A&P Final

Megan Plant Fri Apr 18 22:32:04 CDT 2014

ADH
promotes insertion of aquaporins, Collecting Ducts and DCT; reduced water in urine
ANP
reduces blood volume; Increased water in urine
Angiotensin 2
-Increases reabsorption of Na, solutes, and water which increases BV and BP-Stimulates release in aldosterone = reduces loss of
water in urine.
Straight Tubules
leads to a network of ducts in the testis
Seminiferous tubules
location where sperm are produced
Outline the male reproductive cycle
-Sperm pass from the testes through the coiled channel of the epididymis, and organ that store and nourishes sperm as they mature.
-Once mature, sperm move to vas deferens. Formation to maturation of sperm is 72 days
-When a man ejaculates sperm from the seminal vesicles combine with a thick fluid from the prostate gland to create semen.
Lactation hormones
Prolactin: secreted from anterior pituitary gland; promotes milk production; inhibited by progesterone until after birth
-Oxytosin: released during labor, facilitating birth, maternal bonding, stimulation of the nipples, and lactation
Female Reproductive Cycle stages
-24-36 days
-Menstruation
-Preovulatory
-Ovulation:
-Postovulatory
Menstruation
first 5 days, primordial follicles develop into secondary follicles, stratum functionalis sheds and menstrual flow passes out
Pre ovulatory
6-13 days, endometrium proliferating and follicles are growing and developing
Ovulation
day 14, oocyte swept into uterine tube
Post ovulatory
Days 15-28; fertilization occurs or increased progesterone and estrogen the ovum passes through the uterus, and the corpus luteum
will cease to function on about Day 26. The uterus will then break down, shed its lining several days later and the next menstrual
period begins
Ovulation Process
1)High concentration of estrogen stimulates frequent release of GnRH from hypothalamus; also stimulates gonadotrophs to secrete
LH
2) GnRH promotes release of FSH and additional LH by the anterior pituitary
3)LH causes rupture of the mature follicle and expulsion of a secondary oocyte 9hrs after the LH surge. Ovulated oocyte and its
corona radiata cells are usually swept into the uterine tube

Lactation process (6 steps)

1)Milk in alveoli
2)Secondary Tubule
3)Mammory Duct
4)Lactiferous Sinus
5)Lactiferous Duct
6)Nipple
Leydig cells
in the testes; secretes testosterone
Spermatogonia
in the testes; stem cells; develop into spermatozoa
Seritoli cells
support spermatogenesis; nourish the developing sperm cells; phagocytizes, residual cytoplasm
Spermatogenic cells
Sperm-forming cells
Male Urethra Structure
-Passageway for semen and urine
-Passes through the prostate, deep muscles of perineum, and the penis
-3 Sub divisions:
-Prostatic urethra: passes through the prostate
-Membranous urethra: passes through the deep muscles of perineum
-Spongy urethra: passes through corpus spongiosum; ends here at the external urethral orifice.
What is a hysterectomy?
Hysterectomy: surgical removal of the uterus

Where does the uterus get its blood supply?

Arterial blood comes from the uterine artery and ovarian artery
Uterus structures
-Cervix: inferior narrow portion of the uterus, that opens to the body
-Isthmus: between the uterus body and the cervix
-Body: tapering portion of the uterus
-Uterine Cavity: interior of the body
-Fundus: dome shaped portion superior to the uterine tubes
-Cervical canal: interior of the cervix; opens into the uterine cavity at the external os and into the vagina at the internal os.
Describe blood-testis barrier
Isolates developing gametes from bold, prevents an immune response against spermatogenic cells surface antigens.
Dartos Muscle
-Makes up the septum, composed of smooth muscle fibers
-Contracts in response to cold to pull testes closer to body for correct temperature
-Heat reverses these actions
Cremaster muscle
-Both contract in response to cold to pull testes closer to body for correct temperature
-Heat reverses these actions
-Reflexively raises each testicle individually; small bands of skeletal muscle tissue, surrounds the testes
Raphe
Separates the scrotum laterally
Seminal fluid

