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September 2015
VOL. 26, NUMBER 9
gpsworld.com
COVER STORY
Receiver Design for the Future 16

How the Internet of Things Now Drives Location Technology
By Greg Turetzky
The number of devices connecting to the Internet is growing fast. The applications
running on them require location context to determine the most likely use case.
These devices need continuous location not necessarily noticed or activated
by the user, but always on. The specification that becomes important is energy
per day: the device must maintain its location without draining its battery
and increase location availability indoors. That creates new design
requirements for hybrid capability.
High-Precision Receiver Design:

More than Accuracy 32
Anticipating New, Different Application and User Needs
By Jason Hamilton
BUSINESS OUTLOOK
The Economic Benefits of GPS 36

By Irv Leveson
The State of the GNSS Industry 43

OPINIONS & DEPARTMENTS
Out in Front
Addiction on the Rise

By Alan Cameron
THE SYSTEM
BeiDou Adds Two, Plans Auto Sat Nav; First BeiDou Phase 3 Signals Acquired
THE BUSINESS
10
Locata to Underpin NASA UA Research Center; OxTS Creates Locata +

Inertial System; Rohde & Schwarz Offers Fast Production Testing for
Receivers; Qualcomm Completes CSR Purchase; New Book Covers RF
Positioning for GNSS; IFENs v3.0 of SX3 GNSS Software Receiver Adds
Functions; Events; Briefs
www.gpsworld.com
B
dbc
dac
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September 2015 | GPS World
ONLINE RESOURCES
NEWSLETTER EXCERPT
Establishing Orthometric
Heights Using GNSS
A Three-Part Series in
the Survey Scene newsletter
FILM A VIDEO SELFIE AT ION

With Mary Jane, the playful great white shark.
ION-GNSS+ attendees are invited to come by the
GPS World booth during the Wednesday evening
reception, September 16. Well film your 30-second
video profile and post it to our YouTube channel!
VIDEO PLAYBACK
Subscribe to the GPS World YouTube channel for
interviews from the show floors of the biggest
conferences and trade shows in the industry.
Check out our playlists of recently uploaded videos:

Esri User Conference 2015
GEOINT 2015
eMerge Americas
AUVSI Umanned Systems
Esri Federal GIS Conference
Coming in September:
INTERGEO 2015
ION GNSS+ 2015
Type GPS WORLD in YouTube Search box.

4
GPS World | September 2015
This series of columns discuss

issues associated with establishing
orthometric heights using GNSS.
The purpose of my columns is not to By David B. Zilkoski
Survey Scene columnist
promote a particular procedure or
process, but to provide the reader
with information and analysis tools to consider when using
GNSS to estimate orthometric heights.
Part 1, The Three Types of Heights Involved in Computing
GNSS-Derived Orthometric Heights, covers the basic
concepts of GNSS-derived heights, including the three
types of heights involved in determining GNSS-derived
orthometric heights: ellipsoid, geoid and orthometric. I
also mentioned that each of these heights has its own error
sources that need to be detected, reduced or eliminated by
following specific procedures or applying special models.
In Part 2, Basic Procedures for Establishing Accurate
GNSS-Derived Ellipsoid Heights, I discuss guidelines
for detecting, reducing and eliminating error sources in
ellipsoid heights. I focus on guidelines for establishing
accurate ellipsoid heights in a local geodetic network.
Read Parts 1 and 2 at gpsworld.com/opinions. Part 3 is coming
soon.
Hottest Pages @ GPSWorld.com

July 14 August 13, 2015
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
GPS IIF-10 Launches from Cape Canaveral

Precise GNSS Positioning but Compared with
What? (Survey Scene newsletter)
LATEST
NEWS
INSIGHTS
Live from the 2015 Esri User Conference
LATEST
NEWS
New LightSquared, Same Agenda, Billions at Stake
LATEST
NEWS
To L2C or Not to L2C? That Is the Operational

Question. (GNSS Design & Test newsletter)
INSIGHTS
Possible Piece of Galileo Rocket Found on Florida

Beach
LATEST
NEWS
Inexpensive Hack Spoofs GPS in Smartphones,

Drones
LATEST
NEWS
Accuracy in the Palm of Your Hand
FROM THE
MAGAZINE
China Launches Two More BeiDou Satellites
LATEST
NEWS
Nokias HERE Maps sold to BMW, Daimler and

Volkswagen
LATEST
NEWS
www.gpsworld.com
OUT IN FRONT
Addiction on the Rise

M
emory fails as to who
first said Accuracy is
addictive. Or perhaps its
my knowledge base that is defcient.
At any rate, Ill gladly publish
documented evidence from anyone
who can show the earliest print or
audio expression of that dictum.
It continues to hold as true for this
industry as Moores Law does for
computer technology as a whole.
We have seen the gradual tightening
of accuracy requirements across all
sectors of the positioning, navigation
and timing (PNT) community with
each successive iteration of our
GNSS State of the Industry Survey,
now in its fourth year. This is the
first time we have seen it cross the
1-centimeter line. Not in capability;
preferences and their behaviors will

