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English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

ENGLISH FOR
SPECIFIC
PURPOSES
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Results sections in sociology and organic chemistry articles:

A genre analysis
Ian Bruce *
General and Applied Linguistics, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3420, New Zealand

Abstract
This paper reports a genre study of the Results sections of two samples of 20 research-reporting articles from two disciplines: sociology and organic chemistry. Following the proposal of Bhatia (2004) that genre knowledge needs to be investigated from two perspectives, an ethnographic perspective and a textual perspective, the Results sections are analysed in
terms of the social genre/cognitive genre model of Bruce (2008b). The ethnographic dimension of the investigation involves
a semi-structured interview with a sociologist and an organic chemist, revealing signicant dierences between the two disciplines in terms of social genre elements of context, epistemology and writer stance in reporting the Results of research.
The textual investigation involves rater analysis of two samples of 20 Results sections from three nominated journals to
which the two interviewees frequently refer. The texts are analysed in relation to the cognitive genre model, the analysis
revealing consistent dierences in the textual resources employed in each subject, with sociology Results sections mainly
employing the cognitive genre termed Report and organic chemistry Results sections employing the Explanation cognitive
genre.
2009 The American University. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Most of the models proposed for the concept of communicative competence in a language include the component of discourse competence (Canale, 1983; Canale & Swain, 1980; Celce-Murcia & D}
ornyei, 1995; Council
of Europe, 2001) or textual competence (Bachman, 1990). Discourse competence refers to the ability to communicate through extended spoken or written texts that are characterized by an appropriate, integrated
arrangement of content information and language. Developing this idea, Bhatia (2004) proposes that students
wishing to participate in the discourses of a particular academic or professional community need to develop
what he terms a discursive competence, which includes the three subsuming areas of social competence, generic
competence and textual competence.

Tel.: +64 7838 4466x6375; fax: +64 7838 4788.

E-mail address: ibruce@waikato.ac.nz

0889-4906/$34.00 2009 The American University. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.esp.2008.12.005

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I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

[Social competence] incorporates an ability to use language more widely to participate eectively in a
variety of social and institutional contexts to give expression to ones social identity, in the context of
constraining social structures and social processes....
[Generic competence] means the ability to identify, construct, interpret and successfully exploit a specic
repertoire of professional, disciplinary or workplace genres to participate in the daily activities and to
achieve the goals of a specic professional community...
[Textual competence] represents not only an ability to master the linguistic code, but also an ability to
use textual, contextual and pragmatic knowledge to construct and interpret... texts (pp. 144145).
In the teaching of academic writing, genre-based approaches have been seen as a way of uncovering the
knowledge required to assist student writers to develop the discourse (or discursive) competence necessary
to process and create extended texts within a particular academic or professional discourse community. However, a problem with this is that the various approaches to identifying genres (as systematic classiers of written or spoken texts) are not stable. When it comes to dening genres, there is a multiplicity of overlapping
theories along with a range of competing terminologies (see Hyon, 1996; Johns, 2002). For some, the classication of texts in terms of genre is largely a social phenomenon. They see genre as being reected primarily in
the social actions and functionally related sections of whole texts, for example: legal cases, research articles
and dissertations (see, for example, Bhatia, 1993, 2004; Swales, 2004). For others, the classication of texts,
in terms of genre, is a rhetorically motivated, cognitive phenomenon, often described in terms of categories
such as: argument, explanation, recount and description (see, for example, Knapp & Watkins, 2005;
Macken-Horarik, 2002).
For purpose of writing pedagogy, two schools of genre theory have been frequently drawn upon: one is the
approach of genre theorists inuenced by systemic functional linguistics (Eggins, 1994; Hasan, 1989; Martin,
1986, 1992, 1997, 2000; Ventola, 1985); and the other is the Specic Purposes approach (Bhatia, 1993, 1998,
2004; Dudley-Evans, 1986, 1989, 1993, 1994; Johns, 1997, 2001; Swales, 1981, 1988, 1990, 1998, 2004). In their
original forms, both approaches to genre involve identifying a recurrent pattern commonly used to organize
the content of a genre (category of texts), and then relating the stages of this content-organizing pattern to
specic linguistic features. It is interesting, however, to note that a large-scale, computer-mediated corpus
study by Biber (1989) does not support the idea of characterizing genres in terms of linguistic features. His
conclusion was [g]enres are dened and distinguished on the basis of systematic non-linguistic criteria,
and they are valid in those terms (p. 39). On the other hand, in his corpus study, Biber did nd systematic
occurrences of linguistic patterns within more general, non-genre-specic text types, four of which he found
commonly occurred in academic English prose. More recently text types have also been identied by corpus
analysis of the clustering of vocabulary-based discourse patterns (VBDUs), referring to a block of discourse
dened by its reliance on a particular set of words (Biber, Csomay, Jones, & Keck, 2007, p. 156).
Similarly, Brian Paltridges (1993, 1997) research, which employed the approach to genre inuenced by systemic functional linguistics, also challenges claims of deterministic relationships between recurrent contentorganizing patterns and linguistic features. As a result, Paltridge (2002) argues that academic writing courses
need to focus on both genre and text type knowledge. Paltridge illustrates this through the example of the
everyday genre of letters to the editor, which may be realized by dierent text types according to the varying
communicative purposes of writers. The dual approach to levels of genre knowledge is also supported by both
Pilegaard and Frandsen (1996), who propose text genres and text types, and Bhatia (2004), who distinguishes
between rhetorical acts/generic values, (such as description and evaluation) and genre colonies (such as promotional genres) and their particular realizations as genres, such as book blurbs and advertisements (p. 59). To
account for these two areas, Bhatia proposes that genre knowledge needs to be investigated from two perspectives: an ethnographic perspective and a textual perspective (p. 163). Thus, in my own research and work on
developing materials for academic writing courses, I have attempted to account for these two areas of knowledge by proposing a dual approach to genre: that of social genre and cognitive genre (Bruce, 2005, 2008a,
2008b).
Social genre socially recognized constructs according to which whole texts are classied in terms of
their overall social purpose. Purpose here is taken to mean the intention to consciously communicate
a body of knowledge related to a certain context to a certain target audience...