alkaline, viscous fluid; helps to neutralize acidic environment in male urethra and female reproductive tract that would otherwise kill
sperm. Contains fructose used for ATP production by sperm, prostaglandins for sperm motility and viability; about 60% of volume of
semen
Seminal vessicles
Part of reproductive system; secretes seminal fluid
Spermatogenesis
-Occurs in male reproductive system, takes 65-75 days
1) Meiosis: Spermatogonia contains diploid (2n) chromosomes; Forms two secondary spermocytes
2) Meiosis II: forms 4 haploid cell spermatids
3) Spermiogenesis: each spermatid develops into a sperm cell with a head and tail.
Layers of Uterus
-Perimetrium
-Myometrium
-Endometrium
Perimetrium
outer layer, made of simple squamous epithelium and areolar CT, convers urinary bladder and rectum
Myometrium
middle layer; 3 layers of smooth muscle fibers; coordinated contractions of myometrium in response to oxytocin help push out the
fetus.
Endometrium
Inner layer; highly vascularized. Stratum functionalis is sloughed off in menstruation, the deeper layer, stratum basalis, is permanent
and gives rise to next stratum functionalis after menstruation
Testosterone
-Produced by Leydig cells when stimulated by luteinizing hormone (LH)
-Synthesized from cholesterol in the testes; principle androgen
-Develops reproductive system and some brain areas
-Develops sex characteristics
-Development of sexual function:
-Stimulation protein synthesis, results in heavier muscle and bone mass in men.
What are the Male Secondary sex characteristics
-Wide shoulders, narrower hips, facial/chest hair, increased sweat glands, thickening of larynx, deepening of voice
What is the structure of the sperm
-Head: contains nucleus with 23 chromosomes, covered by acrosome
-Acrosome: filled with enzymes that help sperm to penetrate secondary oocyte
-Tail: divided into neck, middle piece, principle piece, and end piece.
-Middle Piece: contains mitochondria that produce ATP for locomotion and metabolism of the sperm
-Do not survive past 48hrs within female reproductive tract once ejaculated.
What are the female secondary sex characteristics?
-Distribution of adipose tissue in the breasts, abdomen, mons pubis, and hips
-Voice pitch
-Broad pelvis
-Pattern of hair growth on head and body
Follicle stimulating hormone
initiates follicular growth, and stimulates follicles to secrete estrogen
Lutenizing hormone
stimulates theca cells to produce androgens; triggers ovulation at mid cycle and produces formation of corpus luteum
(produces/secretes estrogen, progesterone, relaxin, inhibin).
Estrogen

promotes development of female reproductive structures, secondary sex characteristics, and breasts, increases protein anabolism
(building strong bones), lowers cholesterol
Progesterone
prepares/maintains endometrium for implantation and mammary glands for lactation
Relaxin
relaxes the uterus, inhibits contractions of the myometrium, making implantation more easily done
Inhibin
inhibits secretion of FSH and LH
Pathway of thirst regulation begins with dehydration(3 pathways)
1)Decreased saliva-> dry mouth -> Stimulates thirst centre in hypothalamus-> Increased thirst2)Increased blood osmolarity ->
stimulates Osmoreceptors -> Stimulates thirst centre in hypothalamus-> Increased thirst3)Decrease BV -> decreased BP ->
increased renin release -> increased angiotensin 2 -> Stimulates thirst centre in hypothalamus-> Increased thirst
HCO3- role on buffer system
Weak base so it slowly binds to H, therefore less dramatic affect on pH
Respiratory Alkalosis
-Arterial blood PCO2 falls below 35mmHg -Caused by hyperventilation-Treated by increasing CO2 in the body (breathing in a paper
bag)
Metabolic alkalosis cause and correction
-Systemic arterial blood HCO3 is above 26mEq/liter-Acid loss due to vomiting, gastric suctioning, use of diuretics-Treatment: giving
fluid solutions to correct Cl, K, and other electrolyte deficiencies.
Role of Na in action potential and fluid balance
Sodium gradients across the PM provide the potential energy that is tapped to cotransport other solutes
The Na+K+ pump is an important mechanism for generating body heat. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) plays a major role in
buffering the pH of the ECF.

