3
+ M P 2
= 9M P

1.5M P

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Mec
h
#

Type
of
Mech

Shape of Mech

Sway

Mech 1
+
Mech 3

WI

PC

4M P

1.0M P

P 4

WE

/2
1.5

3P +
4P =

7P

4.5M P +
4M P M P - M P
= 6.5M P

0.93M P

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech
Mech 2
+
Mech 3

Shape of Mech

WE

WI

6P +
4P =

13M P

10P

= 11M P

M P - M P

PC

1.10M P

Right hinge at the joint cant be eliminated because column and beam are
rotating in opposite directions.

PC = 0.93M P

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Example: Calculate the collapse load
Solution:

I = 23 = 6
H = 12
M = 12 6 = 6
2 Beam mechanism and
2 sway mechanism
2 Joint mechanism
Consider 1 hinge at the
junction of 2-members
and equal to no. of
members at other joints.

1.5P

MP
0.8MP

2P

1.8P

0.8MP

4m

1.7MP

4m

2MP
1.7MP

4m

4m

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech
Beam

Shape of Mech

1.5P 4
= 6P

Beam

WI

PC

0.8M P +

WE

1.8P 4
= 7.2P

M P 2
+ 0.8M P
= 3.6M P

0.6M P

2M P +
2M P 2
+ 2M P
= 8M P

1.11M P

Steel Structures
Mechanism Method of Analysis
Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Shape of Mech

WE

WI

P 4

0.8M P 4

P 4 +
2P 4

1.7M P 4

PC

Sway
of top
story
Sway
of
bottom
story

= 12P

= 6.8M P

0.8M P

0.567M P

Steel Structures

Mechanism Method of Analysis

Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Left
Joint
Mech

Shape of Mech

WE

2M P +
0

Clockwise

Right
Joint
Mech

PC

0.8M P +

WI

1.7M P
= 4.5M P

4.5M P

These joint mechanisms are fictitious & dont occur independently,

will occur in some combination

Steel Structures

Mechanism Method of Analysis

Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Shape of Mech

WI

PC

3.6M P +

WE

1+3

6P + 4P
= 10P

3.2M P
0.8M P -

0.52M P

0.8M P
= 5.2M P

7+4

5.2M P +

10P + 12P 6.8M =

P
= 22P
12M P

0.545M P

We need not to combine mech 1 & 4 as no hinge will be eliminated.

Steel Structures

Mechanism Method of Analysis

Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Shape of Mech

WE

WI

PC

12M P +

8+5

22P + 0
= 22P

4.5M P
2 0.8M P 2 1.7 M P

0.523M P

= 11.5M P

10

9+6

11.5M P +

22P

4.5M P
2 0.8M P 2 1.7M P
= 11M P

0.50M P

Steel Structures

Mechanism Method of Analysis

Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Shape of Mech

11

10 + 2

2
2

WE

7.2P +
22P =
29.2P

PC = 0.50M P

WI

PC

8M P +
11M P
2 2M P
= 15M P

0.514M P

Steel Structures
Gable Mechanism

Gable Mechanism
One hinge forms at crown and two at the beam joints.
Somewhat similar to sway mechanism.
wind ward side column does not move.
The hinge formed at the crown sinks the frame.

If an angle is
known we cannot
determine other
angles by some
simple method.
For this we need
to understand
Instantaneous
Center of Rotation

Gable mechanism is separate/independent mechanism.

Steel Structures
Instantaneous Center of Rotation
That center about which any part structure rotates
C

Gable Mechanism
A

For ED center of rotation is E, for If a point of a segment moves

BC C.O.R is B. for CD we have to perpendicular to line passing
through this point then center of
find out the C.O.R.
rotation lies on this line.