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107

Cognitive genre the overall cognitive orientation and internal organization of a segment of writing that
realizes a single, more general rhetorical purpose to represent one type of information within discourse.
Examples of types of general rhetorical purpose relating to cognitive genres are: to recount sequenced
events, to explain a process, to argue a point of view, each of which will employ a dierent cognitive
genre. (Bruce, 2008b, p. 39)
Social genres and cognitive genres are not mutually exclusive categories, but, in eect, two sides of the same
coin or two complementary approaches to examining the discoursal and textual elements of a genre. The
model as articulated in Bruce (2008a, p. 131) proposes that understanding the nature and operation of a social
genre (such as a category of written texts within an academic or professional setting), involves knowledge
relating to:
 context, which Widdowson (2004) suggests involves specialist knowledge of a eld and its particular language (technical lexis);
 epistemology, described by Lea and Street (1998) as disciplinary assumptions about the nature of knowledge (p. 162);
 writer stance, involving issues of addressivity and audience, such as what Hyland (2005) describes in terms
of the use of metadiscourse; and,
 content schemata the conventionalized, conscious staging of content in texts, such as schematic structure
(Hasan, 1989) or systems of moves and steps (Swales, 1990).
Cognitive genres are complex, organizational categories that are usually drawn upon in combination when
creating whole texts. They are described in terms of a model that draws upon cognitive, rather than social, or
linguistic knowledge. The design of the model is constrained by three important categorization theories from
cognitive science:
 a category is formed in response to purpose or intentionality (see Barsalou, 1983; Murphy & Medin, 1985).
Thus, when writing, certain types of communicative purpose individually activate a prototypical textual
pattern (cognitive genre).
 complex knowledge is hierarchically organized higher level general to lower level specic structures (see
Miller, 1984; Rumelhart & Ortony, 1977). Thus, a text-organizing structure may employ dierent, interconnected systems of knowledge that relate.
 creating and identifying examples of categories is in relation to knowledge and memory of prototypes (see
Rosch, 1975, 1978). Therefore, creating extended written text involves drawing on knowledge of prototypical organizational patterns.
Taking these principles and their implications into account, I have proposed models for four cognitive genres that commonly occur in academic English prose. Table 1 following summarizes the proposed cognitive
genre model and its constituent knowledge types.
The four cognitive genres are based on the four text types that Biber (1989, p. 39) found to occur most
frequently in academic prose. Bibers ndings emerged from an extensive corpus study although his
typology has been critiqued in relation to the types of texts included in the corpus and the opaqueness
of some of his terminologies (Santini, 2005). However, since the four text types relating to academic written prose largely mirror those of the typology of Quinn (1993) based on needs analysis, they are selected
to form the basis for the cognitive genre model. In terms of their structure and internal organization, they
are conceptualized here in terms of topdown, cognitive structure rather than by their linguistic and
stylistic features:
Drawing on the rst principle from categorization theory that categories are formed in response to intention or purpose each category of the model relates to a general rhetorical aim to communicate a certain type
of knowledge this is the rhetorical focus for each of the four types in Table 1. Drawing on the second principle (that complex knowledge is hierarchically organized), they have a topdown, internal structure that
involves:

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Table 1
The cognitive genre model.
Report: static descriptive
Rhetorical focus
Gestalt structure
Discourse pattern
Interpropositional
relations

presentation
Presentation of data that is essentially non-sequential
WHOLE PART structure of which PART has an UP DOWN structure
Preview-details
Amplication; reasonresult, grounds-conclusion; simple contrast, simple comparison, concession-contra
expectation, condition-consequence

Explanation: means-focused presentation

Rhetorical focus
The presentation of information with the orientation on means
Gestalt structure
SOURCE PATH GOAL schema; LINK schema
Discourse pattern
Previewdetails
Interpropositional
Means-purpose, meansresult, amplication, concession-contra expectation
relations
Discussion: choice/outcome-focused presentation
Rhetorical focus
Focus on the organization of data in relation to (possible) outcomes/conclusions/choices
Gestalt structure
CONTAINER schemata (more than one)
Discourse pattern
Generalizationexamples and matching
Interpropositional
Grounds-conclusion, reasonresult, means-purpose, meansresult, concession-contra expectation
relations
Recount: sequential presentation
Rhetorical focus
Presentation of data or information that is essentially sequential or chronological
Gestalt structure
SOURCE PATH GOAL schema
Discourse pattern
Generalparticular, problem solution
Interpropositional
Means-purpose, meansresult, amplication, chronological sequence, grounds-conclusion, reasonresult
relations
(Bruce, 2005, p. 14).

 Gestalts called image schemata (Johnson, 1987). At the upper levels of the model, the rhetorical purpose
will engage a high-order, image schema gestalt pattern (see Johnson, 1987) in order to broadly structure
the content knowledge to be represented within the particular segment of text that realizes the cognitive
genre. This is based on the idea that gestalts provide a basis for upper level categorization in the way proposed by Lako (1987, p. 283) in his spatialization of form hypothesis.
 Discourse patterns (Hoey, 1983, 1994, 2001). While gestalts (image schemata) refer to the organization of
concepts or ideas, in relation to the overall organization of the actual written text, they lead to the engagement of non-genre-specic discourse patterns (e.g. GeneralParticular, ProblemSolution), which have typical patterns of co-occurrence (see Hoey, 1983).
 Interpropositional relations (Crombie, 1985). The rhetorical focus (purpose) also inuences selection from
a specic set of lower-order, more specic, cognitive categories termed interpropositional relations (e.g.
ReasonResult, Chronological Sequence, Condition Consequence), which always have two parts in that
they involve a relation between two propositions.
Interpropositional relations involve making connections that draw upon both semantic and pragmatic
knowledge, and they have a direct eect on linguistic selection relating to cohesion and coherence. Thus,
the social genre/cognitive genre approach to text classication is proposed as a basis for performing genre
analysis that accounts for the socially constructed, rhetorical organizational and linguistic elements of genres
as categories of texts. As an example of the implementation of this integrative approach, this article reports a
study of the part-genre of Results sections (of research-reporting articles) from the two disciplines of sociology
and organic chemistry.
1.1. Previous studies of Results sections
Previous studies that have examined Results sections include those of Brett (1994), who examined the
results sections from 20 sociology research articles and Williams (1999), who analysed eight medical research

