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Received 6 November 2003; received in revised form 13 January 2004; accepted 16 May 2004
Abstract
Increases in the environmental awareness of global consumers coupled with pressure from regional stakeholders has forced
forest managers to demonstrate the potential implications of forest management activities for a broad range of indicators. This
paper describes the construction and application of a hierarchical decision-support system for evaluating multi-objective
management options for a 288,000 ha forest in northeastern British Columbia. The decision-support system includes a standlevel model, a forest estate model, a habitat model and a visualization model. A set of criteria and indicators, developed in
conjunction with a public advisory committee, were used to identify key economic, ecological and social objectives. Indicators
include volume harvested, gross profit, active road density, ecosystem carbon storage, age-class distribution, patch-size
distribution, snag density, visual aesthetics and backcountry recreation area. A natural disturbance baseline and two alternative
harvest strategies that include natural disturbance are projected and assessed with the decision-support system. The first strategy
represents a dispersed harvesting approach in which cut blocks are limited to sizes <60 ha. The second strategy represents an
aggregated harvesting approach in which a range of cut block sizes (up to 2000 ha) and shapes is created that more closely
follows the distribution of openings generated from natural disturbance events in the region. Spatial and temporal changes in
each indicator are presented and evaluated for the harvest strategies, and compared to the natural disturbance baseline where
appropriate. The application of the decision-support system for strategic analysis of management options is discussed, including
a review of the importance of representing the impacts of natural disturbance and the benefits and risks associated with the use of
visualization techniques for presenting results to stake holder groups.
# 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Decision-support system; Multi-objective forest management; Hierarchical modelling framework; Forest planning
1. Introduction
*
0378-1127/$ see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2004.05.048
284
and mechanisms for feedback from researchers, industry, and stakeholder groups (see Fig. 1). The DSS plays
a critical role in this process by:
(1) highlighting potential conflicts between competing management objectives,
(2) providing a common, science-based framework
for stakeholders to evaluate the potential consequences of specific management options,
(3) conveying knowledge about the long-term dynamics of forest ecosystems, and
(4) providing guidance for the monitoring process by
projecting expected trends in selected indicators.
At the heart of DSSs are models or modelling
frameworks designed to project and/or interpret the
consequences of different management activities.
DSSs designed to address issues at multiple spatial
and temporal scales have increasingly employed a
framework of hierarchically linked or nested models
(e.g. Li et al., 2000; McGregor Model Forest, 2001;
Lamas and Eriksson, 2003; Kazana et al., 2003;
Nelson, 2003a). The hierarchical structure facilitates
problem analysis across different planning levels (i.e.
tactical versus strategic) by allowing for the addition
of complexity where warranted and necessary (Lamas
and Eriksson, 2003; Nelson, 2003a). Moreover, the
modular approach allows for increased flexibility
within a DSS as it facilitates the use of different
models to address specific problems or ecosystem
types (Li et al., 2000).
Common components of modelling frameworks
developed for multi-objective forest management
include stand-level growth and yield or vegetation
dynamics models, forest-level harvest schedulers,
and a wide range of habitat suitability models (see
Guisan and Zimmermann, 2000). The validity of a
modelling framework for addressing multi-resource
management questions is dependent not only on the
capabilities of the individual models within the framework but also on the nature of the links that are created
to facilitate communication between models. For
example, forest planners are commonly faced with
the problem of trying to drive habitat suitability
models with standard output from growth and yield
models (e.g. basal area and stem volume) that is often
only weakly correlated with key habitat elements (e.g.
snags, coarse woody debris, non-crop species, etc.).
285
Fig. 1. An illustration of the role of the DSS in supporting the decision-making process in development and implementation of a sustainable
forest management plan. The DSS provides a method for evaluating the potential impacts of alternative management scenarios on indicators of
identified forest values. The symbol () denotes that it is essential that experts familiar with the ecosystems in question and the assumptions
and limitations of the DSS be involved in the scenario evaluation process. Once decisions have been implemented, their impacts can be
monitored as part of an adaptive management cycle (dashed lines) that provides feedback on the effectiveness of past management decisions
and on the quality of the projections made by the DSS. This information is used to guide further research.
