Table 3-1

The Service Economy

The world economy is increasingly characterized as a service economy. This is primarily
due to the increasing importance and share of the service sector in the economies of
most developed and developing countries. In fact, the growth of the service sector has
long been considered as an indicator of a country's economic progress. Economic
history tells us that all developing nations have invariably experienced a shift from
agriculture to industry and then to the service sector as the mainstay of the economy.
This shift has also brought about a change in the definition of goods and services
themselves.
Service economy can refer to one or both of two recent economic developments

The increased importance of the service sector in industrialized economies. The

current list of Fortune 500 companies contains more service companies and fewer
manufacturers than in previous decades.

The relative importance of service in a product offering. The service economy in

developing
countries
is
mostly
concentrated
in financial
services, hospitality, retail, health, human
services, information
technology and education. Products today have a higher service component than in
previous decades. In the management literature this is referred to as the
servitization of products. Virtually every product today has a service component to
it.

Availability Of Credit
The amount of credit to which a borrower has access at a given time. Credit
card accounts and lines of credit have a maximum amount of money that can be
borrowed; credit availability describes the amount that is remaining after
subtracting outstanding balances.
Disposable Income
The amount of money that households have available for spending and saving after
income taxes have been accounted for. Disposable personal income is often monitored
as one of the many key economic indicators used to gauge the overall state of the
economy.
Calculated as

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Prospensity of People To Spend

In economics, the marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is a metric that quantifies
induced
consumption,
the
concept
that
the
increase
in
personal
consumer spending (consumption) occurs with an increase in disposable income
(income after taxes and transfers)
Interest Rate
The proportion of a loan that is charged as interest to the borrower, typically expressed
as an annual percentage of the loan outstanding
Inflation Rate
That is, when the general level of prices rise, each monetary unit buys fewer goods and
services. The effect of inflation is not distributed evenly in the economy, and as a
consequence there are hidden costs to some and benefits to others from this decrease
in the purchasing power of money

Money Market Rate

A money market account (MMA) or money market deposit account(MMDA) is a nonfinancial account that pays interest based on current interest rates in the money
markets
Federal Government Budget Deficits
A government budget is a government document presenting the government's proposed
revenues and spending for a financial year. The government budget balance, also
alternatively referred to as general government balance, public budget balance, or
public fiscal balance, is the overall difference between government revenues and
spending. A positive balance is called a government budget surplus, and a negative
balance is a government budget deficit. A budget is prepared for each level of
government (from national to local) and takes into account public social security
obligations.
Gross Domestic Product Trend
GDP is broadly the economic worth of the country. It is the total consumption (private +
government spending), investment and trade balance (exports - imports) together. If the
GDP trend is positive it means the economy is growing.
Consumption Patterns

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Consumption patterns are one of the most important drivers of development patterns in
the industrialized world and will serve as case for the study of scenarios and transition
management. Consumption pattern is the relation to goods and services that
characterize that lifestyle.
Unemployment Trends
Percentage of total unemployed workforce, looking for a paid job. Unemployment rate is
one of the most closely watched statistics because a rising rate is seen as a sign of
weakening economy that may call for cut in interest rate. A falling rate, similarly,
indicates a growing economy which is usually accompanied by higher inflation rate and
may call for increase in interest rates. Graph of values called Unemployment trends.
Worker Productivity Levels
Workforce productivity is the amount of goods and services that a worker produces in a
given amount of time. It is one of several types of productivity that economists measure.
Workforce productivity can be measured for a firm, a process, an industry, or a country.
It is often referred to as labor productivity.
The OECD defines it as "the ratio of a volume measure of output to a volume measure
of input". Volume measures of output are normally gross domestic product (GDP) or
gross value added (GVA), expressed at constant prices i.e. adjusted for inflation. The
three most commonly used measures of input are hours worked; work force jobs; and
number of people in employment.
Value Of The Dollar In World Markets
The value of the U.S. dollar is measured in three ways exchange rates, Treasury notes
and foreign exchange reserves (the amount of dollars held by foreign countries).
When the dollar strengthens, it makes American-made goods more expensive and less
competitive when compared to foreign-produced goods. This helps decrease U.S.
exports, slowing economic growth. It also leads to lower oil prices, since oil is priced in
dollars. Whenever the dollar strengthens, oil-producing countries can relax the price of
oil, because their profit margins in their local currency aren't affected.
The dollar is held by foreign governments in their currency reserves. They wind up
stockpiling dollars because they export more than they import. They receive dollars in
payment. Many of these countries find it's in their best interest to hold onto dollars
because it keeps their currency values lower. Some of the largest holders of U.S. dollars
are Japan and China.
As the dollar declines, the value of their reserves also declines. As a result, they are
less willing to hold dollars in reserve. They diversify into other currencies, such as the
euro or even the Chinese yuan. This reduces demand for the dollar, putting further
downward pressure on its value.