rule our world.
Other sectors will presumably
answer likewise in coming years,
following the trail blazed by the highprecision pioneers.
We have crossed the Rubicon.
Unlike other obsessive behaviors,
there is no going back in our
case. This path is a one-way road
to well, not to the various hells
entailed by other addictions but
to the promised land of always-on,
always-true, near-perfect provision of
positioning.
Lets not kid ourselves, however.
The perfect world does not exist. The
closer we get to millimetric accuracy,
the more obstacles we find in our
way. Indoor continuity aka ubiquity,
60%
50%
40%
EDITORIAL OFFICES
1360 East 9th St, Suite 1070
Cleveland, OH 44114, USA
847-763-4942 | Fax 847-763-9694
www.gpsworld.com | gpsworld@gpsworld.com
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Innovation Richard Langley | lang@unb.ca
Defense PNT Don Jewell | djewell@gpsworld.com
European GNSS Tim Reynolds | treynolds@gpsworld.com
Professional OEM Tony Murfin | tmurfin@gpsworld.com
Geospatial Eric Gakstatter | egakstatter@gpsworld.com
GeoIntelligence Art Kalinski | akalinski@gpsworld.com
Survey Dave Doyle and Dave Zilkoski
Wireless LBS Insider Kevin Dennehy | kdennehy@gpsworld.com
Janice Partyka | jpartyka@gpsworld.com
BUSINESS
International Account Manager
Michelle Mitchell | mmitchell@northcoastmedia.net | 216-363-7922
Digital Operations Manager
Bethany Chambers | bchambers@northcoastmedia.net | 216-706-3771
Senior Digital Editor
Diane Sofranec | dsofranec@northcoastmedia.net | 216-706-3793
Digital Editor
Joelle Harms | jharms@northcoastmedia.net | 216-706-3780
Web Developer
Jesse Malcmacher |jmalcmacher@northcoastmedia.net | 216-363-7925
Marketing Manager
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PUBLISHING SERVICES
20%
PRODUCTION OFFICE
1360 East 9th St., Suite 1070, Cleveland, OH 44114
216-978-5341
10%
0%
Less
than a
centimeteU
1 to 5
6 to 20
21 to 50
51
centimeteUV centimeteUV centimeteUV centimete
rs to 1
meter
1 meter
to 3
meters
More
than 3
meters
HOW ACCURATE IS GOOD ENOUGH FOR THE MAJORITY OF YOUR MARKET SECTOR? This chart show
the answers from those who identified themselves as members of the survey and highprecision community. For more results from this and other sectors, see the 2015 State of the
GNSS Industry Report, which begins on page 43 of this issue.
sub-centimeter capability has been

available for some time. But now that
level of performance is the minimum
acceptable good enough for more
respondents in the survey and highprecision sector than any lesser
degree of accuracy; in fact, greater
than all other ranges combined. These
addicts form the new majority. Their
6
Editor-in-Chief and Group Publisher Alan Cameron | editor@gpsworld.com

Managing Editor Tracy Cozzens | tcozzens@northcoastmedia.net
Art Director Charles Park
Manager, Production Services

Chris Anderson | canderson@northcoastmedia.net
Sr. Audience Development Manager
Antoinette Sanchez-Perkins | asanchez-perkins@northcoastmedia.net
30%
www.gpsworld.com
EDITORIAL
jamming, spoofing, hacking, budget

cutbacks, slides to the right this list
will surely grow.
The more acute our addiction, the
lower our tolerance for less-than-total
fulfillment.
CIRCULATION/SUBSCRIBER SERVICES
gpsworld@halldata.com | USA: 847-763-4942
NORTH COAST MEDIA, LLC.
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Vice President of Finance & Operations
Steve Galperin | sgalperin@northcoastmedia.net | 216-706-3705
Vice President Graphic Design & Production
Pete Seltzer | pseltzer@northcoastmedia.net | 216-706-3737
MANUSCRIPTS: GPS World welcomes unsolicited articles but cannot be held responsible for
their safekeeping or return. Send to: 1360 East 9th St, Suite 1070, IMG Center, Cleveland, OH 44114,
USA. Every precaution is taken to ensure accuracy, but publishers cannot accept responsibility for the
accuracy of information supplied herein or for any opinion expressed. REPRINTS: Reprints of
all articles are available (500 minimum). Contact 877-652-5295, Wyndell Hamilton. Wrights Media,
2407 Timberloch Place, The Woodlands, TX 77380. SUBSCRIBER SERVICES: To subscribe,
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GPS WORLD does not verify any claims or other information appearing in any of the
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Published monthly
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www.ifen.com
Ready for IRNSS

with NavX -NCS Professional RF GPS/GNSS Signal Simulator
NSS+ 2015
NG
Visit us at IO
Contact IFEN for GPS/GNSS Test Equipment

In co-operation with
SYSTEM
THE
Policy and system news and developments | GPS | Galileo | GLONASS | BeiDou
BeiDou Adds Two,

Plans Auto Sat Nav
China launched two BeiDou navigation
satellites into medium Earth orbit on
July 25.
The two new satellites, BeiDou-3 M1
and BeiDou-3 M2, are in orbital slots 1
and 6 of Plane 1 (or A Plane), respectively. The satellites are designated
BDS M1-S and M2-S the S may
stand for Test (in Chinese: =
Shiyan).
On Aug. 14, China stated one
satellite was working autonomously
and had set up a link with the other
satellite, successfully testing the
autonomous control technology of
the Beidou constellation. The inter-
satellite link realizes communication

and distance measurement among
satellites, bringing autonomous
control of the system a step closer.
Autonomous navigation is the
projects key to global operation.

It enables satellites to work
independently, providing users with
more accurate data, according to
BeiDou design engineers.
First BeiDou Phase 3 Signals Acquired

By Michele Bavaro and James Curran
On Aug. 9, signals from the two new
BeidDou satellites were received with
a software-defined radio sampler
operated at the European Commissions
Joint Research Centre in Ispra, Italy. The
sampler is driven by orbit-prediction
software that triggers a synchronized
acquisition on both 1575.42 MHz and
1278.75 MHz using 1-bit complex
FIGURE 1 BOC(1,1) cross-correlation.

samples at 60 megasamples per second

(about 60 MHz total bandwidth). The
two-line element sets for the orbits
were obtained from the CelesTrak
website, and predicted positions were
computed using code developed
following the Simplified General
Perturbations Satellite Orbit Model
4 (SGP4) as documented in the U.S.
FIGURE 2 BOC(14,2) cross-correlation.
Department of Defense Spacetrack

