Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Scenario of solid waste reuse in Khulna city of Bangladesh

Quazi H. Bari a,, K. Mahbub Hassan a, R. Haque b
a
b

Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Khulna 9203, Bangladesh
Project Builders Ltd., Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 29 November 2011
Accepted 2 July 2012
Available online 5 August 2012
Keywords:
Solid waste
Reuse
Shops
Paper
Bags

a b s t r a c t
The reuse and recycling of waste materials are now sincerely considered to be an integral part of solid
waste management in many parts of the world. In this context, a vast number of options ranging from
small scale decentralized to larger scale centralized plants have been adopted. This study aimed at investigating the waste reuse schemes in Khulna city located in the southern part of Bangladesh and ranked
third largest city in the country. The shops for reusable material (SRM) were mostly situated around railway, waterway, and truck station markets which provided easy transportation to further locations. For
the reuses of waste materials and products, a chain system was found to collect reusable wastes under
a total number of 310 identied SRM with 859 persons directly or indirectly involved in the scheme. This
was a decentralized waste management system with self sufcient (autonomous) management. According to mass balance, about 38.52 tons d 1 solid wastes were reused in Khulna city area, accounting for
7.65% of the total generated wastes. This study revealed that apparently a silent, systematic, smooth,
and clean reuse chain has been established in Khulna city area under private initiatives, whose sustainability was conrmed over the years in the country without any ofcial or formal funds. However, proper
adjustment between the higher and lower chain in the materials ow path, as well as personal hygiene
training for the workers, would further improve the achievements of the established reuse scheme.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The management of solid waste represents a major economic
and environmental issue throughout the world (Demirbas, 2010).
Higher recycling rates for valuable materials from waste streams
could play a signicant role substituting for virgin material
production and saving fossil resources (Tonini and Astrup, 2012).
Current trends in production, consumption, and waste management have led to enormous emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse
gases. The sources of such emissions are numerous, ranging from
carbon dioxide released during the extraction and production of
new materials to methane from the decomposition of organic
waste in landlls. The improvement of living standards of human
beings through technological development and population growth
have led to an increase in the generation rate of solid wastes.
Waste is produced everywhere from small houses to large industries. As the population and use of resources are higher in urban
areas, the rate of waste generation is also high. Urban residents
generate two to three times more solid waste than their fellow rural citizens. The urban areas of Asia now spend about US$25 billion
on solid waste management per year, with this gure increasing to
at least US$50 billion in 2025 (World Bank, 1999). The municipal Corresponding author.
E-mail address: qhbari@yahoo.com (Q.H. Bari).
0956-053X/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2012.07.001

ities and local governments are under heavy pressure to nd sustainable and cost-effective waste management policies. A recent
study revealed that the recyclable household waste was mainly
collected through well-established recycling schemes for paper
and glass, and also bio-waste in some municipalities, but schemes
dedicated to collecting other packaging materials were few but
emerging (Larsen et al., 2010). Some wastes such as polythene does
not rot and remains unchanged in the soil over the years causing
soil pollution. Furthermore, it may cause clogging and hamper
the drainage system. Marine pollution, demonstrated most visibly
by the Great Pacic Garbage Patch in the northern Pacic gyre, is
now a major environmental concern (USEPA, 2011). Research has
found that the mass of plastics in the gyre now exceeds the total
mass of living creatures (plankton) by 61. Generally, solid waste
planners place too much emphasis on residential waste; this waste
represents only about 30% of the overall municipal waste stream,
but often receives the lions share of attention (World Bank,
1999). The waste components requiring priority attention in Asia
are organics and paper (World Bank, 1999). Thus, an appropriate
solid waste management scheme is necessary to face global environmental challenges in the 21st century. More specically, solid
waste problems in developing countries are aggravated by the malfunctioning of traditional waste management systems due to the
rapid development and the concentration of the population
(Deshmukh et al., 2002). The total population of developing