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Stock Market Trends

The stock market, just like the price of individual stocks, tends to trend. Indices are
prone to move in one general direction or another, until something causes that direction
to change. Uptrends are characterized by prices making higher highs and higher lows.
Downtrends are characterized by lower price highs and lower price lows.
Foreign Countries Economic Conditions
The state of the economy in a country or region. Economic conditions change over time
in line with the economic and business cycle, as an economy goes through expansion
and contraction. Economic conditions are considered to be sound or positive when an
economy is expanding, and are considered to be adverse or negative when an
economy is contracting. A country's economic conditions are influenced by numerous
macroeconomic and microeconomic factors, including monetary and fiscal policy, the
state of the global economy, unemployment levels, productivity, exchange rates, and
inflation and so on.
Import/Export Factors
There are many factors that affect importing and exporting. Let us look at a few of the
most important of these factors.
Trade barriers. The degree to which governments erect or remove trade barriers has a
tremendous impact on importing and exporting. The decision of the United States to
open its markets significantly after World War II, for example, helped to allow Japan to
build its economic miracle on exports to the US.
Shipping costs. Importing and exporting typically involves the movement of large
amounts of materials. The costs of this movement have a major impact on whether
importing and exporting can be profitable. This is one reason that containerization
made the post-war boom in trade possible.
Domestic costs and infrastructure availability. One reason that importing and exporting
has risen is that it has become cheaper and more feasible to produce many things in
poorer countries and ship them to richer ones. This is partly because of high costs in
rich countries for things like labor. It is also partly because poorer countries have
gained infrastructure that allows them to have productive factories that make things for
export.All of these factors and more affect importing and exporting.
Demand Shifts For Different Categories Of Goods And Services
The demand curve is a graphical representation of consumers' desire to buy goods and
services. The demand curve can shift to the left or the right due to several factors. A
shift to the left indicates that demand is decreasing, and a shift to the right indicates that
demand is increasing. Shifts in demand are caused by factors not related to the current
price of a product or service. The current price of a product or service only causes
movement along the demand curve and not a shift.

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Income Differences By Region And Consumer Groups

Income inequality can be measured at different levels of aggregation such as global,
continental, international and national levels. Here we consider income inequality at the
national level but the focus is on the within country regional inequality. Regional
inequality in income distribution in a selection of large countries measured by the size of
their population and land area with regional, provincial or federation division is
examined. The empirical results reported are based on the second half of the 20th
century. The countries considered here cover large transition, developing and
industrialized countries. The review cover a whole range of measures and methods
frequently employed in empirical analysis of income inequality and income distribution.
Different determinant factors and their impacts from different studies are presented.
Empirical results from the literature is compared with those obtained based on the WIID
data covering post 1950.
Price Fluctuations
Economics, commerce the fact of prices going up and down The food price fluctuation
has been driven by financial speculation Increase or decrease in the closing price of a
security compared to the previous day's closing price.
Export Of Labor And Capital From The United States
Relative endowments of the factors of production (land, labor, and capital) determine a
country's comparative advantage. Countries have comparative advantages in those
goods for which the required factors of production are relatively abundant locally. This is
because the profitability of goods is determined by input costs. Goods that require
inputs that are locally abundant will be cheaper to produce than those goods that
require inputs that are locally scarce.
Monetary Policies
Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the
supply of money, often targeting an inflation rate or interest rate to ensure price stability
and general trust in the currency. Further goals of a monetary policy are usually to
contribute to economic growth and stability, to low unemployment, and to predictable
exchange rates with other currencies. Monetary economics provides insight into how to
craft optimal monetary policy. Monetary policy is referred to as either being
expansionary or contractionary, where an expansionary policy increases the total supply
of money in the economy more rapidly than usual, and contractionary policy expands
the money supply more slowly than usual or even shrinks it. Expansionary policy is
traditionally used to try to combat unemployment in a recession by lowering interest
rates in the hope that easy credit will entice businesses into expanding. Contractionary
policy is intended to slow inflation in order to avoid the resulting distortions and
deterioration of asset values. Monetary policy differs from fiscal policy, which refers to
taxation, government spending, and associated borrowing.