Buffer systems
-Act quickly to bind H removing the highly reactive, excess H from system-Prevent drastic changes in body fluid pH
Respiration role in buffering
-Increased exhalation: pH rises (less H)-Decreased exhalation: pH falls (more H)
Path of blood flow in the kidneys
1)Afferent Arterioles: goes to each individual effron2)Glomerular Caplillaries: location of blood filtration beginning; something leaving
the blood3)Efferent Arterioles: vessel that leaves each effron4)Peritubular Capillaries/Vasa Recta: small blood vessels that surround
effronFinally: Renal Vein
Renal autoregulation
Normal changes that occur throughout the day (myogenic mechanism and tubuloglomerular feedback)
Myogenic mechanism stimulus, mechanism, and effect on GFR
-Stimulus: increased stretching of arteriole walls due to increased BP-Mechanism: walls contract narrowing lumen of arteriolesDecreased GFR
Tubuloglomerular Feedback system (stimulus, mechanism, affect on GFR)
-Stimulus: high Na and Cl in macula densa due to high systemic BP-Mechanism: decreased NO release causes constriction of
afferent arterioles-Decreased GFR
Neural regulation of GFR (stimulus, mechanism, effect)
-Stimulus: increase activity of renal sympathetic nerves releases norepinephrine-Mechanism: constriction of arterioles through beta-1
receptors and increased renin release-Decreased GFR

Renin
-Secreted by juxtaglomerular cells-clips of 10-amino acid peptide called angiotensin 2
Mesangial cells
-Located among glomerular capillaries and in the cleft between afferent and efferent arterioles-Contract to open/close clefts-Help
regulate glomerular filtration
Glomerular capsule structure/function
-Located in the nephron-Double walled epithelial cup that surrounds capillaries-Visceral: modified simple squamous cells-Parietal
layers: outer wall of capsule; modified squamous
-Filtrate enters the capsule
Glomerulus
-Network of capillaries-Filtration site
Podocytes
-Forms membrane that does filtration
What happens in transcellular reabsorption?
A substance passes from the fluid in the tubular lumen through the apical membrane of a tubule cell, across the cytosol, into
interstitial fluid and through basolateral membrane
What happens in paracellular reabsorption?
Passive process where fluid leaks between cellsTight junctions in the PCT are leaky and permit reabsorbed substances to pass
between cells into peritubular capillaries
Kidney structure: Renal cortex
-Superficial light area-Smooth textured area extending from capsule to base of pyramids-Contains renal columns that extend between
pyramids
Kidney structure: renal medulla
-Deep, darker inner region-consists of renal pyramids
Key ions of the Kidneys
NaCl Ca KH20
Affects of tubular secretion/reabsorption: PTH
Increases reabsorption of Ca
Affects of tubular secretion/reabsorption: ANP
Increases Na excretion in urine, urine output, thus decreases BV and BP
Affects of tubular secretion/reabsorption: ADH
increases water absorption
Affects of tubular secretion/reabsorption: Aldosterone
Increases water reabsorptionIncreases ion secretion
Affects of tubular secretion/reabsorption: Angiotensin 2
Reabsorption of electrolytesIncreases BV and BP
Juxtaglomerular apparatus structure/function
-Made up of JG cells and macula densa-Regulates BP within kidneys
Define Transport maximum
-Measured in mg/min-Limit on how fast a transporter (symporter or antiporter) can work