Q.H. Bari et al. / Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

countries accounts for more than 70% of the worlds population

(JICA, 2005). Waste management in these countries is of grave concern from two points of view. Firstly, the process of urbanization
and population concentration that is inextricably linked to waste
management issues is progressing at a pace that is much faster
than was ever experienced by todays industrialized countries
(DESA, 2011). The issue of waste management in developing countries, therefore, has emerged as a critical and impending disaster.
Secondly, these countries often have difculty in streamlining
the institutional systems, administrative bodies, management
capabilities and human resources that are needed to take the lead
in solving solid waste problems (UNEP, 2009). It is thus very difcult for them to respond effectively to the newly emerging challenge of solid waste management. This is a situation that is
common to many developing countries due to the negative legacy
of long periods of colonial subordination, education problems and
various other factors (JICA, 2005). Khulna city is located in the
southern part of Bangladesh and ranked third largest city in the
country which would represent a typical scenario for the recycle/
reuse scheme of solid wastes in the context of developing countries. Many researchers have already addressed the recycling of
solid wastes in developing countries (Diamadopoulos et al., 1995;
Shuchi et al., 1998; Tilman and Sandhu, 1998). However, the existing reuse scheme of solid waste has yet to be addressed for its potential improvement with regards to longterm sustainability. Thus,
it would be interesting to perform a comprehensive investigation
on the reuses and related recycling features of solid wastes in
the perspective of developing countries. This study aimed at investigating ongoing solid waste reuse patterns in the Khulna city area
of Bangladesh. The nal objective was to formulate a general physical model based on the materials ow path and to propose measures for further improving the already established reuse scheme.
2. Methodology
In developing countries, the waste reuse scheme is managed by
the informal sector, especially the urban poor, as a means of
employment (Cointreau, 1994; Van de Klundert and Anschtz,
2001). Generally, this is a decentralized waste management system
with self sufcient (autonomous) management. The system is
characterized by having separate small-scaled ows and exible
management systems with a high involvement of end users. Such
decentralized systems include small scale private waste collection
systems and informal recycling projects. Decentralized systems
managing ows of materials close to production areas are, therefore, being considered in view of their low management costs.
The decentralized system seems to work better as far as urban
infrastructures are concerned, especially in situations where a centralized system is not yet in place and in situations where the end
users of these systems strive to function independently of higher
level institutions and authorities. In this study, a eld investigation
was carried out in Khulna city area to locate the shops dealing with
the reuse of solid waste materials. During this investigation, a
questionnaire form was drafted along the lines of another study
(Moniruzzaman, 2007). A thorough classication of the shops for
reusable material (SRM) was performed on the basis of their size
and the types of waste materials they handled.
2.1. Selection of study area
Khulna, the third largest city of Bangladesh, is located in the
southern part of the country and is situated below the tropic of
cancer, around the intersection of latitude 22.49N and longitude
89.34E. The area of Khulna city is 47 square km with a population
1.5 million (BBS, 2009). With regards to investigating the activities