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articles. Brett (1994) employed what he calls three communicative categories: metatextual, presentation and
comment:
Metatextual denes parts of the text that refer to the data or to other written sections; it is text
about the text,... guiding the reader to other parts of the writing... Presentation categories are those
which objectively and impersonally report, present, or highlight the results or the ways in which they
were obtained... Comment categories are those in which authors oer their own interpretation of, or
comment and opinion about the results already presented, building up on the Presentation categories
(p. 52).
In the sociology Results sections of his sample, Brett proposes that the occurrence of the three organizational categories is cyclical, the most frequent pattern being pointer (metatextual) followed by statement of
nding (Presentation), and substantiation of the nding (Presentation). He describes each of the three communicative categories in terms of their linguistic features.
Williams (1999) analysed a sample of eight medical research articles using a modied version of Bretts
(1994) model of communicative categories. Williams found Bretts model to be an adequate basic model
for the rhetorical categories of Results sections for interdisciplinary genre analysis (p. 362). However, he
observed that the cyclical patterning identied in Bretts study was less common in biomedical articles (where
the results section tended to be presented in a more linear way). He, therefore, suggests that both type of study
and subject matter inuence text organization, which may be either chronological, hierarchical or climactic.
What this may suggest is that more general rhetorical patterns (operationalized here by cognitive genres)
may be central to the discourse organization of the texts of the sample, something that is the focus of the study
reported here.
In another approach to describing the organizational patterns used in the type of writing that occurs in
Results sections, Swales and Feak (2004, p. 116), in an academic writing textbook, propose that writing, which
they term data commentary, uses a framework that includes: locating elements or summary statements (similar
to Bretts metatextual pointer), highlighting statements and discussions of the ndings, such as implications
problems and exceptions. In relation to the latter category, they cite a corpus study by Thompson (1993),
which categorizes the types of discussion statements found in Results sections.
In examining Results (and Discussions) sections in a sample of 20 Applied Linguistics articles, Yang and
Allison (2003) proposed a six move structure for Results sections of: preparatory information, reporting results,
summarising results, commenting on results, evaluating the study and deductions from the research. They
describe the rst three as dominant moves (p. 373). Signicantly, in their analysis Yang and Allison also
signal the need to acknowledge two levels of textual organization moves and steps: our use of two levels,
Move and Step, serves to distinguish the communicative purposes from the rhetorical techniques realizing the
purposes (p. 376) emphasis added.
As part of a more recent study, Kanoksilapatham (2005) and Kanoksilapathan (2007) describes the Results
sections of a corpus of 60 biochemistry articles in terms of a content-organizing schema of four moves (that
may vary in order and may occur cyclically): restating methodological issues, justifying methodological issues,
announcing results, commenting on results. Each move contains a number of sub-moves or steps. In relation to
each step, an illustrative sentence is presented and described in terms of its content-organizing role, and the
2007 report of the same research provides a detailed corpus analysis of the linguistic features of the move
structure.
Thus, drawing mainly on the ESP approach to genre, previous studies of Results sections have mostly
tended to focus on text-organizing structures, either in terms of more general communicative categories
(and their sequencing) or of a more specic content schema (move/step) structure. These structures are then
linked to particular linguistic features. While there are some similarities in the patterns proposed, there also
appears to be variation between disciplines, but presenting and commenting on results appear to be obligatory stages in most disciplines although they may not always occur in a linear way.
In the study reported here, the Results sections from research articles in two disciplines (sociology and
organic chemistry) are examined in terms of the social genre/cognitive genre model as a way of extending
or broadening the notion of what it is that constitutes knowledge of a genre to include its socially constructed,
general rhetorical and linguistic dimensions.

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2. Methodology
2.1. Social genre analysis
The ethnographic (social genre) dimension of this study involves a semi-structured interview with a sociologist and a chemist (see Appendix A for the interview schedule) as well as the analysis of Results sections from
research-reporting articles 20 from sociology and 20 from chemistry. The articles for the samples were
selected from the three academic journals to which the two interviewees most frequently refer in their respective eld. (The reference lists of the two samples are presented in Appendix B.)
To carry out the interviews, a sociologist and organic chemist were approached and gave their consent to be
interviewed for this study. Both interviewees are research-active, have achieved multiple publications and are
teaching faculty members of two tertiary institutions (a polytechnic and a university). After obtaining the necessary ethical consents and following the question schedule in Appendix A, the subjects were interviewed, in
relation to subject-specic contextual knowledge, epistemology and writer stance. The textual analysis (of
social genre elements) focused on the use of metadiscourse features (Hyland, 2005, p. 49) and whether or
not there were content-organizing schemata in the samples of Results sections from the two disciplines, such
as Swales (1990) move and step structures.
2.2. Cognitive genre analysis
To investigate the textual dimension, the Results sections of the two samples were scanned into plain text
les and analysed in two ways. First, they were rater-analysed by the author in relation to their use of the features of the cognitive genre model. Following a bottomup approach, a copy of each text was marked up with
the cognitive genre elements of interpropositional relations, discourse patterns and gestalt structures. Because
the sets of characteristics of the cognitive genre model are proposed as prototypical discourse patterns, a text
segment that realizes a particular cognitive genre may be highly prototypical (i.e., employ most of the characteristics of a cognitive genre from the model) or more peripheral (i.e., employ some or few of its characteristics). Thus, conformity to the cognitive genre model is by degree. In this study, however, there was no
attempt to grade the degree of prototypicality of segments of texts (in relation to the cognitive genre model).
The rater standard that was used was where a text segment appeared to conform mostly to the features of a
particular cognitive genre category, it was classied in terms of that category. The social genre elements of
metadiscourse devices (relating to author stance) were also marked on each text (see Appendix C, Figs. A1
and A2, for examples of two marked up texts).
Secondly each sample of texts was examined using corpus software, Oxford Wordsmith Tools 4.0 (Scott,
2004). The corpus of sociology results sections consists of 28,268 tokens (running words) and the organic
chemistry corpus consists of 29,663 tokens. A word list was created for each sample of Results sections
and concordance searches were performed on frequently occurring cohesive devices. The purpose of the corpus analysis was to provide objective, linguistic data that can be compared with the rater analysis of cohesion
and coherence in terms of Crombies (1985) interpropositional relations.
3. Results
3.1. The social genre elements of Results sections
In the interviews with the sociologist and the organic chemist, questions (Appendix A) were posed in relation to the social genre elements of context, epistemology, writer stance and schematic structure.
3.1.1. Context
The sociologist interviewed describes her subject as the study of inter-human behaviour, in terms of interrelationships and interactions. On the other hand, the organic chemist said that his subject is concerned with
examining carbon-containing compounds, most of which are involved with life processes. Both informants