Report No. 3.
To confirm the identity of the satellite
being tracked using codeless tracking,
we matched the measured Doppler
frequency shift with the predicted
one. The local oscillator clock drift was
modeled using GPS L1 C/A-code signals
and taken into account when matching
the Doppler shift.
According to a presentation given
at Stanford Universitys 2014 PNT
Symposium by Mingquan Lu and
Zheng Yao from Tsinghua University,
modernized BeiDou satellites broadcast
an MBOC(6,1,1/11) [a multiplexing of
BOC(6,1) and BOC(1,1) signals] and a
BOC(14,2) signal on the L1 frequency.
Neglecting the BOC(6,1) term, side
lobes were brought to baseband and
cross-correlated by our equipment. In
www.gpsworld.com
THE SYSTEM
FIGURE 1, the peak

at 1756.41 MHz is
BEIDOU-3 M2. This
is also confirmed
by cross-correlating
the lobes of the
BOC(14,2) signal,
which is quite a
unique feature of
the new satellites
(see FIGURE 2).
On Aug. 10, a
1.8-meter
dish
FIGURE 3 Power spectral density of BEIDOU-3 M2 on L1.
was pointed at the
satellite, and a Tektronix RSA306 USB
Real Time Spectrum Analyzer was used
to sample the signal on L1 with 14-bit
resolution at 112 megasamples per
second. The resulting power spectrum
is shown in FIGURE 3.
The spectrum shows very good
overlap between the anticipated
BOC(1,1) signal in red, BOC(14,2) in
FIGURE 4 Cross-correlation of a BPSK(2)
green and BPSK(2) in black. In fact,
BeiDou code PRN33 on a 1561.098-MHz
PRN33 correlates with the low side
carrier.
www.gpsworld.com
lobe suggesting that the satellite is

also broadcasting a legacy signal on
1561.098 MHz (see FIGURE 4).
Meanwhile, tracking by stations
participating in the International GNSS
Service Multi-GNSS Experiment has
established that the second recently
launched BeiDou Phase 3 MEO satellite
is using PRN code 34, and that the first
Phase 3 satellite, BeiDou I1-S launched
on March 30, 2015, into an inclined
geosynchronous orbit, is using PRN
code 31.
More News Online

Late-Breaking Story:
National Differential GPS
(NDGPS) Shutdown Proposed
by U.S. Government
See www.gpsworld.com
BUSINESS
THE
Industry news and developments | GPS | Galileo | GLONASS
UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEMS
Locata to Underpin NASA UA Research Center
ASA plans to install a Locata network (LocataNet)

as the core positioning technology for safetycritical unmanned aerial systems (UAS) research at
its Langley Research Center in Hampton, Va., according to
an announcement by Locata.
NASA Langley is tasked with performing rigorous
and repeatable scientific evaluation of UAS safety and
technology concepts under development. The LocataNet
will provide essential high-precision non-GPS-based
positioning, navigation and timing (PNT). Known for its
long history of aeronautics research, NASA Langley is a key
center for UAS research and development. In June, one
of Langleys unmanned hexacopters a drone with six
rotors delivered medical supplies to a Virginia clinic, the
first such delivery by an unmanned drone.
Locatas centimeter-accurate positioning will assist
NASA to develop and improve flight-critical technology
systems that support air transportation safety, efficiency
and performance. Langleys extensive facilities will be
further enhanced with the installation of the LocataNet.
The NASA LocataNet is scheduled to be installed
and commissioned before the end of 2015. Locata will
supply the LocataLite Transmitters and Locata receivers
required by NASA for the installation. Aviation-quality
Locata antennas, developed by Cooper Antennas (UK) and
previously used by the U.S. Air Force in its own military
NASAS IKHANA UAV is being used in the tests. (Credit: NASA)
LocataNets, will also be installed.

Locata has invented new terrestrial positioning
networks that function as local, ground-based replicas of
GPS. The networks can be thought of as GPS hotspots,
according to the company.
Locata is shipping commercial systems to end users
such as the U.S. Air Force, NASA and Leica Geosystems.
Locata enables integration partners to extend GPS-like
positioning coverage to modern industrial, commercial,
consumer and government applications in areas where
GPS is erratic, jammed or unavailable.
MULTI-PNT INTEGRATION
OxTS Creates Locata + Inertial System

OxTS hassuccessfully integrated a Locata receiver with
itsInertial+ to create the first Locata+INS device, according
to both companies. The device is capable of achieving
centimeter-level accuracy where GPS systems fail.
The Inertial+ series, first developed in 2008, was designed
for users who had an external GNSS receiver already, but
still wanted to gain the benefits of an inertial system. The
company hasbeen able to combine OxTS Kalman filter and
expertise in GNSS/IMU integration with itsexisting systems.
GNSS receivers have been integrated with the Inertial+.
Now, the Inertial+ has been integrated with a Locata receiver,
combining benefits of both systems, the companies said.
Locata is designed to complement rather than replace
10
GPS by addressing the issues and shortfalls of GNSS. Inertial+

allows Locata users to take advantage of their existing
technology while enjoying the extra layer of measurements
an aided-inertial navigation system provides.
Locata positioning data is fused with the IMU data in
the Inertial+ with OxTS custom Kalman filter, creating a full
3D navigation solution with precise position, orientation,
heading, velocity and acceleration measurements.
Locata systems are being used in markets where GPS
is unusable or unreliable, such as inside warehouses, on
dockyards, in open-pit mines, for UAVs in urban areas, and
for military uses where GPS is being actively denied by an
adversary.
www.gpsworld.com
Visit us at Booth 108
3 constellation
simulator
Recreate real world conditions
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou, QZSS and SBAS
One touch record/replay of RF signals
Signal simulation software available
Free library of worldwide recordings and simulations
THE BUSINESS
DESIGN & TEST
RESOURCE
New Book Covers RF