2527

of solid waste reuse, a eld survey was conducted in the Khulna

city area. The shops for reusable materials (SRMs) were developed
in the vicinity of three types of transportation modes such as the
city railway station, city river port and a local truck stand. These
places were dedicated to wholesale business centers for different
commodities and termed an Intercity ExportImport Zone. Consequently, this area had become very important for material reuse
activities such as reusing jute bags for importing food grains and
potatoes, and other containers sent back to origin for relling
and returned again and again until the end of its life time. The selected study sites for SRM in Khulna city were: Khalishpur (KP),
Daulatpur (DP), Railway Market (RM), Power House (PH), and other
places (OPs) which cover Moilapota (MP), Gollamari and the Lobonchora area (Fig. 1).
2.2. Field survey in the selected area
The shops for reusable materials (SRMs) have been developed in
cluster form. The shops were categorized according to the type of
wastes they dealt with, the size of shops, and the number of workers in each shop. Based on a preliminary survey, some shops were
selected for a detailed survey. Most of the SRM proprietors were
not willing to provide the data because they worried about being
subject to increasing taxes. Every SRM had scales to assess the
weight of materials and they kept informal records in different
units (e.g., kg, pieces, etc.). However, it was interesting to recover
a some sensitive information from the traditional reuse pattern.
The eld survey was carried out for 1 year and covered interviews
of 59 SRM out of a total of 310 identied SRM. The number of SRM
dealers in the city area was determined by a direct counting method. The quantity of waste materials and products for reuse and
their buying/selling prices were collected from the record book
or memory of each dealer. The information about the source of
their collection, selling place, the numbers of employees, etc. were
also obtained from the questionnaire survey. Finally, the gross
average quantities of different wastes were determined in kg d 1.
Then the total quantity of waste per category was estimated by
multiplying the average weight (in kg d 1) and the total identied
SRM of each category.
3. Results and discussion
The reuse of solid waste materials have opened up an important
opportunity for the various groups in the community in Khulna
city. The reuse scheme of solid waste is presently carried out by
a host of waste collectors, dealers and workers. Although the reuse
scheme has not yet been included in the waste management policy
by local government, it has become a main source of income for
several groups of the community in the private sector. The shops
for reusable material (SRM) use to sell and buy the valuable parts
of solid waste materials for their further use. These shops were
classied into eight groups according to the materials dealt with:
plastic bag, jute bag, paper carton, garment, book, paper, electronic
devices, and mixed items (Table 1). The majority of SRM were
found to be dealing with jute bags (108 SRM) and old garments
(120 SRM). Nevertheless, SRM for plastic bags, paper cartons and
books were found to be 29, 13 and 12, respectively. Furthermore,
several SRM handling papers, electronic devices and miscellaneous
items were identied in different locations of 33 markets in the
city area. Most of the shops were small in size with few workers,
13 (average 1.75 per SRM), and located near Khulna Railway Market and Powerhouse Truck Station areas. From the eld survey it
was found that the major reusable materials were different types
of bags (plastic and jute), papers, paper products (packets), books,
garments, electronic and small home appliances, fridges, tents, etc.

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Q.H. Bari et al. / Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

Fig. 1. Location of study areas in Khulna city of Bangladesh.

Table 1
Number, classication and worker of SRMs in different locations.
Place (paper)

Plastic bag

Jute bag

Carton

Garments

Book

Paper

Electronic

Mixed of all

Total

Worker

KP
DP
RM
PH
OP
Total
Average worker (internal including owner + external)
Total worker (internal including owner + external)
Total worker

10 (20)
2 (5)
1 (4)
13 (29)

3 (42)
(10)b
(56)b
3 (108)

6 (12)

6 (12)

7 (120)

7 (120)

5 (13)

5 (13)
1.75 + 1.02
543 + 316
859

5 (5)
1 (1)
(1)

6 (7)

1 (2)
1 (2)

2 (4)

9 (9)
3 (3)

1 (1)
4 (4)
17 (17)

14
4
27
9
5
59 (310)

21+a4
10 + 35
50 + 6
11
11 + 15
103 + 60

() Number including all identied SRM from preliminary survey.

a
Number of external workers.
b
Information collected from Railway Market (RM) area.

Specic outcomes of this study for major reusable materials were

delineated in the following sections.
3.1. Used plastic bags
There were 29 SRM identied under this category; among those,
13 were surveyed for counting the number of workers and six in detail. Three of these SRM had been dealing with cement bags and
handled around 1450 cement bags a day (Table 2). They produced

different types of shopping bags from the used cement bags

(Fig. 2). The selling price of a large shopping bag was found to be
7 Tk each (1Euro = 106 Taka, August 5, 2011). Another four SRM produced different sizes of shopping bags using large plastic bags other
than cement bags which include the used bags for rice, fertilizer, etc.
However, one of those SRM shops was found to be trading both cement and plastic bags. These SRM experienced a large variation in
handling the numbers of plastic bags (from 100 to 2000 nos) everyday with a total number around 3150/day. The buying price varied

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Q.H. Bari et al. / Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

Table 2
Waste materials and products for reuse: Bag and carton.
Shop No.