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111

reported that their respective elds had widely used, subject-specic vocabulary as well as terminologies specic to sub-branches of their disciplines.
3.1.2. Epistemology
In sociology, the approach to research varies from scientic or positivist through to naturalistic or interpretative. Thus, data from research may be either quantitative or qualitative (or often a combination of the two).
The sociologist reported that her research follows a naturalistic or interpretative approach. She uses ethnomethodology as a research style, and one of the data collection methods that she uses is interview. However,
the same informant said that her earlier training and experiences had been within the positivist tradition.
Research in organic chemistry uses a positivist or scientic approach, where on the basis of present knowledge of chemical compounds and their constituencies, new target compounds are proposed and investigated
following established techniques and procedures. The data tends to be quantitative, but can also involve some
qualitative descriptions of the appearance of compounds, such as their colour and shape.
3.1.3. Writer stance
The sociologist informant proposed that the reporting of research ndings has to acknowledge multiple
views of reality. Not only does the reporting of ndings need to account for the multiplicity of intentions
and views of the human subjects of the research, but also the writer has to anticipate and pre-empt multiple
critiques or interpretations of their ndings by readers. The style of sociology writing may range from personal
to impersonal.
In the reporting of ndings from organic chemistry research, the informant suggested that key values are
the need for preciseness of detail as well as conciseness. As part of this precision of specication, the writer
often provides familiar landmarks in terms of named processes and named analytical techniques.
Also, in relation to writer stance the two samples of texts were examined for their use of metadiscourse
devices (as summarized by Hyland, 2005, p. 49).
 In the sample of sociology texts, all 20 used endophoric references (references to tables, gures and other
parts of the text). Ten of the 20 texts were reported in the rst person. Twelve of the 20 used evidentials
(quoted other writers to support assertions) and 14 used hedges (usually modal) structures to weaken
(or make more cautious) claims or statements.
 In the organic chemistry texts, all 20 texts used endophoric reference (to tables, gures), 13 used self-mention (usually the rst person plural) and eight used evidentials (usually referring to named chemical
processes).
From the interviews and from the textual analysis of the two samples, the principal dierence in stance that
emerged was the need in sociology to present ndings in ways that allow for multiple meanings and views,
which contrasts with the need for precise specication of detail in reporting research results in organic chemistry. This dierence was evident in the use of metadiscourse in the two samples with the extensive use of hedging (cautious language) in 14 of the sociology texts, while hedging was largely absent from the chemistry texts.
Examples of hedging from sociology are:
It seems likely that her anger at him then provoked his feeling angry in Time 2. This suggests a
pattern...[emphasis added] (Sociology Text 1);
These results suggest that the positive eect of non-resident children is a least partially explained by
visitation (Sociology Text 5).
The need for precise writer specication in organic chemistry results appeared to lead to the frequent use of
nominalised structures and quantication. For example:
Dibromocyclopropanation of vinylferrocene proceeded without any diculties, and 1,1-dibromo2ferrocenylcylopropane (3) was isolated in high yield (7080%) (Chemistry Text 10).

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3.1.4. Schematic structure

In examining the Results section texts from both sociology and organic chemistry, no clear conventionalized patterns of content organization emerged. In the sociology texts, the ndings in eleven of the articles organized around specic research questions (or sub-headings related to research questions), while in nine the
ndings were combined in a more unied way. In the sample of organic chemistry texts, 10 were organized
around research questions (or related sub-headings) and 10 were more unied texts. Of the nine unied texts
in the sociology sample, seven focussed solely on presenting ndings, while two followed the presentation with
some comment on the ndings. In one case the shift (from presentation to comment) was signalled by: It
could be suggested that this greater involvement may have come about through... (Sociology, Text 8); in
the other text this shift was signalled by As noted above, dierences in household structure could inuence.... (Sociology, Text 11). With the 10, more unied organic chemistry texts, the content focus was diverse:
ve texts provided an explanatory presentation of the ndings, three texts provided an explanatory presentation followed by some comment on the ndings and two texts focused on a discussion of the ndings. Since no
clear content schemata emerged from the analysis, it is proposed that it is more salient to consider the Results
sections of the two samples in terms of the types of rhetorical purpose and related textual resources (cognitive
genres) that are employed. This is the focus of the next section of the analysis.
3.2. The cognitive genre elements of Results sections
3.2.1. Sociology Results sections
Rater analysis of the sociology Results sections in relation to the cognitive genre model found that they
employed a range of textual resources (Table 2 following), but they mostly used the cognitive genre termed
Report, often recursively several small, adjacent reports. In some cases the recursion is signalled by subheadings or separate research questions used as sub-headings. In other cases, there are rhetorical shifts within
the text from one cognitive genre to another. For example, in Text 11 of the sociology sample, the cognitive
genre pattern is Report, Discussion and Report. The rst Report presents data comparing household unemployment rates in three countries. A Discussion follows considering three possible reasons for the dierences
between the three countries including evidence for and against those reasons.