Describe obligatory reabsorption

Water is reabsorbed with solutes in tubular fluid because water is obliged to follow solutes when they are reabsorbedOccurs in PCT
and Descending loop of Henle
Describe Facultative Water Reabsorption
-Reabsorbes final 10% of water-Regulated by ADH and occurs in collecting ducts
What hormones affect collecting ducts and PCT
Renin: increases BV and BPANP: Decreases BV and BPADH: returns blood osmolarity (thickness) to normalPTH: helps regulate Ca
levels in the blood
What pH does the stomach digest best at
pH 5-6
Define peritoneum
-largest serous membrane of the body-parietal: lines wall of abdominopelvic cavity-visceral: covers organs in the cavity
Mesocolon
a fold of peritoneum attaching the colon to the posterior abdominal wall
Mesentery
fold of peritoneum attaching SI to posterior abdominal wall
Lymph fluid flow in order
1)Afferent lymph vessel
2)Subcapsular Sinus
3)Trabecular Sinus
4)Medullary Sinus
5)Efferent Lymph Vessel
Antibodies structure and function
-4 polypeptide chains
-Neutralizes bacterial toxins and prevents attachment of some viruses to body cells
-Immobilizes bacteria
-Initiates complement system
-Enhances phagocytosis causing agglutination and precipitation
-Causes agglutination (clumping) forming a more easily phagocytized precipitate when cross linked with antibodies
Interferons
-Proteins released by virus-infected cells
-Stop replication of virus cells
-diffuse to uninfected cells and induce synthesis of antiviral proteins that interfere with viral replication
-Defend against infection
-three types: alpha-, beta-, gamma-IFNs
How is starch broken down
Broken into di- and monosacharides by amylaseBegins in Mouth
Spleen structure and function
-Oval mass of lymphatic tissue between stomach and diaphragm; has a hilum
-Removal by macrophages of worn out blood cells and platelets
-Storage of platelets
-Hemopoiesis during fetal life
-Contains B and T cells
Cell mediated immunity effective against
intracellular pathogens, cancer cells, bacteria fungi, and foreign tissue transplants
T cells: development, maturing, function
-Develop from pre-T cells that migrate from red bone marrow into thymus

-Arise before puberty, continue to grow throughout life

-Mature in thymus gland
-Lymphocytes, play a role in cell mediated immunity
B cells: development, maturity, function
-Complete development in red bone marrow
-Lymphocyte in adaptive immune system
- Transform into plasma cells, which synthesize and secrete antibodies
Function of hepatocytes
-Functional liver cells
-80% of liver cells
-Secrete bile
-Metabolic, secretory, and endocrine function
Kupffer cells function
-Fixed phagocytes in liver
-Destroy worn out RBCs and WBC, bacteria, and foreign matter
Liver functions
-Lipid, carbohydrate, protein metabolism
-Processes drugs and hormones
-Excretion of bilirubin
-Synthesis of bile salts
-Storage of vitamins and minerals
-Phagocytosis of RBCs, WBCs, and bacteria
-Activation of Vitamin D
Define greater omentum
A large fold in the serosa of the stomach that hangs down like an apron anterior to the intestines
Skeletal muscle pump
Contractions compresses lymphatic vessels and forces lymph toward junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins
Respiratory pump
Lymph flow maintained by pressure changes that occur during inhalation.Lymph flows from high pressure in abs to thoracic region
where pressure is lower.Exhalation prevents lymph backflow
Cell-mediated immunity
Cytotoxic T cells directly attack invading antigens
Antibody mediated immunity
B cells transform into plasma cells which synthesize and secrete antibodies of immunoglobins
What is the first line of defence
Skin and Mucous Membranes-Skin, mucous membranes, mucus, cilia, hairs, lacrimal apparatus, saliva, urine, defecation and
vomiting, sebum, lysozyme, gastric juice, vaginal secretions
Second line of defence
Internal devices-IFNs, complement system, iron-binding proteins, antimicrobial proteins, NK cells, phagocytes, inflammation, fever
Primary immune response
Occurs upon first exposure to foreign materialDevelops antibodies and T killer cells specific to the invading micro organism.Slow rise
and decline in antibody titer
Secondary response
Accelerated response, already familiar with antibodies.
How/where are lipids broken down
Digested to glycerol and fatty acids by lipaseMainly in small intestines