01
02

03
04
05
06
07
08
09

10
11
12
13
14
15
a
b

Waste

Reuse/product
1

Types

Amount (kg d

Cement bag
Cartons
Cement bag
Plastic bag
Cartons
Cement bag
Plastic bag
Plastic bag
Plastic bag
Cartons
Cartons
Cartons
Average of plastic bag
Average of carton
Paper
Paper
Paper
Average of paper
Jute bag
Jute bag
Jute bag
Average of jute bag

33 (300400a)
300400
57 (600)
7.4 (100)
500
47.5 (400600)
111 (10002000)
74 (1000)
40.7 (500600)
320400
50100
370 (5000)
62b
331b
500700
70150
50300
295b
358.3 (410)
218.5 (250)
74.3 (85)
217b (248)

Price (Tk)

Types

Price (Tk)

7/No.
9/kg
7/No.
4.5/No.
9/kg
4.5/No.
5/No.
212/No.

9.50/kg
12.50/kg
1020/No.

Bag
Cartons
Bag
Bag
Cartons
Shopping bag
Bag
Bag
Plastic bag
Cartons
Cartons
Cartons

9/Nos.
10/kg
89/Nos.
56/Nos.
10/kg
2870/Nos.
5.50/Nos.
2.5012.50

10/kg
13.5/kg
1121/Nos.

715/kg
515/kg

Small paper
Paper
Paper

816/kg
616/kg

3040/No.
2840/No.
2841/No.

Bag
Bag
Bag

3142/No.
3041/No.
2942/No.

Number (average weight of a cement bag is 95 g, plastic bag is 74 g and jute bag is 874 g).
kg d 1 Per SRM; (1 Euro = 106 Taka, August 5, 2011).

Fig. 2. Activities observed on collection and production of shopping bags in Khulna.

in the range of Tk 4.512 depending on the size and quality of the

bag. The earned prot was around Tk 0.52.5 per bag. It is easy to
say that plastic bags are the most environmentally harmful choice
but, in fact, the production costs of paper and jute bags are signicantly higher, giving plastic a slight edge. However, plastic bags
are difcult to dispose of and generally the most harmful once they
have been used because they do not rot and remain unchanged in
the soil over the years, causing soil pollution, clogging and hampering drainage systems, etc. Thus, the reuse of plastic bags would not
only prevent useful material resources from being wasted, but also
contribute to the environmental conservation on a broader level.
3.2. Jute bags
The selling and buying of jute bags were conducted by 108 SRM
in Khulna city area. These shops had been trading 85410 pieces of
bags everyday with an average 248 nos/shop (Table 2). The buying
and selling price was found to be in the range of Tk 2840 and Tk
2942, respectively depending on the size and quality of the jute
bags. The average weight of each jute bag was 874 g and an estimated total weight of 23.44 ton d 1 was handled together through
all these SRM. In spite of the high nancial cost of production, the
reusable jute bags triumph over the single use paper and plastic
bags. While the embodied energy of jute bags is higher, the fact

that many people will use a single jute bag over several years results in it being the most ecofriendly. Moreover, in jutes favor is
the fact that it is readily compostable and recyclable which results
in the lowest environmental impact.
3.3. Cartons
A total number of 12 SRM were found to dealing with different
types of cartons or packaging boxes, where two SRM conducted
plastic and cement bags trading as well. Mostly, they handled
around 75500 kg cartons everyday for each shop as shown in
Table 2. They used to buy cartons @Tk 9 per kg and sale @ Tk 10
per kg. Four SRM had been trading a total weight of about
1300 kg cartons everyday, while another one SRM dealt with
370 kg d 1 (5000 cartons daily). The selling price was approximately Tk 1021 per piece of carton. The activities had been
continuing smoothly under a systematic chain which gradually increased the reuse of the materials and hence reduced the total
waste generation (Fig. 2).
3.4. Old garments
Most of the permanent SRM were found in the vicinity of Railway
market area. A total number of 120 old garments SRM were identi-

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Q.H. Bari et al. / Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

Table 3
Waste materials and products for reuse: Old garments.
Shop No.

