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• The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) was designed to provide a dedicated line for
users who need Internet access via a telephone line or a cable TV connection.
• A PPP connection goes through these phases: idle, establishing, authenticating
(optional), networking, and terminating.
• At the data link layer, PPP employs a version of HDLC.
• The Link Control Protocol (LCP) is responsible for establishing, maintaining,
configuring, and terminating links.
• Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and Challenge Handshake
Authentication Protocol (CHAP) are two protocols used for authentication in PPP.
• PAP is a two-step process. The user sends authentication identification and a
password. The system determines the validity of the information sent.
• CHAP is a three-step process. The system sends a value to the user. The user
manipulates the value and sends its result. The system verifies the result.
• Network Control Protocol (NCP) is a set of protocols to allow the encapsulation
of data coming from network layer protocols; each set is specific for a network
layer protocol that requires the services of PPP.
• Internetwork Protocol Control Protocol (IPCP), an NCP protocol, establishes and
terminates a network layer connection for IP packets.
Multiple Accesses
• There are two popular approaches to packet switching: the datagram approach and
the virtual circuit approach.
• In the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently of all other
packets.
• At the network layer, a global addressing system that uniquely identifies every
host and router is necessary for delivery of a packet from network to network.
• The Internet address (or IP address) is 32 bits (for IPv4) that uniquely and
universally defines a host or router on the internet.
• The portion of the IP address that identifies the network is called the netid.
• The portion of the IP address that identifies the host or router on the network is
called the hostid.
• There are five classes of IP addresses. Classes A, B, and C differ in the number of
hosts allowed per network. Class D is for multicasting, and class E is reserved.
• The class of a network is easily determined by examination of the first byte.
• Unicast communication is one source sending a packet to one destination.
• Multicast communication is one source sending a packet to multiple destinations.
• Sub-netting divides one large network into several smaller ones.
• Sub-netting adds an intermediate level of hierarchy in IP addressing.
• Default masking is a process that extracts the network address from an IP address.
• Subnet masking is a process that extracts the sub-network address from an IP
address
• Super-netting combines several networks into one large one.
• In classless addressing, there are variable-length blocks that belong to no class.
The entire address space is divided into blocks based on organization needs.
• The first address and the mask in classless addressing can define the whole block.
• A mask can be expressed in slash notation which is a slash followed by the
number of 1s in the mask.
• Every computer attached to the Internet must know its IP address, the IP address
of a router, the IP address of a name server, and its subnet mask (if it is part of a
subnet).
• DHCP is a dynamic configuration protocol with two databases.
• The DHCP server issues a lease for an IP address to a client for a specific period
of time.
• Network address translation (NAT) allows a private network to use a set of
private addresses for internal communication and a set of global Internet
addresses for external communication.
• NAT uses translation tables to route messages.
• The IP protocol is a connectionless protocol. Every packet is independent and has
no relationship to any other packet.
• Every host or router has a routing table to route IP packets.
• In next-hop routing, instead of a complete list of the stops the packet must make,
only the address of the next hop is listed in the routing table.
• In network-specific routing, all hosts on a network share one entry in the routing
table.
• In host-specific routing, the full IP address of a host is given in the routing table.
• In default routing, a router is assigned to receive all packets with no match in the
routing table.
• A static routing table's entries are updated manually by an administrator.
• Classless addressing requires hierarchial and geographic routing to prevent
immense routing tables. There are two popular approaches to packet switching:
the datagram approach and the virtual circuit approach.
• In the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently of all other
packets.
• At the network layer, a global addressing system that uniquely identifies every
host and router is necessary for delivery of a packet from network to network.
• The Internet address (or IP address) is 32 bits (for IPv4) that uniquely and
universally defines a host or router on the internet.
• The portion of the IP address that identifies the network is called the netid.
• The portion of the I address that identifies the host or router on the network is
called the hostid.
• There are five classes of IP addresses. Classes A, B, and C differ in the number of
hosts allowed per network. Class D is for multicasting, and class E is reserved.
• The class of a network is easily determined by examination of the first byte.
• Unicast communication is one source sending a packet to one destination.
• Multicast communication is one source sending a packet to multiple destinations.
• Sub-netting divides one large network into several smaller ones.
• Sub-netting adds an intermediate level of hierarchy in IP addressing.
• Default masking is a process that extracts the network address from an IP address.
• Subnet masking is a process that extracts the sub-network address from an IP
address
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a dynamic mapping method that finds
a physical address, given an IP address.
• An ARP request is broadcast to all devices on the network.
• An ARP reply is unicast to the host requesting the mapping.
• IP is an unreliable connectionless protocol responsible for source-to-destination
delivery.
• Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams.
• A datagram consists of a header (20 to 60 bytes) and data.
• The MTU is the maximum number of bytes that a data link protocol can
excapsulate. MTUs vary from protocol to protocol.
• Fragmentation is the division of a datagram into smaller units to accommodate the
MTU of a data link protocol.
• The fields in the IP header that relate to fragmentation are the identification
number, the fragmentation flags, and the fragmentation offset.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) sends five types of error-reporting
messages and four pairs of query messages to support the unreliable and
connectionless Internet Protocol (IP).
• ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams.
• The destination-unreachable error message is sent to the source host when a
datagram is undeliverable.
• The source-quench error message is sent in an effort to alleviate congestion.
• The time-exceeded message notifies a source host that (1) the time-to-live field
has reached zero or (2) fragments of a message have not arrived in a set amount of
time.
• The parameter-problem message notifies a host that there is a problem in the
header field of a datagram.
• The redirection message is sent to make the routing table of a host more effective.
• The echo-request and echo-reply messages test the connectivity between two
systems.
• The time-stamp-request and time-stamp-reply messages can determine the
roundtrip time between two systems or the difference in time between two
systems.
• The address-mask request and address-mask reply messages are used to obtain the
subnet mask.
• The router-solicitation and router-advertisement messages allow hosts to update
their routing tables.
• IPv6, the latest verstion of the Internet Protocol, has a 128-bit address space, a
resource allocation, and increased security measures.
• IPv6 uses hexadecimal colon notation with abbreviation methods available.
• Three strategies used to make the transition from version 4 to version 6 are dual
stack, tunneling, and header translation.