How/where are proteins digested

Broken down in the stomach by the pepsin and digested further in the small intestines where the pancreas has injected more pepsin
Bile make up and function
Not a digestive enzymeSalts help to break up large aggregates of lipid molecules into smaller ones with greater surface area emulsification
Large Intestine Structure and function
-Composed of colon, cecum, rectum, and anal canal-Absorbes a large amount of water, feces turn into solid form-Site where bacteria
complete digestion and produce vitamins-Secretes mucus and eliminates feces through anus
Muscularis
Contracts to churn food
Mucosa
Serous Membrane External layer of a GI tract organ
Submucosa
Areolar connective tissue layer located deep of the mucosa
Serosa
Consists of a membrane that lines a body cavity and opens to the exterior; Overlays smooth muscle
Layers of GI tract
Mucosa
SerosaMuscularisSubmucosa
Mucosa
Moist GI layerSurface epithelium, lamina propria and smooth muscle
Submucosa
areolar CT
Muscularis
In all GI organs expect stomachInner layer of circular smooth muscleOuter layer of longitudinal smooth muscle
Serosa
Visceral layer of the peritoneum
Microvilli
Microscopic fingerlike projections of PM of cells that increase surface area for absorption in SI and PCT of kidneys
Rugae
Large folds in the mucosa of an empty hollow organ such as the vagina or stomach
Teniae
Bands of thickened, longitudinal smooth muscle running the length of the large intestine, except in the rectum
Haustra
Series of pouches that characterize the colon caused by contractions of teniae
Circular folds
Permanent, deep, transverse folds in the mucosa and submucosa of SI that increase the surface area for absorption
Gastrin affect on digestion
Promotes secretion of gastric juice, increases gastric motility, growth of gastric mucosa, constricts esophageal sphincter, relaxes
pyloric sphincter

Role of secretin in digestion

Stimulates release of pancreatic juice and bileInhibits secretion of gastric juice and promotes growth and maintenance of pancreas
Control of gastric secretion at gastric phase
Regulated by gastrinStimulates glands to secrete gastric juice
Effect of CCK on digestion
Causes ejection of bile from gallbladder and sphincterInduces satiety (fullness)
Cephalic phase
First phase of digestionSmell/sight/thought of food causes salivation to prepare mouth and stomach for food
Gastric phase
Begins when food hits the stomachStimulates release of gastrin
Gastrin & reflex responses stimulate gastric juice secretion
Intestinal phase
-food entering small intest. stimulates intest. cells to release gastrin
-gastrin promotes secretion of gastric juice from stomach wall
How are dietary lipids absorbed?
-Simple Diffusion-Broken down into monoglycerides and fatty acids-10-12C chains can dissolve in water-Long chains are surrounded
by bile salts, forming micelles which make them more soluble-Chylomicrons absorbed by lipoprotein lipase
Salivary amylase source and substrate
-Salivary glands-Starches
Lingual Lipase source and substrate
-Lingual glands on tongue-Lipids
Pepsin source and substrate
-Stomach chief cells-Proteins
Gastric lipase source and substrate
-Stomach chief cells-Triglycerides
Pancreatic amylase source and substrate
-Pancreatic acinar cells-Starches
Trypsin source and substrate
-Pancreatic acinar cells-Proteins
Chymotrypsin source and substrate
Pancreatic acinar cells Proteins
Elastase source and substrate
Pancreatic acinar cellsProteins
Carboxypeptidase source and substrate
Pancreatic acinar cells Amino acids
Pancreatic lipase source and substrate
Pancreatic acinar cellsTriglycerides
Ribonuclease source and substrate
Ribonucleic acid