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Fiscal Policies
In economics and political science, fiscal policy is the use of government revenue
collection (mainly taxes) and expenditure (spending) to influence the economy. The
government changes the levels of taxation and government spending, it influences
aggregate demand and the level of economic activity. Fiscal policy can be used to
stabilize the economy over the course of the business cycle. The two main instruments
of fiscal policy are changes in the level and composition of taxation and government
spending in various sectors. These changes can affect the following macroeconomic
variables, amongst others, in an economy Aggregate demand and the level of
economic activity; Savings and Investment in the economy The distribution of income
Fiscal policy can be distinguished from monetary policy, in that fiscal policy deals with
taxation and government spending and is often administered by an executive under
laws of a legislature, whereas monetary policy deals with the money supply, lending
rates and interest rates and is often administered by a central bank.
Tax Rates
In a tax system and in economics, the tax rate describes the ratio (usually expressed as
a percentage) at which a business or person is taxed. There are several methods used
to present a tax rate statutory, average, marginal, and effective. These rates can also
be presented using different definitions applied to a tax base inclusive and exclusive.
European Economic Community (EEC) Policies
The European Economic Community (EEC) was an international organization created
by the Treaty of Rome of 1957.Its aim was to bring about economic integration,
including a common market, among its six founding members Belgium, France, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany. The EEC was also known as the
Common Market in the English-speaking world and sometimes referred to as the
European Community even before it was officially renamed as such in 1993.It gained a
common set of institutions along with the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
and the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) as one of the European
Communities under the 1965 Merger Treaty (Treaty of Brussels).Upon the entry into
force of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, the EEC was renamed the European Community
(EC) to reflect that it covered a wider range of policy. This was also when the three
European Communities, including the EC, were collectively made to constitute the first
of the three pillars of the European Union (EU), which the treaty also founded. The EC
existed in this form until it was abolished by the 2009 Treaty of Lisbon, which merged
the EU's former pillars and provided that the EU would "replace and succeed the
European Community".
Organization Of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Policies
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), a permanent, international
organization headquartered in Vienna, Austria, was established in Baghdad, Iraq on 10
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14 September 1960. Its mandate is to "coordinate and unify the petroleum policies" of
its members and to "ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an
efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to
producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry." In
2014 OPEC comprised twelve members Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. According
to the United States Energy Information Administration (EIA), OPEC crude oil
production is an important factor affecting global oil prices. OPEC sets production
targets for its member nations and generally, when OPEC production targets are
reduced, oil prices increase. Projections of changes in Saudi production result in
changes in the price of benchmark crude oils.
Coalitions Of Lesser Developed Countries (LDC) Policies
This initiative aims to support negotiators from the least developed countries (LDCs)
who are participating in progressive coalitions, based on their requests. The assistance
includes preparing strategic briefs and textual proposals for and during informal
gatherings. The objectives are to

Support attendance of advisors and resource persons for the LDC group in
informal sessions such as the Cartagena Dialogue meetings and the upcoming
Qatar COP 18, and to provide real-time analytical and strategic advice as
solicited by LDC negotiators.
Support the communication between the LDC negotiators and their groups about
the results of these meetings, with the aim of increasing the strength of
progressive forces inside different regional groups. Specifically this might involve
assistance in the preparation of meeting reports to be disseminated to the groups
or of presentations for the groups preparatory or other internal meetings).
Support, as requested and mandated, LDC negotiators participating in
progressive coalitions to exchange information and coordinate with like-minded
progressive countries, on e.g. textual proposals. Assistance will also be provided
to identify options for further progressive collective action among these countries.
Help facilitate the work of LDC negotiators on specific issues, including
communicating, as requested, with delegations not taking part in these
progressive coalitions.

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Table 3-1
Childbearing Rates
Pregnancy rate is the success rate for getting pregnant. It is the percentage of all
attempts that leads to pregnancy, with attempts generally referring to menstrual cycles
where insemination or any artificial equivalent is used, which may be simple artificial
insemination (AI) or AI with additional in vitro fertilization.
Number Of Special-Interest Groups
A Special Interest Group (SIG) is a community within a larger organization with a shared
interest in advancing a specific area of knowledge, learning or technology where
members cooperate to affect or to produce solutions within their particular field, and
may communicate, meet, and organize conferences. The term originated on
CompuServe, an early online service provider, where SIGs were a section of the service
devoted to particular interests.
Social Security Programs
Social security is based upon a concept set forth in Article 22 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights which states, Everyone, as a member of society, has the
right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and
international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of
each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and
the free development of his personality. In simple terms, the signatories agree that
society in which a person lives should help them to develop and to make the most of all
the advantages (culture, work, social welfare) which are offered to them in the country.
Social Security may also refer to the action programs of government intended to
promote the welfare of the population through assistance measures guaranteeing
access to sufficient resources for food and shelter and to promote health and well-being
for the population at large and potentially vulnerable segments such as children, the
elderly, the sick and the unemployed. Services providing social security are often called
social services
Life Expectancy Rates
Life expectancy is a statistical measure of how long a person may live, based on the
year of their birth, their current age and other demographic factors including gender. At
a given age (age x) is the average number of years that would be lived by a group of
individuals (of age x) exposed to the same mortality conditions until they die. The most
commonly used measure of life expectancy is life expectancy at age zero, that is, at
birth (LEB), which can be defined in two ways while cohort LEB is the mean length of
life of an actual birth cohort (all individuals born a given year) and can be computed only
for cohorts that were born many decades ago, so that all their members died, period
LEB is the mean length of life of a hypothetical cohort assumed to be exposed since
birth until death of all their members to the mortality rates observed at a given year.
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Per Capita Income

Per capita income, also known as income per person, is the mean income of the people
in an economic unit such as a country or city. It is calculated by taking a measure of all
sources of income in the aggregate (such as GDP or Gross national income) and
dividing it by the total population.
Location of retailing, manufacturing, and service businesses
Every business owner must figure out how location will (or won't) contribute to the
success of the business -- and choose a spot accordingly. Though there are many
issues to consider when you're looking for space to house your business, make sure
you ask yourself these four important questions

Is location important for the success of your business?