This type of problem typically stems from an inappropriate extension of models originally developed for
timber production analysis to multi-objective analysis
(Kangas et al., 2000). Another problem inherent in
creating links between different models is that they
often operate at different spatial and temporal scales.
Bugmann et al. (2000) identified errors in scaling as a
pervasive problem among modelling efforts where
stand-level models were extrapolated up to landscapes.
To provide a level of confidence for the use of DSSs
in the public evaluation of tradeoffs, it is essential that
the core models/frameworks are constructed on scientifically credible foundations (Kangas et al., 2000) and
that the data resources used to drive them (inventory
data, habitat suitability relationships, etc.) are reasonably reliable (Eid, 2000; Bunnell and Boyland, 2002).
It has also been suggested that given our general lack
of field experience with many of the silvicultural
systems employed under ecosystem management
and the uncertainty associated with natural distur-
286
Fig. 2. A schematic illustration of the University of British Columbia Forest Management DSS (UBC-FM). The principal flow of information
within the modelling framework is in the clockwise direction beginning with projection of management and disturbance events and moving
towards interpretation in the context of selected indicators.
compare and contrast their effect upon forest productivity, stand dynamics, and various biophysical indicators of non-timber values. The model uses a hybrid
approach whereby local growth and yield data (often
from locally calibrated empirical growth and yield
models) are combined with other data to derive estimates of the rates of key ecosystem processes related to
the productivity and resource requirements of selected
species. FORECAST uses derived measures of decomposition, nutrient cycling, light competition, and other
ecosystem properties to simulate forest growth and
ecosystem dynamics under changing management
and environmental conditions. Growth and yield in
complex stands is based on a simulated partitioning
of limited resources (light and nutrients) among species
and age cohorts. The biological properties of individual
species, as defined by the input data, determine their
relative competitiveness for limited resources. The ability of FORECAST to project the development of stand
attributes related to both timber and non-timber values
in an integrated system provides a strong foundation for
the UBC-FM modelling framework.
2.1.2. Forest-level simulationharvest scheduling
(FPS-ATLAS)
FPS-ATLAS (Nelson, 2003b) is a spatially explicit,
forest-level simulation model designed for harvest
scheduling. In a given time step, the model grows
the forest for a specified period, implements natural
disturbance regimes (if so desired), and then simulates
a harvest. These steps are repeated until the desired
planning horizon is reached, which typically requires
several rotations. The forest is comprised of stand
polygons, and each of these are linked to a series of
age-dependent attribute tables, such as the merchantable volume/ha, provided by the stand-level model
FORECAST. Harvests are controlled by setting
volume production targets for each time period, setting harvest queue priorities and implementing constraints such as seral stage limits and adjacency rules.
The representation of natural disturbance within FPSATLAS is described in Section 3.4.2. FPS-ATLAS is
also capable of simulating transportation activity on a
road network. In addition to harvest outputs such as
area and volume treated, the model also produces a list
of the current status of every polygon in every time
period that is used by other models in UBC-FM (e.g.
habitat, visual).
287
288
Table 1
Estimates of pre-fire suppression disturbance rates and patch-size distributions for each of the Natural Disturbance Units (NDU) within the
study area
Natural
Disturbance Unit
Total
area (%)
Disturbance
cycle (years)
Patches
>1000 ha (%)
Patches
1001000 ha (%)
Patches
51100 ha (%)
Patches
<50 ha (%)
32.9
26.2
22.4
18.5
150
120
100
900
40
40
70
10
30
30
20
60
10
10
5
10
20
20
5
20
289
290
Fig. 5. Graphical representation of the relative relationship between individual indicators employed within the UBC-FM and the three broad
forest value categories.