Deoxyribonuclease source and substrate

Deoxyribonucleic acid
Carb digestion
Acidic pH of stomach stops salivary amylase breakdownPancreatic amylase in the SIBrush border enzymes break down
remains:Sucrase breaks down sucroseLactase breaks down lactoseMaltase breaks down maltose
Digestion of proteins
Begins in stomachEnzymes in pancreatic juice continue breakdown into peptidesCompleted by peptidases which cleave off amino
acids and splits dipeptides.
Name the cells of the CNS
AstrocytesOligodendrocytesMicrogliaEpendymal
Name the cells of the PNS
Neurolemmocytes (Schwann)Satellite cells
Job of Astrocytes
Star shaped, many processes, most numerousHelp form blood/brain barrier, regulate embryonic growth, maintain chemical
environment, help form new synapses
Oligondrocytes function
Help form myelin sheath which wraps around CNS, myelinates several axons at one time
Microglia function
Phagocytes of CNS, removes damaged cells or tissue and cleans up debris
Ependymal cells
Simple, cuboidal or columnarProduce CSF
Schwaan cells function
Form myelin sheath of peripheral cells, an only affect one axon at a time
Satellite cells function
Surround cell bodies and help with support and exchange of materials
Types of nerves
Sensory: conduct impulses to the brain or spinal cordCranial: originate in the brain and communicate with other body partsMotor:
contain fibers essentially involved in motor control of muscles and glandsSpinal: from spinal cord and communiate with other body
parts; 31 pairsMixed: contain sensory and motor neurons
Parts of a neuron
Cell body: nucleus and cytoplasm
Dendrites: carry info into cell body
Axon: carry info away from body to the synaptic end bulb
Cytoplasm: fluid and organelles
Parts of axon and functions
Nissil Bodies: clusters of RER; critical for restoration of damaged nerves
Axon Hillock: where axon joins cell body
Initial segment: trigger zone; where ap is initiated
Axolemma: phospholipid bilayer surrounding the axon
Axoplasm: fluid inside axon
All-or-none principle
If a stimulus depolarizes a a neuron to a threshold neuron fires at max voltage, if does not meet threshold, neuron doesn't fire at all
Define parallel after discharge circuit
-Multiple routes getting to post synaptic side

Reverberating circuit
ongoing process; sleep and waking cycle, short-term memory
Converging circuit
many presynaptic, one post-synaptic; skeletal muscle control
Diverging circuit
one presynaptic, many post synaptic
Define AP
Sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease and reverse the membrane potential and then eventually restore it to resting
state
Depolarizing phase
Negative membrane potential becomes less negative, reaches zero and becomes more positive
Repolarizing phase
Membrane potential restored to resting resting state
Define resting membrane potential
Difference in voltage of the fluids inside a cell and outside a cellUsually between -70 to -80 millivolts (mV)
Define Threshold
the intensity that must be exceeded for a certain reaction to occur
Parasympathetic roles
"Flight"Stimulates relaxation, digestions
Sympathetic
"Fight"Increases BP, release of sugar from the liver into the blood, preps body for action
Regeneration in CNS
Macrophages phagocytize debris, RNA and protein synthesis accelerates; Schwann cells on either side grow toward each other
may form regeneration tube
Repair of Nervous tissue
Exhibits plasticity but has few powers of regenerationNeurogenesis does not occur in CNSAxons and dendrites in PNS undergo
repair if cell body is intact, Schwann cells are functional, slow scar tissue repair
Neurogenesis
the birth of new neurons from undifferentiated stem cells is limited
CSF: role, production, location
produced from ependymal cells that cover choroid plexus; circulates in ventricles, central canal, and subarachnoid space;
a) Shock absorbing
b) Maintains pH for pulmonary ventilation and blood flow, transport system for polypeptides
c) Minor exchange of nutrients and waste products b/w blood and nervous tissue.
Spinal nerves
connect CNS to sensory receptors; named according to region and level from which they emerge.
Cervical Segment
large diameter; a lot of white matter; large posterior horn, small anterior horn
Thoracic segment
Small diameter, little gray matter