Table 2
The use of cognitive genres in sociology Results sections.
Text

Cognitive genre

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report
Report

(3)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1)
(1)
(3)
(2)
(1)
(4)
(3)
(2)
(1)
(3)
(4)
(1)
(1)

containing embedded Recounts (4), Explanation (1), Report (1)

containing embedded Reports (3)
Recount (2)

Discussion (1)

Discussion (1)

containing embedded Reports (3)

Recount (3)+

A number in parenthesis shows the number of occurrences of a cognitive genre within a Results section.
In some cases dierent cognitive genres are adjacent to each other (No. 1) or embedded within each other (No. 3).

I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

113

In the case of Report, it is proposed in the cognitive genre model (Table 1) that one of the most frequently
occurring interpropositional relations (Crombie, 1985) will be Amplication. The rater analysis of interpropositional relations in the sociology texts, in fact, found that Amplication was the most frequently occurring
relation, comprising 21.5% of the total number of relations in the sample. This was followed by Simple Contrast (17%), Reason Result (9%), Concession Contraexpectation (6.6%), Grounds Conclusion (5.7%) and Simple Comparison (4.5%).
The two most frequently occurring relations Amplication and Simple Contrast are explained in Table 3
following.
As Table 3 indicates, the Amplication relation can be realized by a main clause followed by either an
object noun clause or dependent (restrictive) relative clause, both types of clause often being headed by the
conjunction that. The Simple Contrast relation is often signalled by than. In order to provide a comparison
with the rater analysis, these features were investigated further using corpus software, Oxford Wordsmith
Tools 4.0 (Scott, 2004). The sample of sociology articles formed a small corpus of 28,268 tokens (running
words) and a word list was created. Table 4 following is the part of the wordlist showing the 20 most frequently occurring function words.
The wordlist showed high frequencies of that (301 occurrences) and than (136 occurrences). Creating a
concordance of the 301 occurrences of that and searching their contexts found that 189 introduced noun
clauses (as objects or complements of verbs), 73 introduced relative clauses and 39 occurrences belong to other
word classes, supporting the rater analysis nding of a high frequency of the Amplication relation. Similarly,
a concordance was generated for the 136 instances of than, of which 92 were found to signal the Simple Contrast relation between propositions. (Within the texts, contrast was also signalled in a variety of other ways.)
3.2.2. Organic chemistry results sections
Table 5 shows the cognitive genres identied by the rater analysis of the organic chemistry Results sections.
These texts mainly used the Explanation cognitive genre, again often recursively, such as several short explanations. The Discussion cognitive genre also occurred in eight of the texts. One of the reasons for this use of
Discussion cognitive genre is that some of the leading Chemistry journals are now joining together (conating)
the Results and Discussion section of research-reporting articles.
The rater analysis showed that the organic chemistry results sections mainly employed Explanation cognitive genre, in which the model (see Table 1) proposes the most frequently occurring interpropositional relations (Crombie, 1985) will be Means Result and Means Purpose these are relations that both focus on
how something is achieved (see Table 6).
Table 3
Key interpropositional relations in Report cognitive genre.
Interpropositional
relation

Description

Examples from the sociology sample

Amplication

This relation involves explicit or implicit repetition of

the propositional content of one member of the relation
in the other member, together with a non-contrastive
addition to that propositional content (Crombie, 1985,
p. 26)

Simple contrast

This is a relation involving the comparison of two

things, events, or abstractions in terms of some
particular in respect of which they are dierent
(Crombie, 1985, p. 19)

For anxiety, the unstandardised beta of .096

(SE = .036) for this path indicates that every 1.0
deviation of mothers anxiety at Time 1 was associated
with a change of .096 of adolescents anxiety from Time
1 to Time 2. (Sociology Text 1) (noun clauses as the
object of a transitive verb or complement of the copula)
we selected items from the partners diary that tapped
relationship contentment, exhilaration, anxiety, and
depression (Text 2) We began by investigating the
factor structure of the outcomes of emotional
transmission used in the study (Sociology Text 2)
(restrictive and reduced relative clauses)
Relative risks less than 1.00 indicate a reduced risk,
whereas relative risks greater than 1.00 indicate an
increased risk (Sociology Text 5) As shown in Table 2,
females reported a higher number and greater severity of
symptoms than males... (Sociology Text 9)

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I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

Table 4
Sociology texts: word list.
Word

Number of occurrences

Number of texts

The
Of
In
And
To
For
A
That
Was
Were
With
On
Is
As
Not
Not
Than
This
Between
From

1863
997
729
672
484
408
380
301
237
224
224
215
214
185
173
151
136
136
131
125

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
20
19
19
18
20
18
17

Table 5
The use of cognitive genres in organic chemistry Results sections.
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text
Text

Cognitive genre
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Result (2) Explanation (4)

Discussion (2)
Explanation (2) Report (2)
Explanation (3)
Explanation (2), Discussion (2)
Explanation (3)
Explanation (2), Report (1)
Report (1) Explanation (1) Discussion (1)
Explanation (3)
Explanation (1)
Explanation (1) Discussion (3)
Explanation (2)
Explanation (1) Report (1)
Explanation (1) containing embedded Discussion (1)
Explanation (1) Discussion (1) Report (1)
Discussion (1)
Explanation (1) Discussion (2)
Explanation (2)
Explanation (1) Discussion (1)
Explanation (4)

A number in parenthesis shows the number of occurrences of a cognitive genre within a Results section.

The rater analysis of interpropositional relations in the organic chemistry texts found that, together, the
relations Means Result and Means Purpose accounted for 25.5% of the relations in the total sample
(17.7% and 7.8%, respectively). These were followed by Reason Result (14.8%) and Amplication (12.6%).
To further investigate the rater analysis of the interpropositional relations, the sample of 20 organic chemistry Results sections was also searched using corpus software, Oxford Wordsmith Tools 4.0 (Scott, 2004). The
corpus of chemistry texts comprised 29,633 tokens (running words). First, a word list was created. Table 7
following is part of the wordlist showing the 20 most frequently occurring function words in the Sociology
Results section sample.