Types

Amount (kg d

01

Shirt
Mixed
Shirt
Shirt
Pant
Pant
T shirt
Bag
Curtain
Bag
Average

14
7
14
14
29
64
14
14
14
14
28

02
03
04
05
06
07

Buying price (Tk/100 kg)

Nos. per 100 kg

30,00035,000
10,000
10,00020,000
30,00035,000
12,00018,000
14,00018,000
16,00020,000
15,00018,000
600012,000
14,00018,000

400450

400450
400450
140160
140160
300350

Fig. 3. Shops for buying and selling of used garments and books in Khulna city area.

ed in this area. Among those, seven shops were surveyed in detail

and the information was presented in Table 3. Four SRM dealt with
used shirts and T-shirts, mainly imported from abroad, with an estimated total weight of 400 kg per week. Their buying prices varied
between Tk 10,000 and 35,000 per 100 kg. Another two SRM were
found to be handling pants around 600 kg per week all together
and the buying price varied from Tk 12,000 to 18,000 per 100 kg.
Moreover, one SRM was found to be dealing with curtains at a rate
of approximately 100 kg per week and here the buying price varied
from Tk 6000 to 12,000 per 100 kg. Furthermore, a large number of
temporary SRMs for garments were found to be occupying the footpaths (Fig. 3) in many places of the city areas especially during the
winter season (from mid November to mid February). In the early
1900s, factories began making clothes using chemicals rather than
natural bers. These synthetic spandex became so affordable and
readily available that people stopped conserving them. Recent statistics estimated that 700,000 tons of fabric end up in the landlls
each year (Squido, 2012). Garments are a great resource and used
fabric in clothing has many possibilities for being reused again.
3.5. Old books
Most of the SRM for old books were found in close proximity to
Power House and Railway market area. A total number of 13 SRM
for old books were identied in Khulna city area. Among those, ve
SRM were surveyed in detail and the information was documented
in Table 4. Usually, those SRM had been dealing with all kinds of
books. Their buying capacity varied in the range of TK 4001000
per day, while sales ranged from around Tk 600 to 1600 per day.
Most of the good looking books were bought by students and other
books by different shopkeepers for packaging purposes.

these SRM were located in the Power House and Railway Market
area and handled charger lights, table lights, table fans, clocks,
compact disk players, food blenders, etc. Their buying capacity varied from Tk 200 to 500 per day while sales ranged from Tk 300 to
800 per day. With so many nations of the world driving on the road
to economic development and with technology ever advancing, the
search for solutions to the e-waste problem is a multi-faceted endeavor. E-waste is a term used to cover almost all types of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). The challenges in dealing with
this type of waste continue to multiply simply because the market
for such products simply keeps expanding as countries cross the
so-called digital divide. The concept of re-use should, therefore,
be viewed as being largely reactionary to the trend of products
being disposed of much earlier than necessary, and is centered
about the optimization of the use phase. Re-use, then, is not a solution to the e-waste problem in its own right, but must be seen as a
means of alleviating, or moderating, the existing problems until
such a time has dawned when products are utilized to a much
more optimal level before being recycled in the most efcient
means possible. Reuse also plays a signicant role in the provision
of spare parts for long life and high-value equipment, where the
manufacturing of new parts may be rather expensive. The renewed
focus on the availability of certain critical materials further

Table 4
Waste materials and products for reuse: Old used books.