Lumbar segment
almost circular; less white matter than in cervical
Sacral segment
small; large amount of gray matter; horns are thick and large
Coccygeal segment
Resembles lower sacral spinal segments
Cervical plexus
C1-C5; supplies skin and muscles of head, neck and superior part of shoulders and chest.
Brachial Plexus
C5-C8 and T1; supplies shoulders and upper limbs
Lumbar Plexus
L1-L4; supplies anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitals and part of lower limbs
Sacral plexus
L4-L5, S1-S4; buttocks, perineum, and lower limbs (sciatic nerve)
Coccygeal plexus
S4-S5; supplies skin in coccygeal area
Meninges
3 protective CT coverings; encircle brain and spinal cord; cover nerves up to point of exit Dura: superficial, dense, irregular
CTArachnoid: middle layer; avascular, collagen and elastin, delicatePia: deep; thin squamous to cubodial cells, blood vessels supply
02 and nutrients. Contains extensions called denticulate ligaments
Spinothalmic tract
Lateral: pain, temp, itch, tickle, Anterior: pressure and crude touch
Tract types and stimuli
Ascending: sensoryDescending: motor
Cranial reflex
integration occurs in brainstem not spinal cord
Somatic reflex
Contraction of skeletal muscles
Automatic (visceral) reflexes
Not consciously perceived; responses of smooth & cardiac muscle and glands
Reflex arc functional components (5)
-Sensory Receptor: responds to stimulus-Sensory Neuron: Neuron sent to brain allows conscious awareness of reflex-Integrating
center:synapse between sensory and motor neuron-Motor neuron: Impulses propogate out to body part that will respond-Effector:
Part of body that responds
Division of brain
-Brain stem: midbrain, pons, medulla
-Cerebellum: posterior of brain, motor movement, skill refinement
-Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus
-Cerebrum: controls higher centers of the brain
Blood flow to the brain
1.Internal carotid
2.Vertebral arteries: pass through transverse process through cervical vertebrae

3.Circle of Willis: comes up through brain stem

4.Internal jugular veins
Thalamus location and key roles
Inner chamberRelay station for most sensory and motor impulses and relays nerve impulses between different areas of the brain
Blood Brain Barrier structure and roles
Function: around capillaries in brain that protect brain tissue by preventing substances from getting into brain tissue
-Structure: astrocytes held by tight junctions; selectively permeable membrane
-Permeability: some antibiotics, large molecules cannot get through; alcohol, some drugs, oxygen, glucose can pass. Affects
thalamus (self-control) when too much passes through
Brain stem components
Medulla oblongata, pons and mid brain
Medulla oblongata function
Regulate heart rate, blood vessel diameter, reflexes for vomiting, swallowing, coughing and hiccupping, touch, hearing, balance &
taste sensation
Pons
Regulates breathing
Midbrain
Visual reflexesHead, eye and trunk moving in response to visual stimuli, Startle reflex, control subconscious muscle activities
RAS
Dealing with the waking and sleeping cycle
Choroid Plexus role and location
Network of blood capillaries in the ventriclesProduces CSF
Pneumotaxic and apneustic areas location and roles
Located in the ponsControl breathing with medullary rhythmicity centre
Commissural tracts
contain axons that conduct nerve impulses from gyri to gyri in corresponding hemispheres: corpus callosum (broad band of white
matter), anterior commissure, posterior commisure
Protein anabolism/catabolism
Catabolism: glucocorticoidsAnabolism: androgens
Sertoli
Stimulate release of inhibin which controls release of FSH
Cranial nerve for equilibrium
Vestibulochoclear nerves
Right hemisphere function
Controls left side musclesEmotional intelligence, facial recognition, music, art, odour discrimination, space and pattern perception
Left hemisphere function
Control right side musclesReasoningNumbers and scientific skillsSpoken and written language
Sensory areas function
Recieve sensory info and are involved in perception, conscious awareness of sensation
Motor ares
Control the execution of voluntary movements