I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

115

Table 6
Key interpropositional relations in explanation cognitive genre.
Interpropositional
relation

Description

Examples from the organic chemistry sample

Means result

Involves a statement of how a particular result is/

was/will be achieved (Crombie, 1985, p. 20)

Means purpose

Involves an action that is/was/will be undertaken

with the intention of achieving a particular result
(Crombie, 1985, p. 20)

The ability of receptors 1 to provide the predicted, highly

preorganized hydrophobic pocket-like environment for the
dopamine binding could be further supported by
comparing its dopamine binding ability with the reference
receptor 2. (order of relations Result Means; Chemistry
Text 19)
To obviate this setback, a set of calibration plots were
constructed and used for the simultaneous non-descriptive
determination of both liposome and drug concentration.
(order of relations Purpose Means; Chemistry Text 1)

The wordlist showed a high frequency of by. Creating a concordance of the 192 occurrences of by and
searching their contexts found that 107 (in 19 texts) were part of structures that signalled means (in a Means
Result relation). Of these instances of by:
 72 involved the structure by + nominalization. For example:
On the other hand, the reaction (2) can be monitored by measurement of the free iodine released.
(Chemistry Text 2); and,
 35 involved the structure by + verb(ing) structure. For example: The assumption was veried by introducing the liposomic part eluted from the column into the DPP system. (Chemistry Text 1)
Similarly, a concordance was generated for the 508 instances of to of which 51 occurrences (in 15 texts)
signalled purpose in a Means Purpose relation.
4. Discussion
The ndings from this study appear to demonstrate that, in the reporting of research results in the two subjects (sociology and organic chemistry), the written texts and the discourses that surround these texts are quite
dierent. These dierences appear to arise from the objects of enquiry, epistemological viewpoints and
research paradigms and textual structures characteristic of the two disciplines. However, because the samples
used were small and it was not logistically possible to employ multiple raters to analyse the cognitive genre
patterns (and then compare the raters ndings), the results from this study can be only considered to be indicative. In the discussion that follows, possible implications of the ndings will be discussed in relation to pedagogy and its wider implications for the conceptualization of genres.
In relation to pedagogy, it is suggested that genre knowledge is used in two areas of activity: to provide
a heuristic for the analysis of further texts (of the same genre); and to provide the means for writers to
create their own texts within the same discipline. Genre-based pedagogy that attempts to teach the writing
of Results sections should clearly include a focus on both the social and cognitive genre dimensions of the
target genre. In relation to pedagogy, it is suggested here that when examining the Results section of a
particular discipline, it is salient rst to examine the social genre inuences that surround the part-genre
in order to establish a grounded view of the part-genre. This will involve consideration of issues of context, content, epistemology (including research methodology), writer stance and issues of addressivity and
audience. Students may be able to do this partly by carrying out their own simple ethnographic enquiries
along the lines of the interview schedule used in this study (see Appendix A). The social genre focus can
then be followed by deconstructing and practising the cognitive genre elements of exemplar texts which, it
is proposed, will assist in providing writers with tools to achieve ner grained analysis of the textual elements of Results sections in particular disciplines as well as the procedural knowledge necessary to create
their own.

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I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

Table 7
Organic chemistry texts: word list.
Word

Number of occurrences

Number of texts

The
Of
In
And
To
A
With
For
Is
Was
By
That
Were
Rom
This
As
Are
Be
At
On

2473
1153
712
635
508
455
284
274
258
256
192
183
177
169
163
162
146
142
128
122

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
19
20
20
19
18
19
20
20
19
20
20

In relation to genre theory generally, this study appears to present a further challenge to a unitary approach
to operationalizing genre in terms of a schematic structure (or a move and step structure) to account for the
staging of content linked to discrete items of lexis, grammar and syntax. Bhatia (2004), Biber (1989), Paltridge
(2002) and Pilegaard and Frandsen (1996) all argue that an adequate approach to genre involves examining
both socially constructed genre knowledge and more general, rhetorical knowledge. The social genre/cognitive
genre approach employed here further advances this dual approach to genre knowledge in terms of presenting
an approach to operationalizing these two areas of knowledge for pedagogical purposes.
Appendix A
Results. sections study: interview schedule

1. If you had to dene _ _ _ _ _ briey for someone who was new to the subject, how would you describe
it?
2. What is the theory of reality (the world) of _ _ _ _ _ ? Are the objects of thought seen as having a
real, independent existence, or are they objects of thought created by the human mind that perceives
them?
3. Does _ _ _ _ _ have its own overall technical vocabulary (common to most researchers working in the eld)
or do the technical words used relate more specically to specic areas of _ _ _ _ _ in which particular
researchers are working?
4. What are the main research methods (data collection methods) used in _ _ _ _ _ or the branch of _ _ _ _ _
that you are working in?
5. What types of knowledge do these research methods uncover? (qualitative, quantitative or both?)
6. In reporting a piece of research in _ _ _ _ _ (such as in a journal article), are there particular values or ideals
that you think are important?
7. In reporting the results or research in a journal article (such as in the Results section), what is important to
communicate to ones peers, such as other researchers working in the eld of _ _ _ _ _ ?
8. In reporting research ndings (such as in Results sections) in _ _ _ _ _, how much personal or interpretative
comment by the writer appears in the writing?

I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

117

Appendix B
Bibliographies. of the sociology and organic chemistry results section
Text Subject

Journal

Sociology corpus
1.
Sociology Journal of
Marriage and
the Family
2.
Sociology Journal of
Marriage and
the Family
3.
Sociology Journal of
Marriage and
the Family
4.
Sociology Journal of
Marriage and
the Family

(1999) 61
(1), pp.
2137
(1999) 61
(1), pp.
3848
(1999) 61
(1), pp.
4961
(1999) 61
(1), pp.
6273

Journal of
Marriage and
the Family
Journal of
Marriage and
the Family

(2003) 65
(1), pp.
90104
(2003) 65
(2), pp.
287301

Journal of
Marriage and
the Family
Social Policy
Journal of New
Zealand
Social Policy
Journal of New
Zealand

(2007) 69
(5), pp.
11071117
(1999,
July) pp.
106121
(1999,
December)
13, pp.
115135
(2004,
July) 22,
pp. 97107
(2004,
June) 20,
pp. 134
155
(2004,
March)
21, pp. 83
97
(2007) 32,
pp. 126
154

5.