Steel Structures
Instantaneous Center of Rotation (contd)
F

Portion ABC has C.O.R at A

L/2
B

L/2
A

E
L/2

L/2

Portion DE has C.O.R at E

Portion CD
Point C is common with ABC.
AC is perpendicular line to
movement CC.
Point D is common with DE,
center of rotation will lie on
extension of DE.
Point F is ICOR for portion
CD

Steel Structures
Instantaneous Center of Rotation (contd)
F

L/2
2

L/2

L/2

L/2

L/2

Steel Structures
Example:

320kN

320kN
10m

160kN
MP Constant

15m

Calculate MP

15m

15m

10m

15m

Steel Structures
Solution:

2P

2P
L

P
MP Constant

1.5L

Let P = 160 kN
L = 10 m

1.5L

1.5L

1.5L

I = 1, H = 5, M = H I = 4

2 Beam mech, 1 sway mech, 1 Gable mech.

Steel Structures
Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Beam

Shape of Mech

Multiply rotation with Hz. Distance to

WE

2P 1.5L
= 3PL

WI

PC

4M P

4 MP
=
3 L
MP
1.33
L

4M P

4 MP
=
3 L
MP
1.33
L

get vertical component of displacement

Beam

2P 1.5L
= 3PL

Steel Structures
Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech
Sway
or
Panel

Shape of Mech

Gable
Mech

WI

PC

PL

2M P

MP
2
L

M P + + 1.5
2

MP
L

/2

WE

/2

2P 1.5L
2

+ 2P 1.5L
2
= 3PP

Steel Structures
Solution: (contd)
L
=
2 2L

/2
/2

4- Gable Mechanism

L
L

Steel Structures
Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Shape of Mech

1+4

1.5

1.5

1+3

WE

WI

(3 + 3)PL

(4 + 3 - 2)M P

= 6PL

= 5M P

4PL

(4 + 2 - 2)M P
= 4M P

PC

0.833

MP
L

MP
1.0
L

Steel Structures
Solution: (contd)
Mech
#

Type
of
Mech

Shape of Mech

WE

PL

3+(2/3)5

2 MP
PC =
3 L

2
+
3

2
+ 6PL
3
= 5PL

WI

2
(5M P )
3
- M P - M P
2M P +

10
M P
3

3
M P = 160 10
2

M P = 2400kN m

PC

2 MP
3 L

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity

In columns axial force is present simultaneous with

moments.

In beams of frames, smaller axial force in addition

to moment may be present.

Stresses are consumed by axial force hence plastic

moment capacity reduces.

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Fy

P/A
(-)

(-)

(-)
+

Fy

Fy
(-)

(-)

(-)

(+)
Due to axial
compression, P
Due to sagging
moment

(+)

Elastic

(+)

(+)

Fy
Partially
Inelastic

(+)

N.A

Fy
Inelastic

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Fy

Fy

Fy

(-)

(-)
=

yo
yo

(+)

(+)

Fy
(b)

Fy

Contribution of moment. Upper

area is equal to lower area

(-)

(-)
N.A

(c)

Fy

(-)

Fy

(+)
(+)

(d)
Contribution of
Axial force

(e)

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity (contd)
Case-I N.A Is Within The Web
Applicable for smaller values of axial load, P.
From diagram d

P = t w 2y o Fy
P
yo =
2t w Fy
If

d - 2t f
yo
2

Then N.A. is with in Web

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Case-I N.A Is Within The Web (contd)

Dia: (e)

Distance between
FY x Area of
Reduced moment
= diagram on top or x centers of comp. &
capacity, MPC
tension area.
bottom
MPC = FY (Z for total section Z for central portion of 2yo height)

t w (2y o ) 2

M PC = Fy Z x
MP is full plastic
4

moment capacity in
2
= Fy Z x t w y o
the absence of Axial
force
2

= M P - Fy t w y o

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Case-I N.A Is Within The Web (contd)

P2
M PC = M P - Fy t w
2
2
4t w Fy
2
P
= MP 4t w Fy
M PC
P2
= 1MP
4t w Fy (z Fy )
P2
A2
= 1 2
4t w Fy (z Fy ) A

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Case-I N.A Is Within The Web (contd)

P
M PC
A
= 1
MP
4t w z Py
2

(1)

Q Py = A Fy

Py = Max. axial compressive load in the absence of bending moment

& buckling

If P = 0, P/Py = 0 then MPC/MP = 1,

d 2t f
Eq: 1 is applicable when y o
2
OR

P Fy .t w .2y o = Fy .t w (d - 2t f )

MPC = MP

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity (contd)
Case-II N.A Is Within The Flange
Applicable when P is high and M is less.
Fy

Fy

(-)

(-)
=

(+)

(+)

Fy

Fy

yo
yo

(d)

(-)
N.A
(e)

