Learning Objectives for Final Exam Spring 2015

Burdge & Overby Atoms First -2nd Edition

Chapter 11

Students should be able to:

Describe the properties of gases
o Expand to fill container + take containers shape
o Compressible
o Much smaller density/variable density
o Homogenous mixtures (solutions)
Use the assumptions of kinetic molecular theory to explain
the behavior of gases
o Four Basic Assumptions
A lot of empty space between the gas particles
compared to the size of the particles
Attraction or repulsion between particles is
negligible
The particles of the gas are constantly moving in
straight paths with perfectly elastic collisions (KE
lost by one is gained by other)
The average KE of the gas particles is directly
proportional to K (temp)
As the temp increases, the average speed
increases, but not all particles move at the
same speed (AVERAGE!!!)
o Gases in same container have same temp, so have the
same avg KE
o If particles have different masses In order to have
same kinetic energy the average velocities vary
Light particles have faster average velocity
o Equations:

Where NA*mass= molar mass in kg/mol

Where R= 8.314 J/mol*K
Urms has the units m/s (velocity)

Root mean square speed is the speed of a

molecule w/ the average KE in a gas sample
Understand the relationship between effusion and molecular
mass
o Effusion
The escape of gas molecules from a container to
a vacuum

o Grahams Law
The rate of diffusion/effusion is inversely
proportional to the square root of its molar mass

Define the standard temperature and pressure (STP)

o Standard atmospheric pressure is 1 atm= 760 mmHg=
760 torr
o Standard temperature =273 K (0 C)
List factors that may cause a gas to deviate from ideal
behavior
o Ideal gas law assumes
No attraction between molecules
Gas molecule volume insignificant
o 2 Conditions where gases deviate
At low temp and high pressure
High pressure: molecules are close
together so volume is significant
o Real gases take up space so molar
volume is larger than predicted
Low temp: molecules are slower so
intermolecular forces are significant
o Molar volume is smaller than
predicted
Use the relationships among P, V, T, and n in calculations
o Boyles Law
Pressure is inversely proportional to volume
P1V1=P2V2
o Charless Law
Volume is directly proportional to temperature
V1/T1=V2/T2
o Avogadros Law

Volume is directly proportional to number of gas

molecules
V1/n1=V2/n2
Equal volumes=Equal # of molecules
o Combined Gas Law

Use the ideal gas law to determine density or molar mass

o Ideal Gas Law

R= 0.08206 L*atm/ mol*K

o The volume of 1 mole of gas at STP= molar volume
22.4 L
o To calculate density

where M is the molar mass

At standard conditions the density is the (molar
mass/ 22.4 L)
Perform gas mixture calculations using Daltons Law of
Partial Pressures and mole fractions
o The total pressure of a mixture is the sum of partial
pressures exerted by each gas
o PV=nRT so Pgas=nRT/V where R=0.08206 Latm/molK
o Ptotal= PA+PB+PC.
o Mole Fraction

3 Things to Remember
Mole fraction of component always less than 1
Sum of mole fractions =1
Mole fractions are dimensionless

Perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions with

gaseous reactants and/or products.
o Amount of gas is given as a Volume

Convert volume to moles

Use coefficients in balanced equation as
mole ratios
o STP1 mole=22.4 L

Chapter 12

Students should be able to:

Describe the physical properties of liquids (surface tension,
viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point) and relate these to
the types of attractive forces experienced by the sample of
matter
o Intermolecular forces
Ion-dipole(ionic mixtures)>Hydrogen bonding
(molecules containing H,F,O,N) > dipole-dipole
(polar molecules) > dispersion (every
molecule/atom)
Magnitude of dispersion force increases with
molar mass
o Surface tension
Amount of energy required to STRETCH or
INCREASE the surface of a liquid by a unit area
The STRONGER the intermolecular forces
the HIGHER the surface tension
Factors Affecting surface tension
Raising the tempReduces surface tension
(increases KE making it easier to stretch
surface
Reducing the temp would have opposite
effect