Positioning for GNSS
ROHDE & SCHWARZ designed its GNSS simulator for the R&S
SMBV100A with a focus on production testing of GNSS receivers.
Rohde & Schwarz Offers Fast

Production Testing for Receivers
Rohde & Schwarz now offers a new, speed-optimized
production tester the R&S SMBV100A vector signal
generator equipped with the R&S SMBV-P101 package.
During production testing of modules and receivers
for satellite-based communications, the basic GNSS signal
reception and the connection between the antenna and
GNSS chipset need to be checked.The GNSS production tester
simulates separate satellites for the GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou
and Galileo navigation standards in the L1/E1 band specifically
for these production tests. The satellites can be activated
individually, each with a high dynamic range of 34 dB. Level
changes can be made on the fly without interrupting the
signal, enabling users to simultaneously perform independent
sensitivity tests for each navigation system. The 1 pps or 10
pps GNSS marker allows exact time synchronization between
the tester and the device under test (DUT). Pure, level-stable
continuous wave signals can be generated to calibrate the test
setup or simulate interferers.
The R&S SMBV-P101 option offers test functions for efficient
characterization of GNSS chipsets, Rohde & Schwarz said. As a
result, a receivers ability to handle high-movement dynamics
can be verified quickly and cost-effectively. To do this, users
can access both predefined and user-defined Doppler profiles,
from which the R&S SMBV100A automatically generates the
appropriate satellite signal.
ACQUISITION
Qualcomm Completes CSR Purchase

On Aug. 13, Qualcomm completed the acquisition of CSR
for $2.4 billion. CSR is the maker of the SiRFstar series
of chips used in many consumer devices. Qualcomm
started the acquisition process for CSR in October 2014.
Cambridge Silicon Radio Limited, or CSR, is renamed
Qualcomm Technologies International Ltd.
12
Artech House is offering a new

title in its GNSS Technology and
Applications series. RF Positioning:
Fundamentals, Applications, and
Tools, by Rafael Saraiva Campos
and Lisandro Lovisolo, provides
a comprehensive look at radiofrequency (RF) positioning.
The book covers the fundamentals of RF positioning
and the use of advanced tools such as artificial
intelligence algorithms and application development
environments.The first part of the book covers the
fundamentals of RF localization, and the second part
addresses the application of those fundamentals in
several types of wireless networks and technologies such
as cellular networks, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, sensor networks,
ultra wideband and GNSS. The third part offers tools to
allow rapid development of positioning applications for
mobile devices, as well as to support implementation,
usage, deployment and research of localization
algorithms.
DESIGN & TEST
IFENs v3.0 of SX3 GNSS Software

Receiver Adds Functions
IFENs latest software release for its SX3 GNSS Software
Receiver Generation, version 3.0, offers realtime P
code generator and Pcode aiding for GPS L1/L2 cross
correlation and full dualantenna support for the SX3 Black
Edition. Other features include KML file output for Google
Earth realtime visualization, better performance through
switch from 32-bit to 64-bit version, and support of the
new SX3 RF frontend with up to 12 IF streams.
IFENs SX3 multiGNSS software receiver tracks all known
(and future upcoming) GNSS signals in view in real time
on a standard laptop (up to 1,000 channels in parallel on
a core i7 desktop PC). The included RF frontend offers
four RF frequency chains with 50-MHz bandwidth each,
covering the entire GNSS Lband spectrum.
The USB 3.0 interface enables highspeed data transfer
with up to 8-bit quantization. Customers can concentrate
on their applications instead of dealing with potentially
obscure code when using open source, IFEN said.
A dualantenna input RF frontend (SX3 Black Edition)
can be used for heading determination, reflectometry and
other applications requiring the synchronized input from
two antennas.
www.gpsworld.com
Spirent Federal
GPS/GNSS Regional
Training Seminars
Come hear the latest in GNSS simulation at a Spirent Federal training seminar. See and have
hands on experience while discussing simulation developments, test fundamentals, interference
testing, and more! Choose from six locations:
Los Angeles, CA
Denver, CO
Dallas, TX
Boston, MA Washington DC Orlando, FL
Contact us to learn more or visit www.spirentfederal.com/GPS/Training.
Spirent Federal Systems Inc., 1402 W. State Rd., Pleasant Grove, UT 84062
801-785-1448
info@spirentfederal.com
www.spirentfederal.com
THE BUSINESS
EVENTS
ION GNSS+ 2015 (Also see page 4.)
Sept. 1418, Tampa, Fla.; http://ion.org/gnss/index.cfm
ION GNSS+ is the worlds largest
technical meeting and showcase of GNSS
technology, products and services.
INTERGEO 2015
Sept. 1517, Stuttgart, Germany; www.intergeo.de
The INTERGEO conference and trade
fair for geodesy, geoinformation and
land management has more than 16,000
visitors from 92 countries.
For details, see www.gpsworld.com/events.
Unmanned Systems Defense

Oct. 27 29, Arlington, Va.; www.thedefenseshow.org
Unmanned Systems Defense is an
inclusive forum that brings industry,
government program managers,
decision makers and technology experts
together for information sharing and
interaction.
10th ICG Meeting

Nov. 26, Boulder, Colo.; www.unoosa.org
The United States is hosting the 10th

meeting of the International Committee
HISTORIC KYOTO will host IS-GNSS 2015.
on Global Navigation Satellite Systems,
Commercial UAV Expo
bringing together GNSS service
Oct. 57, Las Vegas; www.expouav.com
providers
and
experts
to discuss civil satellite-based
SPAR Point Group is hosting its first Commercial UAV Expo
positioning, navigation and timing.
to showcase developments and opportunities for commercial
sUAS (small Unmanned Aerial Systems) technology.
IAIN World Congress 2015

Oct. 2325, Las Vegas; www.iain2015.org
Sponsored by the International Association of Institutes of
Navigation (IAIN), the congress will discuss satellite navigation
systems, augmentation and modernization.
14
International Symposium on GNSS 2015