Define muscle spindle

Proprioceptors in skeletal muscle that monitor changes in length of skeletal muscles and participate in stretch reflexes
Golgi tendon organ
capsule encloses collagen fibres and sensory nerve endingsinhibits over stretching leading to damage
Receptor potential
Trigger release of neurotransmitter through exocytosis of synaptic vesiclesSpecific to special sense (all but olfaction)
Generator potentials
Produced by nerve endings and olfactory receptorsActive in olfaction
Mechanoreceptors
Sensitive to mechanical stimuli (deformation, bending, or stretching of cells)Provide touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception,
hearing and equilibrium sensations
Meissner corpuscles
Touch, pressure and slow vibration
Hair root plexus
Touch
Merkel Discs
Touch and pressire
Ruffini corpuscles
Stretching of skin
Pacinian Corpuscles
Pressure and fast vibrations
Adaptation
The property by which a sensory neuron relays a decreased frequency of APs from receptor though strength of stimulus remains
constant
Transduction
Conversion of energy in a stimulus into a GP; each sensory receptor can only transduce one kind of stimulus
Referred pain
Visceral pain is felt in a region of the skinEx: heart pain = left arm
Receptor field
Area around specific receptor that is sensitive to the same stimulus
Punctuate distribution
Some areas have higher concentrations of receptors than other ares
First order
Receptor to spinal cord
Second order pathway
Spinal cord to thalamus
3 order pathway
Thalamus to specific brain areas
Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway

Conveys impulses for touch, pressure, vibration and conscious proprioceptionTravel along white matter tracts
Sleep stage 1
Transition into sleep stageRelaxed, eyes closed, fleeting thoughts
Sleep stage 2
Experiencing dream fragments
Sleep stage 3
Moderately deep sleepTemp and BP decrease
Stage 4 Sleep
Deepest sleepWhen sleepwalking occurs
REM
Rapid eye movementWhen dreams occur
ADH role
Causes kidneys to absorb more water, decreasing urine volumeDecreases water lost through sweating and causes constriction of
arterioles, increasing BP
Oxytosin
During delivery enhances contraction of smooth muscle cells of uterus; stimulates milk ejection in response to suckling
Prolactin
With other hormones, initiates and maintains milk production by mammary glands
T3 and T4
Thyroid hormones made of iodineProduce calcitonin which regulates calcium homeostasis
Calcitonin
Regulates calcium levelsIf levels are high: inhibits bone resorption by osteoclasts and accelerates uptake of Ca by bone ECM
Pancreatic hormones
Glucagon: Breaks down glycogen to increase glucose in the bloodInsulin: Lowers blood glucose by accelerating glucose transport
into cells Somatostatin: inhibits release of insulin and glucagon; slows absorption of nutrients
islets of Langerhams
Clusters of endocrine tissueSecrete insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide
Low blood glucose Insulin response mechanism
1.Low glucose (hypoglycemia) stimulates glucagon secretion2.Causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose3.Gluose released
and raise blood sugar to normal

Hyperglycemia (high glucose) response

1)Beta cells secrete insulin2)Insulin acts on cell to accerate glucose diffusion, glycogenesis, uptake of a.a.'s, increased protein synth,
slow glycogenesis3)Blood glucose falls4)If levels fall to low, hypoglycemia inhibits insulin release
H20 Soluble hormones
Amines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, melatonin, histamine, serotonin)PeptidesProstaglandinsLeukotrienes
Up regulation
When hormone is deficient the number of receptor for the hormone increases making cell more sensitive to hormone
Down regulation
If hormone is present in excess, number of receptors may decrease so target cell is LESS sensitive to hormone

Steroid effects and risks

Increases protein synthesis in muscles - increasing strengthRisks: liver cancer, kidney damage, increased risk of heart disease,
stunted growth, aggression, diminished testosterone secretion
Hormones affecting heart rate
Epinephrine/ norepinephron enhance HR effectiveness - exercise causes adrenal medulla to release these hormonesThyroid
hormones also increase HR
Glucagon role
Acts on hepatocytes to convert glycogen to glucose and form glucose from lactic acid
Terminal ganglia
located close to or in the wall of visceral organs; usually parasympathetic