Cohesion
Attraction between like molecules
Adhesion
Attraction between unlike molecules
(meniscus is seen when adhesion >
cohesion and convex shape seen when
cohesion > adhesion)
o Viscosity
Measure of a fluids resistance to flow
The higher the viscosity the more slowly a
liquid flows
The GREATER the intermolecular forces the
HIGHER the viscosities
o Vapor Pressure
The equilibrium pressure of vapor above its liquid
(rate of vaporization)
Vaporization is endothermic
The GREATER the intermolecular forces the
LOWER the vapor pressure
THE WEAKER the intermolecular forces the
GREATER the vapor pressure
Vapor pressure INCREASES with TEMP
Dynamic Equilibrium
When two opposite processes reach the
same rate
o Boiling Point
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of
the liquid=1 atm (or the external atmospheric
pressure)
The lower the external pressure, the lower
the boiling point
Predict the physical properties of various solids (melting
point, vapor pressure, and amorphous vs. crystalline
structures)
o Melting Point
Temperature at which particles can break apart
from fixed positions
o Vapor Pressure
Solids have low vp at room temperature
E.g. iodine, carbon dioxide
o Amorphous Solids
Lack 3D arrangement, melt over a range of
temperatures
o Crystalline Solids

Possess rigid and long-range order

Unit cells
o Basic repeating structure
o

Describe the basic types of crystalline solids (ionic, covalent,

molecular, metallic)
o Ionic
Held together through ionic bonds
Hard, brittle, high MP, poor conductors
o Covalent
Held together through covalent bonds
Very hard and brittle, very high MP, poor
conductors
o Molecular
Held together through weak intermolecular
interactions such as Van der Waals, H-bonding,
dipole-dipole and dispersion
Low MP, poor conductors
o Metallic
Held together by metallic bonds
Variable hardness and MP

Identify phase changes and their associated enthalpies

Interpret heating/cooling curves

Calculate heat(q) changes with temperature and/or phase

changes
o Solid Warming
q=mass X Cs X delta T
Cs is the specific heat
o Solid to Liquid in Equilibrium
q= n* delta Hfus
o Liquid Warming
q=mass X Cs X delta T
Cs is the specific heat
o Liquid to Gas in Equilibrium
q= n* delta Hvap
o Gas Warming
q=mass X Cs X delta T
Cs is the specific heat
qtotal= q1+q2+q3+q4+q5 (KJ/mol)

Interpret a phase diagram

Triple point= all three phases in dynamic

equilibrium
Critical temperature= temp above which its gas
cannot be liquified
Critical pressure= min pressure that must be
applied to liquify a substance at critical temp

Chapter 13
Students should be able to:
Describe types of solutions, including all phases
o Unsaturated
Contains less solute than the solvent has capacity
to dissolve

o Saturated
Contains the maximum amount of solute that will
dissolve in a solvent
o Supersaturated
Contains more dissolved solute than is present in
a saturated solutionunstable
Describe changes in entropy and enthalpy when solutions
are formed
o Solvation depends on
Solute-solute interactions
Must overcome (endothermic)
Solvent-solvent interactions
Must overcome (endothermic)
Solute-solvent interactions
New solute-solvent attractions provide
energy (exothermic)
o Entropy (S)
A measure of how dispersed or spread out the
energy is in a system
Natural tendency for entropy to increase
Describe how environmental factors (T and P) affect the
solubility of a gas in a liquid
o Solubility of one substance in another depends on
Types of intermolecular forces
Natures tendency towards mixing (increase in
entropy)

o Solubility usually increases with temperature

o Henrys law
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional
to the pressure of the gas over the solution
More pressure increased solubility
o Molarity and Molality
Molarity is moles of solute/L of solution
Molality is moles of solute/kg of solvent
Molality does not vary with temperature
o Parts solute in Parts Solution
0.9% by mass= 0.9 g of solute in 100 g of soln
36 ppm by volume= 36 mL of solute in 1 million
mL of soln
Use Henrys law to calculate solubility of a gas in a solution

o
Explain and calculate different physical properties between
solutions and pure solvent (colligative properties)
o Colligative properties depend on # of solute particles
in solution
vapor pressure lowering
vapor pressure of solution is lower than
vapor pressure of pure solvent

boiling point elevation elevation

solutions boil at a higher temperature than
the pure solvent

freezing point depression

solutions freeze at a lower temp than pure
solvent

osmotic pressure

osmosis is movement of water high to low

concentration
osmotic pressure is the pressure required
to stop osmosis

Chapter 14
Students should be able to:

Distinguish between a spontaneous and a nonspontaneous

process
o Exothermic (energy released) H negative
o Endothermic (energy absorbed) H positive
o Spontaneous reactions occur under specific set of
conditions
Most release energy (exothermic) high PE to low PE
Some are endothermic (like melting ice)
o Nonspontaneous reactions require energy input and do
not occur under a specific set of conditions
o Spontaneity
Compare chemical potential energy before and
after reaction
o Less PE after reaction means its favored
Favored by an increase in entropy
Define entropy (S) and Gibbs free energy (G)
o Entropy (S)
Measure of how spread out or how dispersed a
systems energy is
o Gibbs free energy (G)
Since measuring the surroundings is impractical, we
use Gibbs free energy change to describe
spontaneity in a system
Recognize the conditions necessary for standard entropy (S)
Identify trends in standard entropy values

o Changes that increase S

Products are in a more random state (mobility)
Solid to liquid to gas
Larger numbers of product molecules than reactant
molecules-More Moles
Increase in temperature
Increase in molecular complexity
Solids dissociating into ions upon dissolving
(sometimes)
Molecular solutes S increases
Ionic solutesS can increase or decrease
Calculate the standard entropy change (S) for a given
reaction

Predict the sign of S for a given process and use the sign to
indicate whether the system has undergone an increase or
decrease in entropy

o
Calculate Ssurr given Hsys and temperature
Determine whether a process is spontaneous given Ssurr and
Ssys

State in words or symbols the second law and third law of

thermodynamics
o Second Law of Thermodynamics
For a process to be spontaneous, Suniverse must be
positive
o Third Law of Thermodynamics states that the entropy of a
perfect crystalline substance is ZERO at absolute zero (S
increases as Temp increases)
Define Gibbs free energy (G)
Calculate G from temperature, H, and S
o

Use the sign of G to indicate if a process is spontaneous

Predict the sign of G given the signs of H and S at high

and low temperatures
o

Calculate the standard free energy change (G) of a given

reaction

o
Calculate the temperature at which a process becomes
spontaneous
o Use G = H TS, substituting delta G for 0
Calculate S then substitute into equation and solve for T
(K)

Convert to C if needed

Chapter 15
Students should be able to:
Define equilibrium
Distinguish between reversible and irreversible processes
Write the equilibrium constant (K) expression for a given
reaction
o K=[Products]/[Reactants]
Explain the relationship between the equilibrium constant
(K) and the reaction quotient (Q)
Calculate K given equilibrium concentrations of reactants
and products
Predict the relative amounts of reactants and products at
equilibrium given the equilibrium constant (K)
Calculate the equilibrium concentration of reactants or
products given initial concentrations.
Differentiate between heterogeneous and homogeneous
equilibria
o Heterogeneous equilibria
o Homogeneous equilibria
Convert between Kc and KP for a reaction involving gases
Calculate the reaction quotient (Q) and predict the direction
of a reaction given initial concentrations of reactants and
products and the equilibrium constant (K).
Calculate G and G of a reaction at a specified
temperature given Q or K.
Use an ICE table and, if necessary, the quadratic formula to
determine equilibrium, initial or final concentrations of
reactants and products
Employ and explain the x is small approximation
Predict the shift of a reaction using Le Chtelier's principle
given a change in one of the following: removal or addition
of reactant or product, change in volume or pressure, and
temperature change.