Nov.1619, Kyoto, Japan; www.isgnss2015.org
The symposium is designed to bring together experts

engaged in PNT and GNSS technologies to disseminate their
latest research results and exchange knowledge.
www.gpsworld.com
THE BUSINESS
BUSINESS
BRIEFS
Google Reorganizes with Alphabet
Google is reorganizing under a

new name, Alphabet, separating its
moneymaking businesses from its
cutting-edge ventures such as the selfdriving car and drone delivery service.
Alphabet would be the parent entity,
housing several companies, including
Google.
as Google for maps and navigation

as the technology moves toward the
connected and self-driving car.
materials to achieve high performance

from an ultra low-profile antenna.
Trimble, AGCO Collaborate

Antenova Launches Sinica Antenna
Antenova has announced a new
embedded GNSS antenna named
Sinica, which operates on the 1559
1609 MHz satellite bands. The Sinica
uses a new design approach and
Trimble and AGCO are partnering to

deliver wireless connectivity between
AGCOs VarioDoc and AgCommand
systems and Trimble Connected Farm.
AGCO is a manufacturer and distributor of
agricultural equipment and infrastructure.
Arrow Receiver
Supports Atlas
The Arrow 200
Bluetooth GNSS
receiver by Eos
Positioning Systems now supports
the new Atlas H10 GNSS correction
service offered by Hemisphere GNSS.
With the H10 service, the Arrow 200
is able to achieve 8-cm accuracy,
in real-time, virtually anywhere in
the world, the company said. The
H10 corrections are delivered by
geostationary satellite or via Internet
connection.
Researchers Test Water Drone

A research team at Florida Atlantic
Universitys College of Engineering
and Computer Science has received
a grant from the Florida Department
of Transportation to develop
autonomous waterborne vehicles
that can assist in bridge inspections.
The goal is for the unmanned surface
vehicles to make bridge inspectors
work safer and more efficient.
Nokias HERE Maps Sold

After months of negotiation, Nokia
will sell its HERE Maps division to a
consortium of German automakers
BMW, Daimler and Volkswagen for
$2.71 billion. Under the agreement,
HERE Maps would turn into an open
platform that all car manufacturers
can use for navigation and mapping
inside vehicles, giving automakers
independence from companies such
www.gpsworld.com
15
COVER STORY
Time
Main
Volume
Platorm
Key
Use
Case
Featured
Specicaton
Secondary
Specicaton
Early 2000s
PND
Urban Canyon
Sensitvity
TTFF
Mid 2000s
Feature
Phone
E911
TTFF
Sensitvity
2010 - today
Smart
Phone
LBS
Actve
Power
Availability
(MultGNSS)
Coming Soon
Wearables/IOT
Contnuous
Locaton
Energy/Day
Availability
(Hybrid)
FIGURE 1 Major shifts in underlying platforms.
Receiver Design for the Future

How the Internet of Things Now Drives Location Technology
The number of devices connecting to the Internet is growing fast. The applications running on them require location context
to determine the most likely use case. These devices need continuous location not necessarily noticed or activated by the
user, but always on. The specification that becomes important is energy per day: the device must maintain its location without
draining its battery and increase location availability indoors. That creates new design requirements for hybrid capability.
Greg Turetzky
lot of people have the opinion that the GNSS market

is kind of flat. Actually, several different market
studies would indicate that its not as flat as you
would think. See FIGURE 2, taken from the European GNSS
Agencys (GSAs) 2015 GNSS Market Report. The growth
rate certainly is slowing, but any market that continues to
grow at a 9 percent annual growth rate is a very nice target
area. As you can see, the GSA expects that were going to
have somewhere in the neighborhood of 7 billion devices
within the next eight to ten years.
Were getting to the point where the number of GNSS
receivers exceeds the population of the planet, which
makes for an interesting thought process as to where
GNSS is going to end up, and how its going to have to
end up in everything that we do. That makes for a nice
market opportunity. A big reason for that is weve seen a
lot of growth in demand for multi-constellation GNSS.
Everything pretty much has GPS in it that everyone terms
16
as GNSS, but the growth of these other constellations is

happening relatively quickly.
FIGURE 3, in my opinion, is already significantly out of
date, even though it is less than a year old. Other market
estimates indicate that GLONASS penetration into
receivers, especially in the mobile phone field, is closer to
70 or 80 percent today, and that is expected to grow. Theres
really no technical or economic reason why GNSS receivers
cant support multiple constellations, even at the consumer
mobile device level.
Once all those constellations are in place, lets look at
where those receivers are going from a market standpoint.
FIGURE 4 is divided by revenue, which is an interesting way
to do it because we all know if you divided it by actual
units, then the location-based services (LBS) portions in
phones would dominate everything; everything else would
just be a sliver that wouldnt be visible. But if you look at
it from a revenue standpoint, there are still many revenue
www.gpsworld.com
Software/Hardware Integration |
Intel and the Internet of Things
opportunities in the phone segment and in the automotive

segment.
Another reason to expect continued market growth is,
if you examine Figure 4, youll notice that the Internet of
Things (IoT) category (see SIDEBAR) doesnt even show up
here. Well see going forward that there will be a new slice
of pie showing a focus on that segment and those types of
applications.
Looking at how we provide this location capability
beyond just GNSS, how are people determining their
location in these different platforms, and what are the
different technologies available? FIGURE 5 shows that in
20142015 the most popular technology is still GPS, but
there is a fast-growing trend in both Bluetooth-enabled and
Wi-Fi-enabled penetration of location technology. Both of
these are more suited to indoor operation, where the market
is still in its early stages.
Although GNSS continues to grow with market
growth, the growth of other technologies and the ability to
incorporate them into location solutions is growing pretty
quickly, and the radio versions of those are, in general,
growing the fastest, followed by the inertial sensors.
I think were going to see this combination of location
technologies, jointly providing a single answer, becoming
the norm in mobile products.
These technologies are going to end up, especially for
indoors, in different areas. FIGURE 6 shows a huge growth, not
only growth but segmentation among a bunch of different
types of venues, all of which seem to be adopting an indoor
location methodology. Not all of them will adopt the same
one, but all these types of venues are looking at that market
www.gpsworld.com
CAGR: 9%
7
Units (billions)
Intels mission is no longer only to build PCs. Were