What type of location is best for your business?
How much rent can you afford?
Is your proposed location?

Attitudes toward business

According to The Business Dictionary, attitude is A predisposition or a tendency to
respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person, or situation.
Attitude influences an individuals choice of action, and responses to challenges,
incentives, and rewards (together called stimuli).
The words that jump out as important in this definition are

Respond
Positively or negatively
Influences
Action.

Traffic Congestion
Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is
characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing.
The most common example is the physical use of roads by vehicles. When traffic
demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the
traffic stream, this results in some congestion.
As demand approaches the capacity of a road (or of the intersections along the road),
extreme traffic congestion sets in. When vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time,
this is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to
drivers becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage.
Inner-City Environments
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The inner city is the central area of a major city or metropolis and may also refer to the
Urban Land Use Model. In the United States, the term is often a euphemism applied to
the lower-income residential districts in the city center and nearby areas. In the United
States, the term has the additional connotation of impoverished black and/or Hispanic
neighborhoods. Sociologists sometimes turn this euphemism into a formal designation,
applying the term inner city to such residential areas rather than to geographically more
central commercial districts.
Average Disposable Income
The amount of money that households have available for spending and saving after
income taxes have been accounted for. Disposable personal income is often monitored
as one of the many key economic indicators used to gauge the overall state of the
economy.
Trust In Government
Trust is important for the success of a wide range of public policies that depend on
behavioral responses from the public.
Trust is necessary to increase the confidence of investors and consumers.
Trust is essential for key economic activities, most notably finance.
Trust in institutions is important for the success of many government policies,
programmes and regulations that depend on cooperation and compliance of citizens.
Attitudes Toward Government
Government spending is clearly a significant policy issue. It appears frequently on the
agenda of United States electoral politics, and candidates for public office routinely
address this concern in their campaign rhetoric. More generally, questions about the
government's ability and/or willingness to fund social programs cut to the heart of the
basic distinction between liberal and conservative ideologies. Second, there appear to
be serious disjunctions or inconsistencies between elites and the mass public with
respect to government spending. During the past decade, most political candidates and
incumbent officeholders have called for reductions in public expenditures. However,
public opinion On this issue seems to point in the opposite direction evidence from
survey research has repeatedly shown that U.S. citizens support spending on a wide
variety of social programs.
Third, very little is known about the sources and nature Of public opinion on government
spending. While there has been some prior research on this topic, the results and
conclusions have varied widely. For all of these reasons, there is ample justification for
a more detailed analysis of public attitudes toward government spending.
Attitudes toward work

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A job attitude is a set of evaluations of one's job that constitute one's feelings toward,
beliefs about, and attachment to one's job. Overall job attitude can be conceptualized in
two ways. Either as affective job satisfaction that constitutes a general or global
subjective feeling about a job, or as a composite of objective cognitive assessments of
specific job facets, such as pay, conditions, opportunities and other aspects of a
particular job. Employees evaluate their advancement opportunities by observing their
job, their occupation, and their employer.
Buying habits
Purchase of the same brand over and over again, more due to absence of
dissatisfaction than because of a positive loyalty. Habit buying is associated usually with
low involvement products such as toothpaste or shoe polish.
Ethical concerns
A problem or situation that requires a person or organization to choose between
alternatives that must be evaluated as right (ethical) or wrong (unethical).
Attitudes toward saving
Opening a savings account is usually one of the first step towards achieving your
financial goals. If you ask anyone about the steps you need to take in order to get a hold
of your finances the first they usually suggest is to get a hold of your spending (by
creating a budget) and the second step is usually to establish an emergency fund. That
emergency fund is often in the form of a (hopefully) high interest savings account. Its
just money you can put away, not touch and watch slowly grow. Youre less worried
about achieving the highest possible rate of return but instead its more focused on
having a stable supply of money you can draw upon in order to weather unpredictable
financial storms. And although there are other conservative investment vehicles that
achieve the same goals as savings accounts, the flexibility and ease of use make them
especially attractive.
Sex roles
Attitudes and behavior emotional development Lawrence Kohlberg considered women
child people. Sets of attributes, including attitudes, personality traits, abilities, interests,
and behaviors that are defined as appropriate for each sex. Men and women are
different not only in anatomy, but also in terms of how they behave and in the interests
they express. Certain behavioral differences are believed to be biologically determined.
For example, the male sex hormone testosterone is believed to be the reason why
males are considered more aggressive than females. However, many no anatomical
differences appear to be based on sex roles that are learned by every individual. In
other words, people are born male or female but are taught how to be masculine or
feminine.
Attitudes toward investing