Sociology

6.

Sociology

7.

Sociology

8.

Sociology

9.

Sociology

10.

Sociology

11.

Sociology

12.

Sociology

Social Policy
Journal of New
Zealand

13.

Sociology

Social Policy
Journal of New
Zealand

Social Policy
Journal of New
Zealand
Social Policy
Journal of New
Zealand

Article title

Author(s)

Transmission of emotions in
the daily interactions of singlemother families
Emotional transmission in
couples under stress

Reed W. Larson & Sally

Gillman

Daily transmission of tensions

between marital dyads and
parentchild dyads
Anger transmission from
mother to child: A comparison
of mothers in chronic pain and
well mothers
Union formation among men
in the US: Does Having prior
children matter?
Generational eects on
marriage patterns: Jewish
immigrants and their
descendants in Israel
The association of couples
relationship status and quality
with breastfeeding initiation
Hippy New Zealand: An
evaluation overview

David M. Almeida, Elaine

Wethington & Amy L.
Chandler
Geraldine Downey, Valerie
Purdie & Rebecca SchaerNeitz

Health care needs for older

adults

Ross A. Flett, Nikolaos

Kazantzis, Nigel R. Long,
Michelle A. Millar & Carol
MacDonald
Tim ODonovan, Karen
McMillan & Heather Worth

An employment barrier: The

health status of DPB
recipients children
Work poor or working poor?
A comparative perspective on
New Zealands jobless
households
Ill-prepared for the labour
market: Health status in a
sample of single-mothers on
welfare
Gender, mobility and
migration into New Zealand:
A case study of Asian
migration

Anne Thompson & Niall

Bolger

Susan D. Stewart, Wendy D.

Manning & Pamela J. Smock
Binyamin Gshur & Barbara S.
Okun

Christina M. Gibson-Davis &

Jeanne Brooks-Gunn
BarHava-Monteith, Galia,
Harre, Niki, & Field, Je

Susan G. Singley & Paul

Callister

Heather B. Worth & Karen E.

McMillan

Juthika Badkar, Paul

Callister, Vasantha Krishnan,
Robert Didham & Richard
Bedford
(continued on next page)

118

I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

Appendix B (continued)
Text

Subject

Journal

14.

Sociology

Journal of
Child and
Family Studies

(1999) 8, 1 Anxiety symptomatology in

MexicanAmercian
adolescents

15.

Sociology

Journal of
Child and
Family Studies

(1999) 8
(2), pp.
169180

16.

Sociology

Journal of
Child and
Family Studies

(2003) 12
(2), pp.
185200

17.

Sociology

Journal of
Child and
Family Studies

(2003) 12
(4), pp.
411423

18.

Sociology

19.

Sociology

Journal of
Child and
Family Studies
Journal of
Child and
Family Studies

(2005) 14
(1), pp.
1527
(2005) 14
(4), pp.
469485

20.

Sociology

Journal of
Child and
Family Studies

(2007) 16,
pp. 593
605

Chemistry corpus
1.
Chemistry Analytica
Chimica Acta

Article title

(1999) 391
(1), pp.
8388

2.

Chemistry Analytica
Chimica Acta

(1999) 391
(3), pp.
277288

3.

Chemistry Analytica
Chimica Acta

(1999) 399
(3), pp.
265274

Author(s)

Saundra H. Glover, Andres J.

Pumariega, Charles E. Holzer,
Brian K. Wise, & Moises
Rodriguez
Strengths-based assessment of Karen A. Friedman, Peter E.
children with SED:
Leone, & Philip Friedman
Consistency of reporting by
teachers and parents
Aliative and instrumental
Jerey T. Cookston, Amanda
marital discord, mothers
W. Harrist & Ricardo C.
negative aect and childrens Ainslie
negative interactions with
unfamiliar peers.
The linkage between multiple Osnat Erel, & Karni Kissil
perspectives of the marital
relationship and preschoolers
adjustment
Are developmental pathways Deborah Gorman-Smith, &
in disruptive behaviours the
Rolf Loeber
same for girls and boys?
Predicting the stability of
Paul J. Frick & Ashley L.
conduct problems in children Dantagnan
with and without callousunemotional traits
Is there a Relationship
Raheem J. Paxton, Robert F.
between Family Structure and Valois & J. Wanzer Drane
Substance Use among Public
Middle School Students?
Simultaneous quantitative
determination of diazepam
and liposomes using
dierential pulse polarography
Qualitative and quantitative
determination of oxygenates
in gasolines using H nuclear
magnetic resonance
spectroscopy
Evaluation of a chemical
vapour dosimeter using
polymer-coated SERS
substrates

Christos G. Kontoyannis,
Sophia G. Antimisiaris,
Dionisis Douroumis
Reinhard Meusinger

David L. Stokes, Anjali Pal,

V. Anantha Narayanan, &
Tuan Vo-Dinh

I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

119

Appendix B (continued)
Text

Subject

Journal

Chemistry Analytica
Chimica Acta

(2003) 480
(2), pp.
193205

5.

Chemistry Analytica
Chimica Acta

(2003)
495, pp.
2131

6.

Chemistry Analytica
Chimica Acta

(2007)
590, pp.
139144

7.

Chemistry Analytica
Chimica Acta

(2006)
611, pp.
5661

8.

Chemistry Journal of
(1999)
Organometallic 588, pp.
Chemistry
4250

9.

Chemistry Journal of
(1999)
Organometallic 588, pp.
Chemistry
155159

10.