Table 2
A description of the set of indicators used within UBC-FM for the case study analysis of Block 4
Indicator
Description
Units
Volume harvested
m3
Gross profit
Age-class distribution
Patch-size distribution
Snags
Visual aesthetics
Backcountry condition
km ha1
Mt C
ha
ha
% of total area
na
% of total area
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Table 3
Summary of the management scenarios simulated with FPS-ATLAS
Scenario
Block size
Baseline no harvest
Dispersed harvesting
Aggregated harvesting
na
<60 ha
402000 ha
Pre-fire suppression
33% of pre-fire suppression
33% of pre-fire suppression
na
2.43
2.49
292
4. Results
4.1. Stand-level results
Example output from FORECAST is shown for two
of the discrete stand units. Fig. 6 illustrates the simulated development of a natural mixed spruce and aspen
stand that originated following a stand-replacing fire
within the boreal plains NDU. Fig. 7 illustrates the
simulated development of an uneven-aged sprucesubalpine fir stand within the wet mountain NDU
that originated following an irregular shelterwood
harvest in which most (>90%) of the merchantable
stems were removed but advanced regeneration was
retained. Under this silviculture system, the retained
stems are not harvested until the entire stand reaches
Fig. 6. Stand-level simulation results from FORECAST showing merchantable volume, ecosystem C storage, and large snags for a natural
mixed aspen-spruce stand following a stand replacing fire. Images of the stand are shown for three time periods (A) year 30, (B) year 70, and
(C) year 130. The lines on the attribute graphs correspond with the time periods for the images.
293
Fig. 7. Stand-level simulation results from FORECAST showing merchantable volume, ecosystem C storage, and large snags for a managed
spruce-subalpine fir stand in the wet mountain NDU following harvest using an irregular shelterwood system. Images of the stand are shown for
three time periods (A) year 10, (B) year 90, and (C) year 170. The lines on the attribute graphs correspond with the time periods for the images.
294
Fig. 8. Simulation results showing averages for (A) total volume harvested, (B) road density in harvested area, (C) length of active road
network, and (D) gross profit per unit wood volume harvested for each of the management scenarios in Block 4. The dashed lines represent
95% confidence intervals for the five runs of each scenario.
simulation period. Interestingly, patterns in the ageclass structure in the natural disturbance baseline
scenario are quite similar to those in the harvest
scenarios. While the total area disturbed in the natural
baseline scenario was about a third higher, on average,
than that in the harvesting scenarios (Fig. 10), the
harvest disturbance was focused on older stands while
the natural disturbance by fire was age-independent
(equal probability for all stands). It appears that these
different disturbance regimes tend to converge toward
similar age-class structures.
4.2.3. Carbon storage
An evaluation of changes in total ecosystem C
storage provides a useful summary of the impact of
management on the net transfer of C between the
295
Fig. 9. Simulation results showing age-class distributions for three time periods for all three scenarios. The age-class structure of the forest
remains relatively stable for all scenarios after simulation time 205.
Fig. 10. Average area disturbed during each period for each
scenario. Disturbance is separated into harvest and natural (fire)
disturbance.
296
Fig. 11. Simulation results showing average total ecosystem C storage for each of the scenarios in Block 4. The dashed lines represent 95%
confidence intervals for the five runs of each scenario.
297
Fig. 12. Simulation results showing averages for the percent of forested area that contains large snags (>25 cm dbh) in the following classes:
(A) deciduous 210 snags ha1, (B) deciduous >10 snags ha1, (C) conifer 210 snags ha1, and (D) conifer >10 snags ha1 for all three
scenarios. Notice the difference in scale between panels AB and CD. The dashed lines represent 95% confidence intervals for the five runs
of each scenario.
298
Fig. 13. Simulation results showing averages for the percent of forested area within (A) large patches (>1000 ha), and (B) very small patches
(<50 ha) for each scenario. The dashed lines represent 95% confidence intervals for the five runs of each scenario. Notice the difference in
scale between panels A and B.
299
Fig. 14. Spatial distribution of age-class patches for each of the three simulated scenarios showing landscape patterns for the initial condition
and simulation years 35, 75 and 155.