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Case-II N.A Is Within The Flange (contd)

d 2y o
d
= 2y o +
= yo +
2
2
P
A d
Let A be the total area of section

+
yo =
2b f Fy 2b f 2
P = Fy [A b f (d 2y o )]
d A
P
yo =
1
= Fy [A b f d 2y o b f ]
2 2b f Py

1 P
yo =
+ bf d A
If yo = d/2, 1-P/Py=0

2b f Fy
so P/Py = 1

Lever arm in
the diagram

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Case-II N.A Is Within The Flange (contd)

b f d 2 b f (2y o ) 2
M PC = Fy

4
4

P
bf d
d A

1
= Fy
bf

2 2b f
4
P
y

2
A2
Ad
Z
P
P
1 +
1
= Fy
2 Py Z
4b f Py

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Case-II N.A Is Within The Flange (contd)

M PC A d
P
P A
1
1
+
=

MP
2 Z Py 4b f Z Py
2

This eq is valid for:

M PC
MP

d
yo > t f
2

and

P > Fy .t w (d 2t f )

P A
A
=
+
d 1
2Z Py 2b f

P
1
P
y

(2)

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
1.0

Actual Curve, Eq:2

P
Py

P
P 8 M PC
0.2
+
= 1 for
Py
Py 9 M P
Actual Curve, Eq:1

P
= 0.2
Py

M PC
MP

P
M PC
P
< 0.2
+
= 1 for
Py
2Py M P
1.0

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
Actual curve is difficult to use so specifications allow to
approximate the original equations by approximate equations.
For P/Py = 0.2 draw Hz. Line. Where this line cuts the original
curve join that point with 1.0 value point on both axis. Then
equation can be made for the straight lines.
AISC Interaction Equations

Pr 8 M rx M ry
+
+
1.0

Pc 9 M cx M cy

For

Pr
0.2
Pc

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity

Pr M rx M uy
+
+
1.0
2Pc M cx M cy

For

Pr
< 0.2
Pc

Pr

=
=

required factored axial compressive strength (LRFD)

required allowable axial compressive strength (ASD)

Pc

=
=

design axial compressive strength (LRFD) = cPn

allowable axial compressive strength (ASD) = Pn /

Mr

=
=

required factored flexural strength (LRFD)

required allowable flexural strength (ASD)

Steel Structures
Mc

=
=

design flexural strength (LRFD) = bMn

allowable flexural strength (ASD) = Mn /

c
b

=
=

resistance factor for compression = 0.9

resistance factor for flexure = 0.9

c
b

=
=

safety factor for compression = 1.67

safety factor for flexure = 1.67

Mt = Required nominal flexural strength for no axial load

= MPC/b
Suppose

Pu
> 0.2
c Pn

Pu
8 M PC
+
= 1.0
c Pn 9 b M P

Steel Structures
Influence of Axial Force On Plastic Moment
Capacity
After simplification

Pu
M P = M t
+ 0.889

c Pn

For

Pu
0.2
c Pn

Pu
+ 0.889
Z x = Z t

c Pn

Pu
+ 1.00
Z x = Z t 0.5

c Pn

Approximate
interaction
equations to
reduce the
trials

Steel Structures
Design Procedure For Column (beam column)
1. Select section without considering the axial force. Z t =

(M P )req

0.9Fy
2. Calculate cFcr & cPn for the trial section. Also calculate
Pu/ cPn and decide which interaction equation is
applicable.

3. Find out increased value of Z. Because due to axial force

there is reduction in plastic moment capacity so we need to
calculate the reduction.
4. Select section for this plastic section modulus.
5. Apply interaction equations. If L.H.S < 1.01, section is O.K.
If too much less than 1.0 , the section is uneconomical.

Steel Structures
Example:
Design a beam column having required plastic moment of 300
kN-m and an axial force (factored) of 500 kN. A-36 steel is to
be used. Fy = 250 MPa. Effective length, KL = 2.0m
Solution:

Zt =

(M P )req
0.9Fy

W 360 x 79

300 106
=
0.9 250

= 1333 103 mm 3

LP = 2.44m > Lu = 2.0 m

In this way bracing is not required. In
beams we can provide bracing but in case
of column it may be difficult .

From beam selection table

Trial Section W 360 x 79

W 530 x 66

A = 10,100 mm2 rx = 150mm, ry = 48.8mm

LP = 1.60m < Lu = 2.0 m

KLu/rmin = 2000/48.8 = 41 < 200

[Not better as a column]

O.K.