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Investor portfolios consist of 15% more alternative investments now than 10 years ago
Experienced angel investors have a lower percentage of mutual funds in their portfolios
than novice and non-angel investors. Investors are relying less on intermediaries to
carry out their investments and more on direct investing methods.The availability of
investment tools, such as online trading platforms, and investors experience with direct
investing are the main reasons they are encouraged to manage their portfolios
Racial equality
Racial equality is an equal regard to all races. It can refer to a belief in biological
equality of all human races, and it can also refer to social equality for people of different
races. Racial equality is a stated goal of most current political movements. The
divergence of any particular society from a state of racial equality is often contested by
members of that society of different races.
Use of birth control
Birth control, also known as contraception and fertility control, are methods or devices
used to prevent pregnancy. Planning, provision and use of birth control is called family
planning. Birth control methods have been used since ancient times, but effective and
safe methods only became available in the 20th century. Some cultures limit or
discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally or politically
undesirable.
Average level of education
The educational attainment of the U.S. population is similar to that of many other
industrialized countries with the vast majority of the population having completed
secondary education and a rising number of college graduates that outnumber high
school dropouts. As a whole, the population of the United States is spending more years
in formal educational programs. As with income, levels differ by race, age, household
configuration and geography.
Government regulation
Regulatory economics is the economics of regulation, in the sense of the application of
law by government or and independent agency for various purposes, such as centrallyplanning an economy, remedying market failure, enriching well-connected firms, or
benefiting politicians (see Regulatory capture). It is not considered to include voluntary
regulation that may be accomplished in the private sphere.
Energy conservation
Energy conservation refers to reducing energy consumption through using less of an
energy service. Energy conservation differs from efficient energy use, which refers to
using less energy for a constant service. For example, driving less is an example of
energy conservation. Driving the same amount with a higher mileage vehicle is an

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example of energy efficiency. Energy conservation and efficiency are both energy
reduction techniques.
Social programs
Social programs in the United States are welfare subsidies designed to aid the needs of
the U.S. population. Proposals for federal programs began with Theodore Roosevelt's
New Nationalism and expanded with Woodrow Wilson's New Freedom, Franklin D.
Roosevelt's New Deal, John F. Kennedy's New Frontier, and Lyndon B. Johnson's Great
Society.
The programs vary in eligibility requirements and are provided by various organizations
on a federal, state, local and private level. They help to provide food, shelter, education,
healthcare and money to U.S. citizens through primary and secondary education,
subsidies of college education, unemployment disability insurance, subsidies for eligible
low-wage workers, and subsidies for housing, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance
Program benefits, and pensions for eligible persons and health insurance programs that
cover public employees. The Social Security system is the largest and most prominent
social aid program. Medicare is another prominent program.
Social responsibility
Social responsibility is an ethical framework which suggests that an entity, be it an
organization or individual, has an obligation to act for the benefit of society at large.
Social responsibility is a duty every individual has to perform so as to maintain a
balance between the economy and the ecosystems. A trade-off may[citation needed]
exist between economic development, in the material sense, and the welfare of the
society and environment. Social responsibility means sustaining the equilibrium
between the two. It pertains not only to business organizations but also to everyone
whose any action impacts the environment. This responsibility can be passive, by
avoiding engaging in socially harmful acts, or active, by performing activities that directly
advance social goals.

Attitudes toward careers

Developing positive attitude at work can determine how successful you are in your
career. However, this can be tough especially when things seem to go wrong all the
time.
I had my fair share of setbacks throughout my career. Along the way, I started
developing positive attitudes to help me deal with these setbacks.
Remember you are your own career builder and you are responsible for your own
success. These tips are those that worked for me.
You can adopt or adapt them in developing your own positive attitude at work.

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Population changes by race, age, sex, and level of affluence

The population change refers to change in the number of people during the specific
time. The world population has not been stable. It has increased manifold. This subject
is very closely related to demographics, the statistics of how many people there are in a
given population.
This is actually due to changes in the number of births and deaths. For an extremely
long period of human history until the 1800s, the world's population group steadily but
slowly. Large no. of babies were born but they died early too. this was as there were no
proper health facilities. Sufficient food was not available for all the people. Farmers were
not able to produce enough to meet the food requirements of all the people. As a result
the total increase in population was very low.
Attitudes toward authority
Most peoples attitude toward authority is a learned behaviorthe result of a lifetime of
personal, social, cultural and religious experiences. We may have learned at home,
school or church to respect those in authority. But we may instead have absorbed at
home or from peers the tendency to disrespect or even defy authority. The misuse or
abuse of power by those in authority over us may have contributed to our resentment or
distrust of authority. Our culture also molded our attitude towards authority. In America
and other western nations, it is considered cool to stand out from the crowdto
challenge authority, be your own person and do your own thing, while in many other
cultures it is considered extremely bad taste to deliberately flaunt the authority of
accepted practices and to stand out from society.
Population changes by city, county, state, region, and country
In biology, population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population.
The population growth rate is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population
increases in a given time period as a fraction of the initial population.
Global human population growth amounts to around 75 million annually, or 1.1% per
year. The global population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to 7 billion in 2012. It is
expected to keep growing, where estimates have put the total population at 8.4 billion
by mid-2030, and 9.6 billion by mid-2050
Value placed on leisure time
Values of time have been defined in various forms such as value of leisure time
(shadow price of time), value of travel time, and value of saving time, and are mostly
measured based on individuals' travel choice behavior. The main purpose of this study
is to estimate the value of leisure time by general mode choice models. The estimated
level can be used to evaluate the benefits from the increasing leisure time gained by
people in Taiwan after the government has practiced a series of policies to shorten