3.6. Electronic goods and small home appliances

There were four SRM for electronic goods and small home appliances. Among those, two were surveyed in detail (Table 1). Mostly,

Shop no.

Amount* (kg d

01
02
03
04
05
Average

6070
100
50
6070
4050
65

Buy (Tk d
600700
1000
500
600700
400500

Sale (Tk d

7001000
1667
600700
1000
8001000

Calculated value (considering a price calculated from Table 2 for paper as

10 Tk kg 1).

Q.H. Bari et al. / Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

2531

Fig. 4. Different sizes of paper bags produced from recycled papers in Khulna.

Table 5
Different sizes of packets made of waste papers (Price: 50 Tk kg

of any size packet).

Different sizes of packets

Number of packets per kg

Tiny
Small 1
Small 2
Medium 1
Medium 2

800
500
300
250
200

strengthens the logic for considering re-use as part of a business

strategy.
3.7. Paper reuses and recycling
Paper packets have been used traditionally by all the shopkeepers to sell consumer goods. These packets were made of new papers or used papers (including newspaper, books and used ofce
paper) by informal cottage industries. Used papers were collected
from different SRM or directly from the community in residential
areas. Subsequently, different sizes and types of paper packets
were made using glue and papers (Fig. 4). The number of different
sizes of paper packets per kg was given in Table 5. The number of
packets varied widely according to their size. One kilogram of tiny
sized packets contained 800 pieces, while a medium sized packet
contained only 250 pieces. The price of the packet was not assigned
according to the sizes but to the weights. The price of different
sized paper packets were approximately Tk 50 per kg. Apart from
reuse, there was an efcient chain of paper recycling in Khulna city
as presented elsewhere (Moniruzzaman et al., 2011). Scrap papers
were recycled in a factory to reprocess paper products. The paper
materials were found to be the second highest, 9.5% by weight,
of all the total waste components generated in the city area (Moniruzzaman, 2007). Including corrugated cardboard, high grade paper and mixed paper typically accounted for 39% of the total

recyclable wastes collected by different collectors and dealers. A

paper-recycling factory usually recycled damaged articles and
scrap papers and nally produced card board and thin papers.
The secondary products from card boards were packets for sweets,
shoes, electrical ttings, cartons, etc. Another use of this card board
was for book binding. The thin recycled papers were used to produce shopping bags especially for clothes stores. The world has a
huge appetite for paper, even in these days of the so-called paperless ofce. Global paper consumption is currently running at more
than 350 million tons per year and rapidly approaching an unsustainable one million tons per day (EPN, 2007). Much of the virgin
paper is not recycled and ends up buried in landll. Recyclable paper can be ruined by mixing it with other materials such as food
scraps. This means the paper cannot be recycled and has to be sent
to landll. The fact that paper degrades quite slowly in a landll
situation counts against it. It has been estimated that the recovery
rate of paper in India is only 26%, compared to Thailands 45%, Chinas 38%, and Germanys 80% (Cybermedia, 2009). The reason for
this is mainly due to low levels of awareness among the public,
as well as the unorganized nature of the business.
3.8. Gross estimation of the quantity of solid wastes reused
A total 310 SRM was identied under eight categories of waste
materials and products for reuse. Among those, 59 SRM were surveyed in detail and hence the sample size for this eld investigation was 19% of the total identied shops, as shown in Table 1.
The gross average quantities of different wastes were represented
in kg d 1 in a series of Tables 26. Subsequently, the estimated total quantity of waste per category was shown in Table 7. For example, the quantity of plastic bags handled in kg d 1 was calculated as
(=average quantity in kg d 1  number of plastic bags SRMs)
62  29 = 1798 kg d 1 or 1.798 ton d 1. The total quantity of waste
materials and products subjected to reuse under all SRMs was estimated at an average 38.52 ton d 1. In fact, this part of reused waste
materials had not been entered into the waste stream for disposal.
In another study, the solid waste generation rate in Khulna city

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Q.H. Bari et al. / Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

Table 6
Estimation of papers in mixed SRM.