about bringing smart, connected devices to everyone.
That encompasses a range of products, and weve been
expanding our portfolio appropriately.
We start with everything from big iron data centers
(which are part of smart devices) to mobile clients and
all the way down to the Internet of Things (IoT) and
wearable devices. All those devices are part of this smart
connected world. Our groups job is to help on the
connectivity side, which varies by product.
This whole idea expands beyond mobile phones
and into the IoT, a big trend whose methodology is
transforming business, starting at sensors all the way up
to big data, to make interesting decisions. The number of
devices that are being able to connect to the Internet is
growing faster than anybody can keep up with, and that
creates a really interesting opportunity. That gives you a
bit of a picture as to why Intel is interested in this market
and where youre going to see us playing.
RECEIVER DESIGN
6
5
CAGR: 22%
4
3
2
1
0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
EU27
North America
Rest of the World
FIGURE 2 Installed base of GNSS devices by region; the GNSS market

continues to grow at a rapid pace. Source: GSA GNSS Market
Report.
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
GPS
SBAS
Galileo
GLONASS
BeiDou
FIGURE 3 Multi-constellation trends: GNSS capability in receivers.

Source: GSA GNSS Market Report.
Agriculture
Surveying
1.4%
4.1%
0.1%
47.0%
Rail
LBS
46.2%
Road
Aviation
1.0%
0.3%
Maritime
FIGURE 4 GNSS market segments, cumulative core revenue

20122022. Source: GSA GNSS Market Report.
17
RECEIVER DESIGN | Software/Hardware Integration

2,500"
Celluar"
Bluetooth-enabled"
350,000
Wi-Fi-enabled"
Other
2,000"
NFC-enabled "
300,000
(Millions)"
GPS-enabled"
Shopping Center Malls

UniversiSes/EducaSonal InsStuSons
Inertial Sensors"
1,500"
Audio"
250,000
Other (Nextnav, Boeing, etc.)"
Sports Venues/Stadiums
Hotels/Resorts
Millions
200,000
1,000"
Airports
Small Retail Stores
150,000
Dining/Beverage
500"
100,000
Food and Grocery
50,000
0"
2010"
2011"
2012"
2013"
2014"
2015"
2016"
2017"
2018"
0
2010
FIGURE 5 Alternative location technology shipments, world market

forecast: 20102018. Source: ABI Location Technologies Market Data.
Venue Owners
Application Developers
Service and Content Providers
Device Vendors
Operating System providers
Chipset Manufacturers
FIGURE 7 LBS value chain: a highly complex ecosystem with each

segment looking to differentiate and monetize indoor location.
Source: GSA GNSS Market Report.
and are looking at potential different technologies to serve

their needs. What might be most appropriate in a grocery
store geared towards finding a particular item like
a Bluetooth beacon might be less interesting in an airport,
where theres still a need for navigation from place to place,
where proximity is not necessarily the right answer.
We see a large growth of a very disparate technology
base; at the right of the figure is a pie chart where I had
to remove all the callouts, the list of all the different
technology suppliers addressing these particular indoor
markets. What you see is a highly fragmented supplier base;
thats very consistent with an early market implementation.
Theres a lot of different people attempting to get into this
market with a lot of different solutions. This is pretty classic
for an early-adopter scenario.
The Stack. Changing accuracy requirements will come
up a bit later in this article. Once weve looked at where
those different venues are from a requirements standpoint,
we start to look at the types of companies that are trying to
participate in the ecosystem required to do that (FIGURE7).
If you start from the bottom, where I live as a chipset
manufacturer, and you move up the chain, you see seven
different layers of people in the creation of a location to the
18
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
FIGURE 6 Indoor location technology installations by vertical

market, world market forecast, 20102018. Source: ABI.
end user, especially indoors. And every single person you

see in this value chain is trying to make money.
Thats the crux of the issue: a lot of people want a piece
of that pie, and all of them have a relevant part to play, but
when seven people in the stack are all trying to own the
location result in order to monetize it, it becomes difficult
to create a unified methodology. I live at the bottom of this
complex ecosystem, in the technology implementation
layer. Getting dollars to flow from the top to the bottom
gets relatively difficult, so we are very driven to bring cost
competitiveness into this market.
In summary, from a market standpoint, we see that the
market opportunity is very big and still growing. This makes
it interesting to a company like Intel, even though we arent
a major player in the business today, to continue to invest
in it. We see a trend going from GPS to GNSS and on to
location, and now the big opportunity is indoor location.
But this indoor-location market is not a stand-alone device
opportunity. Indoor location requires this kind of technology
inside other devices, inside phones and tablets and IoT types
of things.
Context. Lets look at indoor location as a feature in
a larger portion of product. That idea comes from the
requirement for location not just for the location itself,
but in order to provide context. Thats critical because
now these smart, mobile devices are not just used to make
phone calls, but are used all the time. As a result, many
applications running on them really require that location
context to determine the most likely use case that the device
is currently operating, making the consumer experience
easier and more natural. This is evident throughout the
entire value chain from phones and tablets to wearables. If
you think about that from a requirement standpoint, you see
the major places where GNSS has enabled trend changes in
the market.
Lets step back a bit in history to go through FIGURE 1, the
OPENING FIGURE, horizontally. In the early 2000s when I was
at SiRF Technology, the main market drivers were personal
navigation devices (PNDs). There were all these dashboardmounted PNDs, and the main things we were trying to fix
was the urban-canyon problem. GPS always worked well
www.gpsworld.com
Figure 11 Code Phase multipath removed (cm)
Figure 12 Carrier Phase multipath remove (mm)
RECEIVER DESIGN
Projected Number of Satellites for Each Signal Band