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employee's working hours in the last few years. To justify the application, this study
reviews and reinterprets the theoretical results of some major works on value of time
derivations. Then to practically estimate the value of leisure time, it suggests a method
of combining revealed preference and stated preference data for application. Finally, it
conducts an empirical study on travelers' mode choices behavior in Taiwan to carry out
the method suggested.
Regional changes in tastes and preferences
According to the Australian Society of Agronomy, this shift is characterized by six key
trends
Reduced per capita consumption of rice;
Increased consumption per capita of wheat and wheat based products;
Increased diversity in the food groups consumed;
Rise in high protein and energy dense diets;
Increased consumption of temperate zone products;
The rising popularity of convenience food and beverages.
Recycling
Recycling is a process to change waste materials into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce
energy usage, reduce air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution (from
landfilling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower
greenhouse gas emissions as compared to plastic production. Recycling is a key
component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the "Reduce,
Reuse and Recycle" waste hierarchy.
Waste management
Waste management is the "generation, prevention, characterization, monitoring,
treatment, handling, reuse and residual disposition of solid wastes". There are various
types of solid waste including municipal (residential, institutional, commercial),
agricultural, and special (health care, household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge).
The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and the process is
generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics.
There is a wide array of issues relating to waste management and those areas include

Generation of waste
Waste minimization
Waste removal
Waste transportation
Waste treatment

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Recycling and reuse

Storage, collection, transport, and transfer
Treatment
Landfill disposal
Environmental considerations
Financial and marketing aspects
Policy and regulations
Education and training
Planning and implementation.

Waste management practices are not uniform among countries (developed and
developing nations); regions (urban and rural area), and sectors (residential and
industrial)
Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful
materials into the Earth's atmosphere, possibly causing disease, death to humans,
damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or the natural or built
environment.
Water pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers
and groundwater). This form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are
directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to remove
harmful compounds. Water pollution affects the entire biosphere plants and organisms
living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to
individual species and population, but also to the natural biological communities.
Ozone depletion
Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late
1970s a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's
stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric
ozone over Earth's Polar Regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone
hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also
springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.
Endangered species

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An endangered (EN) species is one which has been categorized by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as likely to become extinct. Conservation
biologists use the IUCN Red List, where "endangered" is the second most severe
conservation status for wild populations, following critically endangered. 3079 animals
and 2655 plants are endangered worldwide, compared with 1998 levels of 1102 and
1197, respectively. The amount, population trend, and conservation status of each
species can be found in the lists of organisms by population. Table 3-5
Government regulations or deregulations
A regulation is a legal norm intended to shape conduct that is a byproduct of
imperfection. A regulation may be used to prescribe or proscribe conduct ("commandand-control" regulation), to calibrate incentives ("incentive" regulation), or to change
preferences ("preferences shaping" regulation").In statist mechanisms it can also be
extended to monitoring and enforcement of rules as established by primary and/or
delegated legislation. In this form, it is generally a written instrument containing rules
having the force of statist law (as opposed to natural law). Other forms of regulation are
self-regulation. In general, regulations are written by executive agencies as a way to
enforce laws passed by the legislature. Because of the actual or potential interference in
choices, the idea of regulation and most issues related to regulation tend to be in
controversy.
Deregulation is the process of removing or reducing state regulations It is therefore
opposite of regulation, which refers to the process of the government regulating certain
activities.
Changes in tax laws
Tax law is an area of legal study dealing with the constitutional, common-law, statutory,
tax treaty, and regulatory rules that constitute the law applicable to taxation.
Special tariffs
A tariff is a tax on imports or exports (an international trade tariff), or a list of prices for
such things as rail service, bus routes, and electrical usage (electrical tariff, etc.)
Political action committees
Political Action Committee (PAC) is a type of organization that pools campaign
contributions from members and donates those funds to campaign for or against
candidates, ballot initiatives, or legislation. The legal term PAC has been created in
pursuit of Campaign finance reform in the United States. This term is quite specific to all
activities of Campaign finance in the United States. Democracies of other countries use
different terms for the units of campaign spending or spending on political competition
(see Political finance).
Voter participation rates