Shop no.

Location

Total amount of paper, plastic and metal (kg d

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08

DP
DP
DP
DP
MP
MP
MP
MP

300500
1000
100500
100250
500700
80100
6001000
35130
Average

Estimated amount of paper* (kg d

181
454
136
79
272
41
363
37
195

Calculation based on the ratio paper:plastic:metal = 2.65:1:2.15, which was derived from another study by Moniruzzaman (2007).

Table 7
Estimation of total reusable waste per day by all SRM in Khulna city area.
Parameters (paper)

Plastic bag

Jute bag

Carton

Garments

Book

Paper

Electronic

Mixed (paper)

Total

No. of SRM in each category

Average kg d 1 per SRM
Total kg d 1 in each category
Total ton d 1 in each category

29
62
1798
1.80

108
217
23,436
23.44

12
331
3972
3.97

120
28
3360
3.36

13
65
845
0.85

7
295
2065
2.07

17
195
3315
3.32

310 No.

38,791
38.80

Foreign
Country

Household /Consumer
goods from market

Various
Hawker

Carton 3.97 [12]

Jute bags 23.54 [108]
Whole
sale shop

Used
garments

Larger other
Parties

Whole sale
Plastic
Bag 1.80

Materials to Retail Shops [SRM]

Internal
recycling

3.36 [120]

Unit = t d-1
[ number of SRM]
Daily reuse = 38.80 t

Books 0.85 [13]

Paper 2.07 [7]
Mixed paper 3.32 [17]

Final
Disposal

Electronic
Goods [4]

Production,
Shopping
Bags [29]

Packaging or
Recycle
Factory

Fig. 5. Flow paths for reuses of solid waste materials and products in Khulna city area.

was found to be 465 ton d 1 (Bari et al., 2009). Therefore, the real
waste generation in city areas would need to include the reused
portion of wastes of 38.52 ton d 1, out of a total waste generation
of 503.52 ton d 1. Thus, the waste materials and products introduced into the reuse stream was around 7.65% of the total generated wastes. The value of 7.65% could be compared with the
known available values of recycled materials in Khulna and other
cities of Bangladesh. Both the recycled and reused materials
(mostly paper and plastics) had a level of moisture content less than
8.5%, while the municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in Bangladesh had an average moisture content of around 65% (Bari, 1999).
The percentage of recycled materials in Khulna, Rajshahi and Dhaka
city was found to be 8.87%, 8.25% and 8.09.0%, respectively (Bari
et al., 2009; Yousuf and Rahman, 2007). Thus, on a dry basis, the
amount of MSW in Khulna city reached 465x0.35 = 162.75 ton d 1
while the reused material was 38.52  .915 = 35.25 ton d 1. As a

result, the percentage of waste materials reuse reached 17.80%

(dry basis) of the total generated wastes in Khulna city area.

4. Formulation of materials ow paths for reuses

For the reuse of waste materials and products there was a chain
system for collecting reusable wastes, implying a high level of man
power directly or indirectly involved in a decentralized and an
autonomously controlled waste management system. This scheme
was characterized by having separate small-scaled ows and exible management systems with a high involvement of end users.
The main objective of this study was to formulate a general physical model to explain the existing reuse process based on the situation in Khulna city area. A general material ow path for reuse
was developed as presented in Fig. 5. Generated wastes from mate-

