Introduction to Operating System

An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer

hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is an essential component of the system software in a computer system.
Application programs usually require an operating system to function.
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also
include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and
other resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system
acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware,[1][2] although the
application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and frequently makes a system
call to an OS function or be interrupted by it. Operating systems can be found on many
devices that contain a computerfrom cellular phones and video game
consoles to supercomputers and web servers.
Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BSD, iOS, Linux, OS
X, QNX, Microsoft Windows,[3] Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS. All these examples, except
Windows, Windows Phone and z/OS, share roots in UNIX.

Operating System Features

Keeping track of usage
The cost of using large computers is shared amongst the users. So the operating
system will have an accounting / tracking system in place that :

Counts the processing cycles used per user

Print out jobs completed

Batch jobs completed

Time spent logged in

Other resources used

And so on. A regular bill is then sent to the user account providing an itemised
charge.
Data and User security
Each user has to be authenticated with an username and password (network and
multi-user operating system).
Their data and files will be kept private from other users, unless they choose to make
some shareable with others. The operating system will only allow administrators
('super users') to change parts of the operating system and install applications.
Providing system services such as print spooling
Printing out is a time consuming process, so it makes sense to allow users to handoff a print job to the operating system so they can get on with other things. This is
called 'print spooling' and is common on multi-user and networked operating
systems.
Managing input / output

Data and applications are stored on secondary storage devices such as hard disks,
optical drives, magnetic tape when not in use. The operating system has a file
management system that allows the user to organise their files, to move, delete and
copy files as they wish.
Specialised input devices such as graphics tablets and scanners are also handled by
the operating system.
Handling Network communication
Data packets traveling to and from the connected computers on the network are
handled by the operating system. When an user drags a file from their hard disk to a
shared networked drive, they do not care how it happens - the operating system
takes care of all the details.

Linux O.S. and Architecture

Linux is a Unix-like and mostly POSIX-compliant computer operating

system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development
and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel,[9] an operating
system kernel first released on 5 October 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The Free Software
Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has
led to some controversy.
Linux was originally developed as a free operating system for Intel x86based
personal computers, but has since been ported to more computer hardware
platforms than any other operating system. It is the leading operating system
on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe
computers and supercomputers, but is used on only around 1% of desktop
computers. Linux also runs on embedded systems, which are devices whose
operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the
system; this includes mobile phones, tablet computers, network routers, facility
automation controls, televisions and video game consoles. Android, the most widely
used operating system for tablets and smartphones, is built on top of the Linux
kernel.
Linux kernel is a monolithic kernel. Device drivers and kernel extensions run in kernel space (ring
0 in many CPU architectures), with full access to the hardware, although some exceptions run
in user space, for example file systems based on FUSE. The graphics system most people use
with Linux does not run within the kernel, in contrast to that found in Microsoft Windows. Unlike
standard monolithic kernels, device drivers are easily configured as modules, and loaded or
unloaded while running the system. Also unlike standard monolithic kernels, device drivers can
be pre-empted under certain conditions. This latter feature was added to handle hardware

interrupts correctly, and to improve support for symmetric multiprocessing. By choice, the Linux
kernel has no Binary Kernel Interface.
The hardware is also incorporated into the file hierarchy. Device drivers interface to user
applications via an entry in the /dev or /sys directories. Process information as well is mapped
to the file system through the /proc directory.
Linux kernel supports true pre-emptive multitasking (both in user mode and kernel mode), virtual
memory, shared libraries, demand loading, shared copy-on-write executable (via KSM), memory
management, the Internet protocol suite, and threading.

Kernel and its types

In computing, the kernel is a computer program that manages I/O (input/output) requests
from software, and translates them into data processing instructions for the central processing
unit and other electronic components of a computer. The kernel is a fundamental part of a
modern computer's operating system.
Because of its critical nature, the kernel code is usually loaded into a protected area of memory,
which prevents it from being overwritten by other, less frequently used parts of the operating
system or by application programs. The kernel performs its tasks, such as executing processes
and handling interrupts, in kernel space, whereas everything a user normally does, such as
writing text in a text editor or running programs in a GUI (graphical user interface), is done
in user space. This separation is made in order to prevent user data and kernel data from
interfering with each other and thereby diminishing performance or causing the system to
become unstable (and possibly crashing).
When a computer program (in this context called a process) makes requests of the kernel, the
request is called a system call. Various kernel designs differ in how they manage system calls
and resources. For example, a monolithic kernel executes all the operating system instructions in
the same address space in order to improve the performance of the system. A microkernel runs
most of the operating system's background processes in user space, to make the operating
system more modular and, therefore, easier to maintain.
For computer programmers, the kernel's interface is a low-level abstraction layer.