Steel Structures
Solution:

c Fcr = 205.82MPa
205.82 10,100
c Pn =
2079kN
1000
Pu
500
=
= 0.24 > 0.2
c Pn 2079
New value of Z

Pu

Z = Z t
+ 0.889
c Pn

In this equation we can use the original

value of Z.

Steel Structures
Solution:

Z = 1333 103 (0.24 + 0.889)

= 1506103 mm3
Now select the section according to this
new value of Z
W 360 x 91, A = 11,500mm2,
Z = 1671 x 103 mm3, bMP = 376 kN-m
rx = 152 mm, ry = 62.2 mm, Lp = 3.11 m
LP > Lu. Check local stability yourself.

KL u
= 33 c Fcr = 212.38MPa
rmin

Steel Structures
Solution:

212.38 11500
c Pn =
= 2442kN
1000
Pu
500
=
= 0.205 > 0.2
c Pn 2442
Pu
8 M ux
+
= 0.914 < 1.01
c Pn 9 b M nx

Final Selection: W 360 x 91

TYPES OF COLUMNS DEPENDING

ON BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR
Elastic Critical Buckling Stress
The elastic critical buckling stress is defined as
under:
Fe
=
Elastic critical buckling (Euler) stress
=

2E
KL

The critical slenderness ratio dividing the expected

elastic and the inelastic buckling is denoted by Rc
and is given below:

COLUMN STRENGTH FORMULAS

The design compressive strength (c Pn) and the
allowable compressive strength (Pn / c) of
compression members, whose elements do not
exhibit elastic local instability (only compact and
non-compact sections), are given below:
c = 0.90 (LRFD)
c = 0.90 (ASD)

:
:

Pn = Fcr Ag
Pn = Fcr Ag

Fcr = critical or ultimate compressive strength

based on the limit state of flexural buckling
determined as under:

Elastic Buckling
When KL / r > Rc or Fe < 0.44Fy
Fcr = 0.877 Fe

(AISC Formula E3-2)

where Fe is the Eulers buckling stress and 0.877

is a factor to estimate the effect of out-ofstraightness of about 1/1500.

Inelastic Buckling and No Buckling

When KL / r Rc or Fe > 0.44Fy
Fcr =

Fy

0.658 Fe

Fy

(AISC Formula E3-3)

WidthThickness
Ratio

r For A36
Steel

Element

Unstiffened
1. Flanges of I-shaped sections in pure compression,
plates projecting from compression elements, outstanding
legs of pairs of angles in continuous contact, and flanges
of channels in pure compression.

b
t

2. Legs of single angle struts, legs of double angle

struts with separators and other un-stiffened elements
supported along one edge.

b
t

E
0.45
Fy

3. Stems of tees.

d
t

0.75

4. Flanges of built-up I-sections with projecting plates

or angles.

b
t

E
0.56
Fy

0.64

E
Fy
kc E
Fy

15.9

12.8

21.3

18.1 kc

WidthThickness
Ratio

r For A36
Steel

Element

Stiffened
1. Flanges of rectangular hollow sections of uniform
thickness used for uniform compression.
2. Flexure in webs of doubly symmetric I-shaped sections
and channels.

3. Uniform compression in webs of doubly symmetric Ishaped sections and uniform compression in all other
stiffened elements.

b
t

1.40

E
Fy

h
tw

5.70

E
Fy

161.8

b
t

1.49

E
Fy

42.3

39.7

4. Circular hollow sections in axial compression.

D/t

0.11 (E / Fy)

88.6

Beams:
Lp = Limiting laterally unbraced length for full
plastic bending capacity (Mp = ZxFy) in uniform
moment case (Cb = 1.0).
For I-shaped members including hybrid sections and
channels:
Lp = 1.76ry

E
Fy

50 ry (for A-36 Steel)

A section may develop yielding only at some points

in case of inelastic buckling, when the unbraced
length is between the two limiting lengths Lp and Lr,
that is, when,

L p < Lb Lr
where

Lr = limiting laterally unbraced

length for inelastic torsional
buckling, mm.