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Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who cast a ballot in an election. (Who
is eligible varies by country, and should not be confused with the total adult population.
For example, some countries discriminate based on sex, race, and/or religion. Age and
citizenship are usually among the criteria.) After increasing for many decades, there has
been a trend of decreasing voter turnout in most established democracies since the
1960s. In general, low turnout may be due to disenchantment, indifference, or
contentment. Low turnout is often considered to be undesirable, and there is much
debate over the factors that affect turnout and how to increase it. In spite of significant
study into the issue, scholars are divided on reasons for the decline. Its cause has been
attributed to a wide array of economic, demographic, cultural, technological, and
institutional factors. There have been many efforts to increase turnout and encourage
voting.
Different countries have very different voter turnouts. For example, in the United States
2008 presidential election turnout was 61%.[not in citation given] In Belgium, which has
compulsory voting, and Malta, which does not, participation reaches 95%. These
differences are caused by a mix of cultural and institutional factors.
Number, severity, and location of government protests
A protest (also called a remonstrance or a remonstration) is an expression of objection
by words or by actions to particular events, policies, or situations. Protests can take
many different forms; from individual statements to mass demonstrations.
Number of patents
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or
assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an
invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem and is a product
or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property.
Changes in patent laws
In the U.S., a patent is a right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering for
sale, exporting components to be assembled into an infringing device outside the U.S.,
importing the product of a patented process practiced outside the U.S., inducing others
to infringe, offering a product specially adapted for practice of the patent, and a few
other very carefully defined categories. The distinctions between what patent rights
include are complex. For example, merely thinking about an invention or drawing a
diagram is not an infringement. Likewise, research for "purely philosophical" inquiry is
not an infringement. Sometimes, this analysis can be much more sophisticated and
difficult i.e., research directed to commercial purposes may be an infringementbut
may not be when the research is directed toward obtaining approval of the Food and
Drug Administration for introduction of a generic version of a patented drug.
Environmental protection laws

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Environmental law - or "environmental and natural resources law" - is a collective term

describing the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, and common and customary
laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural environment.
Level of defense expenditures
A military budget (or military expenditure), also known as a defense budget, is the
amount of financial resources dedicated by a nation to raising and maintaining an
armed forces or other methods essential for defense purposes.
Military budgets often reflect how strongly an entity perceives the likelihood of threats
against it, or the amount of aggression it wishes to employ. It also gives an idea of how
much financing should be provided for the upcoming year. The size of a budget also
reflects the entity's ability to fund military activities. Factors include the size of that
entity's economy, other financial demands on that entity, and the willingness of that
entity's government or people to fund such military activity. Generally excluded from
military expenditures is spending on internal law enforcement and disabled veteran
rehabilitation. The effects of military expenditure on a nation's economy and society, and
what determines military expenditure, are notable issues in political science and
economics. There are controversial findings and theories regarding these topics.
Generally, some suggest military expenditure is a boost to local economies. Still, others
maintain military expenditure is a drag on development
Legislation on equal employment
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was established by Title VII of the Civil
Rights Act of 1964 to assist in the protection of US employees from discrimination. The
law was the first federal law designed to protect most US employees from employment
discrimination based upon that employees (or applicant's) race, color, religion, sex, or
national origin (Public Law 88-352, July 2, 1964, 78 Stat. 253, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 2000e et.
seq.).
Level of government subsidies
A subsidy is a form of financial aid or support extended to an economic sector (or
institution, business, or individual) generally with the aim of promoting economic and
social policy. Although commonly extended from Government, the term subsidy can
relate to any type of support - for example from NGOs or implicit subsidies. Subsidies
come in various forms including direct (cash grants, interest-free loans) and indirect
(tax breaks, insurance, low-interest loans, depreciation write-offs, rent rebates).
Antitrust legislation
Antitrust laws - also referred to as "competition laws" - are statutes developed by the
U.S. Government to protect consumers from predatory business practices by ensuring
that fair competition exists in an open-market economy. Antitrust laws are applied to a
wide range of questionable business activities, including but not limited to

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Market Allocation
Sino-American relationships
ChinaUnited States relations, more often known as Chinese-US relations or SinoAmerican relations, refer to international relations between the United States and the
People's Republic of China. The partnership between China and the United States,
where each nation regards each other as a potential adversary as well as a strategic
partner, has been described by world leaders and academicians as the world's most
important bilateral relationship of the century.
Russian-American relationships
RussiaUnited States relations is the bilateral relationship between the Russian
Federation, a successor state to the Soviet Union, and the United States of America.
Russia and the United States maintain diplomatic relations and still agree on pursuing a
limited bilateral agenda such as jointly combating the palpable threats of terrorism.
However, in 2014, already strained relations between Russia and the US, as well as
other countries allied with the US, greatly deteriorated due to the Ukrainian crisis and
the Syrian Civil War, which caused observers to characterize those as assuming an
adversarial nature, or the advent of Cold War II, with mutual trade and investment being
significantly restricted.
European-American relationships
Relations between the United States and the European Union are the bilateral relations
between the United States and the European Union.
African-American relationships
Examines the social, economic, political, and cultural forces that present challenges to
the formation and development of healthy relationships. How ideologies and values
stemming from these forces shape their own ideas, values, and perceptions and to
examine their own approach to relationships.
Importexport regulations
International goods' trading can be accomplished by export, import, temporary import,
re-export, temporary export, re-import and transferring.
In the import and export business, subject to periodic socio-economic conditions and
international treaties under which Country is a member, the Country government will
authorize detailed lists of goods prohibited for import or export, or require import, export
licenses from state authorities and procedures to apply for such licenses.
The Country government also sets detailed regulations on temporary import, re-export,
temporary export and re-import. For goods' transferring, it can be accomplished by
transferring goods directly from export countries to import countries without passing
through Country border gates; transferring goods from export countries to import

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countries with passing through Country border gates but without procedures of import
and export in and out of Country; and transferring goods from export countries to import
countries with passing through Country border gates, placing into warehouses, transit
areas at Country ports but without procedures of import and export in and out of
Country.