Q.H. Bari et al. / Waste Management 32 (2012) 25262534

rials like household/consumer goods were own to the primary

level collectors, who were essentially material specic hawkers.
From the primary level the materials proceeded to the secondary
level for processing or marketing. The main ow materials were
comprised of different types of plastic bags, jute bags, cartons,
old garments, old books, papers (news paper, mixed ofce waste
paper, etc.), and electronic goods. Everyday about 1.8 tons of old
plastic bags (bags of cement, rice, fertilizer) were handled in different SRM in Khulna city. Some used bags were processed separately
to produce different sizes of shopping bags for further use. Therefore, a strong chain of materials ow for the purposes of reuse
emerged, as indicated in Fig. 5. About 3.97 tons of carton and
23.54 tons of jute bags were reused every day. The quantity of
books, papers and mixed papers that were reused every day were
0.85, 2.07 and 3.32 tons, respectively. Every year, especially in the
winter season, a huge amount of old garments were imported into
the country from abroad. The wholesale dealers distributed the
garments through many permanent as well as temporary SRM.
The gross average quantity of old garments reused per day was
3.36 tons. These garments were reused by a large fraction of the
population in the country. Whatever the objectives, surely this
activity increased the life period of these garments and hence those
resources were efciently used by the community.
5. Implication of this study
This study conrmed that the traditional reuse practice in
Khulna city had saved resources like paper, plastics, etc. as mentioned in Sections 3.13.7. and highlighted evidence of wide social
acceptance for the reuse of grocery bags (made from different used
bags), paper packets and other products available in the country.
The process of collection for reusable wastes, their storage and further selling were found to be readily established in the city area.
However, further extensive public motivation would increase the
number of other items such as furniture, returnable drinks bottles
and containers and the amount of the reusable materials. In developing countries, the eld activities on solid waste management,
especially in the realms of reuse and recycling, are sometimes ignored due to less communication and discussion among the concerned authorities. A decreased allocation of the annual budget
for waste management might be the other cause of such inattention. Nevertheless, a comprehensive training program on personal
hygiene was deemed imperative for the workers involved in all reuse schemes. The reuse scheme had a signicant positive impact
on the environment when people talked about the use of renewable resources. The lessons learnt from this well-established traditional reuse process was that a signicant portion of solid waste
could be efciently recovered and reused to meet the ever mounting needs of the community. Thus, potential improvement measures could be adopted in the existing reuse scheme and hence
contribute to enhancing and promoting the conservation of energy
and environmental resources in the future. This study sets out to
provide viable data for any future formulation of projects or plants
related to solid waste reuse and recycling in a developing country
like Bangladesh.
6. Conclusions
A silent, systematic, smooth-running and clean reuse chain has
been established in Khulna city area managed entirely by the private sector. However, this sector could be treated as an alternative
formal sector as its sustainability has been conrmed in the country over the years due to its independence from government funds.
Therefore, these reuse scheme would have a signicant positive
impact on the environment when the people talk about the use

2533

of renewable resources. A total number of 310 shops for reusable

materials (SRMs) were identied in the city area in which 859 people were employed in different activities of the established reuse
scheme. In this study, a general physical model representing the
ow path of solid waste materials along with the recycling/reuses
scheme in Khulna city area was developed. The major waste materials and products for reuse consisted in different types of bags
(plastic and jute), papers, paper products (packets), books, garments, electronics and small home appliances, fridges, tents, etc.
According to mass balance, about 38.80 tons d 1 solid wastes were
recycled and reused in the Khulna city area which accounted for
7.65% of the total generated wastes. The majority of SRMs were
found to be handling jute bags (108 SRM) and old garments (120
SRM). This study revealed that the solid waste reuse pattern in
the Khulna city area has become quiet established; however, further extensive public motivation would increase the number of
other reusable items as well as the amount of total reusable materials. The formulated general physical model suggests that the
large number of waste wholesale shops in the city area should be
properly adjusted with their upper and lower chains in order to
improve the overall reuse and recycling scheme. Furthermore, a
comprehensive training program on personal hygiene was deemed
imperative for the workers in all reuse schemes. Particularly, the
outcome of this study would provide data for any future endeavor
concerning the reuse and recycling of solid wastes in cities and
towns in developing countries.

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