Chemistry Journal of
(2003) 665
Organometallic (1 and 2),
Chemistry
pp. 2328

Article title

Author(s)

Evaluation of toriclosan and

biphenylol in marine
sediments and urban
wastewaters by pressurized
liquid extraction and solidphase extraction followed by
gas chromatography mass
spectrometry and liquid
chromatography mass
spectrometry
Labeless and reversible
immunosensor assay based
upon an electrochemical
current-transient protocol
Fast and sensitive trace
analysis of malachite green
using a surface-enhanced
Raman microuidic sensor

Ana Aguera, Amadeo R

Fernandez-Alba, luis Piedra,
Milogros Mezcua & M. Jose
Gomez

Sarah Grant, Frank Davis,

Jeanette A. Pritchard, Karen
A. Law, Seamus P.J. Higson,
& Timothy D. Gibson
Sangyeop Lee, Junghyun
Choi, Lingxin Chena,
Byungchoon Park, Jin Burm
Kyong,Gi Hun Seong,
Jaebum Chooa Yeonjung Lee,
Kyung-Hoon ShinEun Kyu
Lee, Sang-Woo Joo, &
Kyeong-Hee Lee
Dan-dan Caoa,b, Jian-xia
In situ fabrication of
nanostructured titania coating Lu a, Jing-fu Liua, & Gui-bin
Jianga
on the surface of titanium
wire: A new approach for
preparation of solid-phase
microextraction ber
Solid state structural and
Paul M. Dickson, Margaret
solution studies on bis (2A. D. McGowan, Burl
methylbenzyl)-selenide,
Yearwood, Mary Jane Heeg,
methyl (2,4,6-tri-t& Honhn P. Oliver
butylphenyl)-selenide, bis
(2,4,6-tri-methylphenyl(diselenide, and bis(2,4,6-tri-tbutylphenyl)-diselenide.
A new synthesis of
Carl Boga, Erminia Del
chloroheterocycles via metal- Vecchio, Luciano Forlani,
halogen exchanges between
Lilia Milanesi, & Paolo
trichloroacetly derivatives and Edgardo Todesco
heteroaromatic lithium and
Grignard reagents
1-Ferrocenylcyclopropene and Tatiana Klimova, Elena I.
1-ferrocenylcyclopropyl cation Klimova, Marcos Martinez
Garcia, Cecilio Alvarez
Toledano, Ruben Alfredo
Toscano
(continued on next page)

120

I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

Appendix B (continued)
Text

Subject

11.

Chemistry Journal of
(2005)
Organometallic 690, pp.
Chemistry
62636270

12.

Chemistry Journal of
(2007)
Organometallic 692, pp.
Chemistry
36143618

13.

(2007) 69
Chemistry Journal of
Organometallic (3), pp.
Chemistry
11591165

14.

Chemistry Journal of
Organic
Chemistry
Chemistry Journal of
Organic
Chemistry

(1999) 64
(2), pp.
427431
(1999) 64
(26), pp.
93749380

16.

Chemistry Journal of
Organic
Chemistry

(2003) 68
(1), pp.
1114

17.

Chemistry Journal of
Organic
Chemistry

(2004) 69,
pp. 1217

18.

Chemistry Journal of
Organic
Chemistry

(2005) 70,
pp. 3946

19.

Chemistry Journal of
Organic
Chemistry

(2006) 71,
pp. 3845

15.

Journal

Article title

Author(s)

Polymerization of MMA by
oscillating zirconocene
catalysts, diastereomeric
zirconocene mixtures, and
diastereospecic metallocene
pairs
Lanthanum trichloride: An
ecient catalyst for the
silylation of hydroxyl groups
by activating
hexamethyldisilazane
(HMDS)
Structure and bonding of
MCB5H7 and its sandwiched
dimer CB5H6MMCB5H6
(M = Si, Ge, Sn): Isomer
stability and preference for
slip distorted structure
aCH Bond dissociation
energies of some tertiary
amines
Palladium-catalyzed
asymmetric allylic substitution
reactions using new chiral
phosphiniteoxazoline ligands
derived from D-gloucosamine
Borane-mediated aldol
cycloreduction of monoenone
monoketones:
Diastereoselective formation
of quaternary centers
Assessing the substrate
selectivities and
enantioselectivities of eight
novel Baeyer-Villiger
monooxygenases toward
alkyl-substituted
cyclohexanones
Induced circular dichroism
and structural assignment of
the cyclodextrin inclusion
complexes of bicyclic
azoalkanes
Articial receptors that
provides a preorganized
hydrophobic environment: A
biomimetic approach to
dopamine recognition in water

Yalan Ning, Megan J.

Cooney, & Eugene Y.-X.
Chen

Akkirala Venkat Narsaiah

Priyadarshi Satpati

G. W. Dombrowski, J. P.
Dinnocenzo, S. Fardi, J. L.
Goodman & I. R Gould
Kji Yonehara, Tomohiro
Hashizume, Kenji Mori,
Kouichi Ohe & Sakae
Uemura
Ryan R. Huddleston, David
F. Cauble, & Michael J.
Krische

Brian G. Kyte, Pierre

Rouviere Qiong Cheng, & Jon
D. Stewar

Huseyin Bakirci, Xiangyang

Zhang, & Werner M. Nau

Jeongryul Kim, Balamurali

Raman, & Kyo Han Ahn

I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

121

Appendix B (continued)
Text

Subject

Journal

20.

Chemistry Journal of
Organic
Chemistry

Article title

(2008) 73,
pp. 211

Author(s)

Stereoselective Total Synthesis Kavirayani R. Prasad and

of Bioactive Styryllactones
Shivajirao L. Gholap
(+)-Goniofufurone, (+)7-epiGoniofufurone, (+)Goniopypyrone, (+)Goniotriol, (+)-Altholactone,
and (-)-Etharvensin

Appendix C
See Figs. A1 and A2.

Fig. A1. Sociology corpus, Text 18 (Gorman-Smith & Loeber, 2005, p. 21).

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I. Bruce / English for Specic Purposes 28 (2009) 105124

Fig. A2. Organic chemistry corpus, Text 20 (Prasad & Gholap, 2008, p. 3).

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