Chapter 16
Students should be able to:
Write base/conjugate acid and acid/conjugate base pairs
Define through words and examples Brnsted acids/bases
and Lewis acids/bases
o Bronsted acid
o Bronsted base
o Lewis acid
o Lewis base
Define amphoteric and give examples of substances that are
amphoteric
Determine the relative strength of acids based on their
composition and structure
o Strength of Acids depends on
Write the equilibrium expression for water (Kw) and use it to
determine whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral
Classify a solution as being acidic, basic, or neutral using
the pH scale
o Acidic solutions
o Basic solutions
o Neutral
Calculate pH, pOH, concentration of hydroxide ion, or
concentration of protons
Identify an acid or base as being strong or weak

o
o
o
o

Strong Acid
Strong Base
Weak Acid
Weak Base

Calculate the pH of a weak acid or base using an ICE table

and, the acid or base-dissociation constant (Ka or Kb) and, if
necessary, the quadratic equation
Employ the x is small approximation
Explain the relationship between Ka, Kb, and Kw
Calculate the percent ionization of a weak acid or base
Use the pH of a weak acid or base solution to calculate
the Ka or Kb, respectively.
Calculate the Ka or Kb of conjugate pairs using Kw
Identify polyprotic acids and calculate their pH at a given
concentration
Classify a salt as being basic, acidic, or neutral based upon
the acid and base used to form the salt
o Basic salt
o Acidic salt
o Neutral salt
Calculate the pH of a salt solution

Chapter 17
Students should be able to:
Recognize that a solution containing a weak acid and a salt
containing its conjugate base is a buffer solution
Write the chemical reactions for a buffer reacting with
strong acid or strong base
Calculate the pH of buffers given initial amounts or
concentrations of a weak acid and a salt containing its
conjugate base or a weak base and a salt containing its
conjugate acid
Select an appropriate acid and salt to prepare a buffer of a
specific pH
Predict whether the products of an acid-base neutralization
(titration) will be acidic, basic or neutral
Calculate the pH (initially, at the mid-way point and at the
equivalence point) for a titration between an acid and a
base - where either both are strong, or one is strong and
the other weak
Describe or identify the different profiles of titration curves
depending upon the acid and base strengths
Select an appropriate indicator (given a chart of indicators
and pH range) for a given acid-base titration
Write Ksp expressions given the name or formula of a
sparingly soluble salt
Calculate molar solubility from Ksp values and vice versa
Predict how factors such as a common ion or pH will affect
solubility of a specific salt

Chapter 18
Students should be able to:
Balance oxidation-reduction reactions taking place in
neutral, acidic or basic solutions
Predict the direction of the flow of electrons, identify the
anode and cathode, and calculate the cell potential for a
galvanic cell

Use line notation to write the spontaneous redox reaction of

a galvanic cell
Identify the various components of a galvanic cell from the
line notation
Given two half cells, predict the spontaneous reaction, and
calculate the standard cell potential (E), free energy (G)
and the equilibrium constant (K). [Equations will be
provided.]
Use the Nernst equation to calculate cell potentials under
non-standard conditions
Explain the driving force of concentration cells

Chapter 19
Students should be able to:

Describe the factors (concentration, temperature, catalyst)

that affect the rate of reactions, and describe how these
factors affect reaction rates
Express the rate of a reaction in terms of rate of loss of
reactants or rate of formation of products given the
balanced chemical reaction
Write rate laws for first-order, zero-order and second-order
reactions
Determine the rate law and calculate the rate constant for a
reaction using the method of initial rates
Use graphical treatment of kinetic data to determine
reaction order, rate law, and the rate constant
Use integrated rate laws to calculate the concentration of
reactant at a given time
Use half-life and reaction order to calculate the
concentration of reactant at a given time
Use the Arrhenius equation or an Arrhenius plot (ln k vs.
1/T) to determine activation energy of a reaction
Interpret reaction profile (energy vs. reaction progress)
graphs to find the activation energy of forward, reverse or
catalyzed reactions
Write rate laws for elementary reactions
Given several reaction mechanisms, be able to determine
which are consistent with the stoichiometry and rate law
for the reaction.
Describe how a catalyst (or an inhibitor) affects reaction
rates
Identify reaction intermediates in a given reaction
mechanism

Please Note: Nomenclature and the writing of inorganic formulas will be included
throughout the exam.