140
120
Number of SV's
100
80
Total
L1 C/E1
60
L5/E5a
L3/E5b
40
20
0
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Year
FIGURE 8 Projected number of satellites for each signal band.
in the rural areas but always had trouble in urban canyons;

to fix that, we had to improve the sensitivity. The solution
in that timeframe was with multi-correlator designs and
improved RF frontends; we were able to improve the
sensitivity of the receivers by a good 510 dB, which
enabled us to really keep the antennas inside the car so that
there was no need for roof-mounted antennas. The PND
could be mounted on the dash and work just fine. That was a
big factor in improving the user experience. The secondary
specification that enabled that market to grow quickly was
time-to-first-fix; those devices had to power-up and work
fast to prevent user frustration.
Within about five years, however, the PND market was
overtaken by growth in the feature phone market. The
reason for that was the FCC E911 mandate; everyone had
to figure out a way to make sure that phones sold in the
United States had the ability to meet that 911 mandate.
GPS was one of the major methodologies in meeting that,
and the main driver there was not around sensitivity, it was
improving first-fix times. The mandate required a 30-second
TTFF implementation in a very challenged environment
to support emergency-services dispatch. This led us to
the development of assisted GPS (AGPS) and further
integration into phones. We had a secondary requirement of
continuing to improve the sensitivity, because now we had
to deal with an even worse antenna in a handset.
Once that was taken care of in the mid 2000s, the next
thing we saw coming and whats coming now is the
change in GPS requirements for smartphone navigation.
This comes from the huge growth of higher end smartphones
that are running multiple applications driving the use-cases
around LBS. How will the location be used to provide
services, now that we can provide applications on that
platform? Now the most important specification has become
active power? Every time a GPS receiver is turned on for
use in an LBS mode, you have to make sure that the power
consumption is kept to a minimum, or no one will use those
services. So the active power of the device became a very
important specification that we were all trying to improve.
The secondary specification we had to improve was the
availability. This is where the advantage of multi-GNSS
started to show up using handsets for car navigation on
www.gpsworld.com
FIGURE 9 Relationship between the coherent period and number of

correlators requried to search for one satellite in each constellation.
1 ppm local oscillator frequency uncertainty; 10 kHz Doppler
shift range; 50 percent Doppler bin overlap; 1/4-chip correlator
spacing.
Google map types of implementations. So the performance

of smartphone navigation in the urban canyon became a big
driver recently as the main use case.
Next! Whats coming next is the idea that these wearables
and IoT platforms are not just doing LBS on demand
because of the currently active application. They are going
to need continuous location. The device needs to provide
location capability all the time, but its not necessarily going
to be noticed by the user or activated by the user, so the
specification that becomes important is energy per day. You
want to make sure your device can maintain its location
without draining its battery. Then we are also going to have
to increase the availability of location into indoors to really
fix this whole problem. And that will really move us into
hybrid capability.
If we look at those changes in the market and we look
at how theyre going to impact the GNSS architecture, the
first thing we want to look at is: Where is GNSS? FIGURE 8
is a plot that Im sure everybody has and is hard to keep up
to date. It looks at the satellites coming from the different
satellite constellations. The important thing here is that we
are approaching a timeframe where a significant uptick
in the growth of satellites can send the numbers over 100.
That can really have an impact on receiver design, if youre
building a multi-GNSS receiver and you have to deal with a
hundred satellites. How are you going to do that?
FIGURE 9 shows the relationship between the coherent
period and the number of correlators required to search for
one satellite in each constellation. We looked at particular
scenarios in this case, lets say we are trying to do an
outdoor location, so 130 dBm cold start test (FIGURE 10) with
an initial frequency certainty of around 1 part per million
(ppm). We wanted to look at the impact of the different
constellations on doing that, and what it takes inside of
the receiver to implement it. Im not going to go into great
detail here. But looking at those impacts in correlator
counts, you can see the difference between building a GPS
receiver that can do this and building a Galileo receiver
that can do this. From the simplest one, that is, GLONASS,
27
75x Dierence!
FIGURE 10 Test scenarios, cold start test.
and from the most difficult one, which is Galileo, you see
a 75x difference in the number of correlators required to
do that, based on signal structure. This would indicate that,
maybe from a cold start fix point of view, you might prefer a
GLONASS implementation, and do GPS or Galileo later.
If that specification was your primary concern, then you
would look at how those requirements got implemented
into those devices. In addition, you try to come down to
these low levels of power consumption, maintain sufficient
accuracy to support these applications, and be able to
move this into a very small form factor. If we look at the
relationship between the number of correlators required
to search for each satellite and amount of silicon area that
requires, we see a big difference in the growth of those,
depending on which constellation you look at. But if you
look at a hot start scenario (FIGURE 11) rather than a cold start
and at a weaker signal level, which is the more common
implementation in devices today, you see a different result.
With an improved starting condition because we have
better information on the oscillators and reduced other
uncertainties producing a smaller search space, the silicon
area impact is greatly reduced. Then we have to really look
at reducing standby power. That means we need to look at
static random-access memory (SRAM) because SRAMs are
a horribly leaky component and create very large standby
power, but they are what weve been using for years in the
standalone GPS world.
We also have to look at non-continuous fix
methodologies: this idea of turning things on and off to
save power, which relates back to the standby power issues.
Impacts of New Requirements on Silicon Design
28
Standby power reduction impacts