For doubly symmetric I-shaped members:

Lr

E
= 1.95 rts
0.7 Fy
E
1.95 rts
0.7 Fy

0.7 Fy S x ho
Jc

1 + 1 + 6.76
S x ho
Jc
E

(very conservative estimate)

Mr
elastic
will

= limiting buckling moment dividing

and inelastic buckling for Cb = 1.0, Cb
be defined later
= 0.7Fy Sx/106

2
ts

r
rts

I yCw
Sx

I y ho
2S x

kN-m
for doubly symmetric I-sections

radius of gyration of the compression

flange plus one-sixth of the web for
doubly symmetric I-sections

rts =

bf
1 h tw
121 +
6b t
f f

= 1.0 for a doubly symmetric I-shape

ho

= distance between the flange centroids

= d tf / 2
= warping torsional constant for the
section, mm6

Cw

For symmetrical sections, Cw =

If

I f ho2
2

I y ho2
4

moment of inertia of one flange in

lateral direction, mm4

= torsional constant for the section, mm4

1 3
bt
3

For the above expression, b is the long

dimension and t is the short dimension of any
rectangular element of the section and
summation is for all the elements of that section.
When Lb > Lr
Fcr

Mn = FcrSx Mp

= compression flange critical buckling stress

Fcr

Cb 2 E
Lb

rts

Jc
1 + 0.078
S x ho

Cb 2 E

(Lb / rts )

Lb

rts

p for compact section

1. Unstiffened flanges of I-shaped rolled beams,
channels, tees and built-up doubly and single
symmetric I-sections.

p = 0.38 E / Fy
2.

= 10.8 for A-36 steel

Unstiffened legs of single angles.

p = 0.54 E / Fy = 15.3 for A-36 steel

3.

Stiffened flanges of HSS shapes

p = 1.12 E / Fy = 31.8 for A-36 steel

Web local buckling criterion

Web is locally stable when the following condition
is satisfied:

p
where

h
=
tw

and assumed web depth for stability (h) is

defined as under:
h
=
twice the distance from the neutral
axis to the inside face of the
compression flange less the fillet or
corner radius for rolled sections

twice the distance from the neutral axis

to the nearest line of fasteners at the
compression flange or the inside face of
the compression flange when welds are
used.

p for compact section

For webs of doubly symmetric I-sections and
channels:

p = 3.76 E / Fy = 107 for A-36 steel

For webs of rectangular HSS ( = h / t):

p = 2.42 E / Fy = 68.7 for A-36 steel

FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF BEAMS

For a safe beam, the applied moment (service
moment Ma in ASD and factored moment Mu in
LRFD) must be lesser than or equal to the
design strength of the beam.
Mu bMn
Ma Mn / b

b = 0.90 (LRFD)
= 1.67

(ASD)

where
Mn = nominal flexural strength as
determined by the limit state of yielding, lateral
torsional buckling, or local buckling.

Lm

BF

Lp +

(C M

M p )(Lr L p )

(C M

M p)

C b (M p M r )

Lp +

M p Cb 1

Lp +
BF C b

C b BF

Lr

slope of moment capacity versus

unbraced length for inelastic lateral
torsional buckling.
M p Mr

Lr L p

When

Cb = 1.0,

Lm = Lp

Design moment capacity (Mn) is determined for

various cases of unbraced lengths as follows:
Case I:

Compact Sections, Cb 1.0, Lb Lm

Mn = Mp = Z Fy / 106 (kN m)

Case II:

Compact Sections, Cb 1.0,

Lm < Lb Lr

Lb L p
M (kN m)
Mn = Cb M p ( M p 0.7 Fy S x )
p

L
L

p
r

Mn = Cb [Mp BF(Lb Lp)] Mp (kN m)

Compact Sections, Cb

Case III:
1.0,

Lb > Lr
For doubly symmetric I-shaped and channel
section members:
Mn = CbFcrSx
Cb E
2

where Fcr =

Lb

rts

Jc
1 + 0.078
S x ho

Lb

rts

Mp

The variables rts and others are as defined earlier.

The design shear strength of webs is Vn

with = 0.90 (LRFD) and the allowable
shear strength is Vn / v with v = 1.67
(ASD).
For webs of rolled I-shaped members:
Vn = 0.6FyAwCv
Web Yielding:
For

h
2.24
tw

E / Fyw

(= 63.4 for A36 steel)

Cv = 1.0

Concluded