Government fiscal and monetary policy changes

Fiscal and monetary policies are two strategies used to direct a country's economic
goals. Fiscal policy involves the government and how it uses revenue and expenditure
to influence a country's economy.
Monetary policy is implemented by the central bank of a country and is used to
influence that country's money supply. Fiscal and monetary policies are very important
concepts to understand in economics as they can have profound effects on the lives
and livelihoods of a country's entire population. In this free online economics course you
will gain a thorough knowledge and understanding of the economic concepts behind
both fiscal and monetary policies and how they are implemented to influence a country's
economic goals. You will also learn about supply and demand for money and how this
impacts interest rates. This free online economics course will be of great interest to all
economics and finance professionals who would like to learn more about the role fiscal
and monetary policies play in shaping a country's economy, and to all learners who
would like to learn more about economic policies that can have a direct effect on their
lives.
Political conditions in foreign countries
Politics is the practice and theory of influencing other people. More narrowly, it refers to
achieving and exercising positions of governance, organized control over a human
community, particularly a state. Furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the
distribution of power and resources within a given community (a hierarchically organized
population) as well as the interrelationship(s) between communities.
A variety of methods are employed in politics, which include promoting one's own
political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and
exercising force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide
range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern
local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the
international level.
Special local, state, and federal laws

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The law of the United States comprises many levels of codified and uncodified forms of
law, of which the most important is the United States Constitution, the foundation of the
federal government of the United States.
In the United States, state law refers to the law of each separate U.S. state. The fifty
American states are separate sovereigns, with their own state constitutions, state
governments, and state courts.
Special legislation is a legal term of art used in the United States which refers to acts of
a state legislature which apply only to part of a classa particular person, thing, or
locale within a given class. "Special legislation" is also preferred as "Local legislation".
In most states, if a general law can be enacted, the legislature may not enact a special
law, except a local law; and there are certain subjects on which the legislature cannot
enact even local law. In some states, whether a law is special is determined by the
courts; whether a general law could have been made applicable in is judicially
determined without regard to any legislative assertion on that subject. Other states allow
the legislature to determine whether a bill is special legislation.
Lobbying activities
Lobbying (also lobby) is the act of attempting to influence decisions made by officials in
the government, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is
done by many types of people, associations and organized groups, including individuals
in the private sector, corporations, fellow legislators or government officials, or advocacy
groups (interest groups). Lobbyists may be among a legislator's constituencies,
meaning a voter or block of voters within his or her electoral district, or not; they may
engage in lobbying as a business, or not. Professional lobbyists are people whose
business is trying to influence legislation on behalf of a group or individual who hires
them. Individuals and nonprofit organizations can also lobby as an act of volunteering or
as a small part of their normal job (for instance, a CEO meeting with a representative
about a project important to his/her company, or an activist meeting with his/her
legislator in an unpaid capacity). Governments often define and regulate organized
group lobbying that has become influential.
Size of government budgets
A government budget is a government document presenting the government's proposed
revenues and spending for a financial year that is often passed by the legislature,
approved by the chief executive or president and presented by the Finance Minister to
the nation. The budget is also known as the Annual Financial Statement of the country.
This document estimates the anticipated government revenues and government
expenditures for the ensuing (current) financial year. For example, only certain types of
revenue may be imposed and collected. Property tax is frequently the basis for
municipal and county revenues, while sales tax and/or income tax are the basis for state
revenues, and income tax and corporate tax are the basis for national revenues.
World oil, currency, and labor markets
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The global oil market is the most important of the world energy markets because of oils
dominant role as an energy source. Understanding how it works will also shed light on
the functioning of energy markets more generally. What does it mean to say that there is
a global market in energy? Fundamentally, oil is a commodity, and contracts for its
supply are usually traded through commodity exchanges such as the New York
Mercantile Exchange and the Intercontinental Exchange. The market in which
participants from around the world are able to buy, sell, exchange and speculate on
different currencies. International currency markets are made up of banks, commercial
companies, central banks, investment management firms, hedge funds, retail forex
brokers and investors. An increase in derived demand for labor will increase the wages
and benefits paid in the market, at least in the short run, as employers compete to hire
new workers. Total income of all workers will increase and income for individual workers
will increase.
Local, state, and national elections
The United States is a federation, with elected officials at the federal (national), state
and local levels. On a national level, the head of state, the President, is elected
indirectly by the people, through an Electoral College. Today, the electors virtually
always vote with the popular vote of their state. All members of the federal legislature,
the Congress, are directly elected. There are many elected offices at state level, each
state having at least an elective governor and legislature. There are also elected offices
at the local level, in counties and cities. It is estimated that across the whole country,
over one million offices are filled in every electoral cycle.

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