300
5. Discussion
5.1. Application of UBC-FM for the Block 4 case
study
The general intent of the case study presented here
was to illustrate the application of UBC-FM to assess
alternative spatial harvest strategies for Block 4 and to
301
Fig. 15. Recreation opportunity assessment showing the percent of total area in each ROS class for the (A) aggregated and (B) dispersed
harvesting scenarios. The ROS classes shown here include Roaded Modified (RM), Roaded Natural (RN), Semi-Primitive Motorized (SPM),
and Semi-primitive Non-Motorized (SPNM). A detailed description of the classes is provided in the text. Only the first 50 years of the
simulations are shown.
Fig. 16. Aerial oblique visualization of the Highhat Valley within Block 4.
302
when developing plans for sustainable forest management. Thus, by incorporating natural disturbance
regimes within DSSs, we can increase the likelihood
of producing plans that are capable of absorbing the
effects of natural disturbance.
5.3. Use of a hierarchical structure for an integrated
analysis of C&I
To adequately evaluate the tradeoffs that inevitably
arise in developing multiple-objective forest management plans, it is necessary to establish sound linkages
between indicators of ecosystem function, biodiversity, and social and economic values (Yamasaki et al.,
2002). Likewise, the models employed to project the
implications of forest management on such diverse
sets of indicators must be capable of integrated analyses (e.g. Kangas et al., 2000). However, given the
fact that these indicator sets typically span multiple
spatial and temporal scales, it is often problematic to
represent them within a single model. The use of
hierarchical modelling frameworks, in which a series
of complementary models are linked either dynamically or through shared databases, provides an effective method for conducting integrated planning
analyses (Li et al., 2000; Lamas and Eriksson,
2003; Nelson, 2003a). While the use of shared databases is the simplest approach for linking models, it is
not without problems. For instance, when scaling up
from the stand to the landscape, the shared database
approach can lead to systematic errors in the projection and extrapolation of indicators. Specifically, this
type of problem can arise when polygons or discrete
stand units, represented within the landscape model,
transition from one attribute curve to another (e.g.
from a natural condition to a managed condition).
While some stand attributes such merchantable
volume can easily be reset with stand age, other more
continuous attributes such as ecosystem C storage may
be subject to significant errors during curve transition.
It is possible to minimize such errors by anticipating
transition pathways, representing them explicitly in
the stand-level model and then building them into the
shared database. Alternatively, it may be necessary to
create dynamic links between the stand and landscapelevel models. Regardless, the hierarchical framework
provides an effective system for conducting such
analyses.
303
6. Conclusions
The multi-resource nature of modern forest management requires the capability to evaluate complex
spatio-temporal relationships associated with competing forest values. In developing strategic and tactical
management plans, decision makers require DSSs that
allow them to assess the potential implications of
management alternatives for a range of ecological,
economic and social indicators of sustainable forest
management. Hierarchical modelling frameworks, in
which a series of complementary models are linked
either dynamically or through shared databases, represent an effective method for meeting such challenges.
While DSSs, invariably based on our limited knowledge of forest ecosystems, do not provide any new
information (e.g. Bunnell and Boyland, 2002), they do
provide a framework to assess the consequences of
management decisions within a system that conforms
to our assumptions about ecosystems and are thus
useful in a decision-support role. Where possible,
natural disturbance regimes should be incorporated
304
into DSSs to facilitate the development of management plans that are robust in the face increasing
uncertainty in climate and associated natural disturbance events.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by a collaborative grant
from the National Science and Engineering Research
Council of Canada, the Social Science and Humanities
Research Council of Canada, the Canadian Forest Service, and Canadian Forest Products Ltd., entitled
Exploring, Forecasting and Visualizing the Sustainability of Alternative Ecosystem Management Scenarios. We would like to thank Don Rosen, Warren Jukes,
and Evan Saugstad of Canadian Forest Products Ltd. for
their significant contributions to this project. We would
also like to acknowledge the contributions of Arnold
Moy, Devon Haag, Tim Shannon, and Duncan Cavens.
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