SRAM is the leakiest component of typical design
Needs to be reduced or ideally eliminated
Non-continuous fix methods
Ability to quickly save and restore state information
Hybrid location solutions
Support measurements from multiple radios
Need to share radios, not duplicate chains
Increased integration of of multiple radios on single die
Need more interference rejection capability
Ability to support concurrent radio operation on single
die
6X
FIGURE 11 Test scenarios, hot start test.
We also have to look at hybrids: How are we going to

support measurements from multiple radios like Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth that are becoming important for indoor location?
How are we going to share those radios without just pasting
them together? That involves integration onto single die,
and looking at what happens on the silicon level, and at
what happens when you try to run radios at the same time.
What we have to work with, especially here at Intel, the
home of Gordon Moore, is Moores Law. It is still working
30 years after it was proposed. Recently, we see that we
are tracking this progression of constantly reducing device
sizes and moving forward. The dates in FIGURE 12 are for the
process technology nodes associated with a classical digital
process. We are not at the 22-nanometer level today on GPS
receivers, but we are moving down that curve.
Obviously, when you move down that curve, you greatly
increase your ability to add more gates to improve TTFF
and sensitivity. More correlators help you search out
more uncertainty faster. The other thing this does is allow
us to run faster, to up the central processor unit (CPU)
clockspeed. This allows more software capability to do
things like process more advanced navigation algorithms,
bring in more satellites from multiple GNSS, run very
expansive Kalman filters, and look at hybrid technologies. It
has also driven down the power, so that reducing the active
What Intel Is Doing

I cant tell you what we havent done yet, but we look
at location as an opportunity where the strength of
Intel comes into play. We have very advanced silicon
processors and we are bringing those to bear on the
location technology problem just starting in the last
few years. Our goal is to provide a GNSS and location
silicon solution with best-in-class performance based
on Intel technology. Once weve done that at the silicon
level, well look at bringing the platform-level integration
capability together.
We have the ability to merge multiple location
technologies. We have a platform-level capability to
integrate hardware and software to solve the indoor
location problem on a variety of platforms. To execute to
Intels vision, were going to push this into a ubiquitous
technology present in all these devices, so that we can
improve the variants on these mobile products.
www.gpsworld.com
100 nm
45nm
32nm
22nm
10
1
2030
power requirement that we had was kind of coming along

with Moores law without a whole lot of effort.
But now weve run into a problem: the parameter that
we care more about, standby power, is actually going up.
Although we are getting benefits out of Moores Law from
speed and active power, we are actually having a problem.
Its increasing our standby power, which makes it difficult
to go to these lower fix rates with faster restarts.
You see a trend here. As you move down in technology
30
14 nm
22 nm
32 nm
45 nm
FIGURE 12 Moores Law in action: transistor scaling and improved

performance. In GNSS terms, this means more gates and more
memory for less cost, improved TTTF and sensitivity by allowing
more search capability.
0.0001
65 nm
2020
90 nm
2010
.13 um
2000
.18 um
1990
.25 um
1980
0.001
2.0 um
0.01
0.01
.35 um
0.7x every
2 years
Switching
Energy
(CV2)
.50 um
Micron 0.1
0.001
1970
Gate Delay
(CV/I)
0.1
.70 um
1000
1.0 um
1.5 um
10000
Relative
10
FIGURE 13 Scaling also increases speed and reduces power. HIgher

clock speed provides better search and more complex navigation
algorithms.
nodes, you find that the more advanced technology nodes

are less applicable to the smaller multi-purpose devices.
This is part of the reason why you dont see the mobile
phone devices coming down as fast as you see the desktop
devices coming towards those new technology nodes.
This means some really significant silicon design
challenges. We need to figure out how to take the
advantages of Moores Law and maintain the benefits
of smaller geometry, we need higher clock-speeds, and
www.gpsworld.com
we need more memory for multiconstellation methodology and that

gets lower active power and smaller
size.
But we have to figure out a way to
not give up our standby power when
we start moving down into these very
small geometries. That will require
some new methodologies, both at the
chip level in terms of how we build
silicon, and at the system design level,
in terms of how we put these things
together inside a mobile phone.
Multiple Radios. Thats part of whats
driving the whole industry towards the
kind of consolidation that weve seen:
stand-alone chipsets are not the only
(or even the preferred) way to solve
this problem. Without some access
to the system design level, were not
able to solve this problem for mobile
phones and IoT type devices. Were
going to see this trend that we all
see coming of putting multiple
radios onto a single die, because that
does reduce cost and size as we try to
get into watches.
The 2015 Consumer Electronics
Show brought out the new stuff.
Theyre talking about IoT buttons. We
still have a ways to go; bringing that
capability down to that size in a GNSS
radio is a difficult problem. Once we
start incorporating these different
radios, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth,
into this solution, we run back into the
problem of the value chain: How to
get everyone aligned in a device with
these capabilities into a single unified
solution?
One of the problems a lot of us see
with these mobile products is that
they have a lot of application and they
require a lot of interaction. Wed all
like these devices to become smarter
and present the information that we
want, when we want it. A big part of
that is the location context, and so
thats what were planning on doing:
integrating that location context into
all these platforms so that these smart
connected devices can be even smarter
and provide a better user experience.
responsible for strategic business development

in Intels Wireless Communication Group
focusing on location. He has more than 25 years
of experience in the GNSS industry at JHU-APL,
Stanford Telecom, Trimble, SiRF and CSR. He is a
member of GPS Worlds Editorial Advisory Board.
The statements, views, and opinions
presented in this article are those of the author
and are not endorsed by, nor do they necessarily
reflect, the opinions of the authors present and/
or former employers or any other organization
RECEIVER DESIGN
with whom the author may be associated.

This article is based on a GPS World webinar,
which sprang from a presentation at the Stanford
PNT Symposium. Listener questions and Greg
Turetzkys answers during the webinar can be
viewed at www.gpsworld.com/designQ&A.
The author would like to acknowledge the
contribution of Figures 9,10 and 11 from the
paper Optimal search strategy in a multiconstellatoin environment by Intel colleagues
Anyaegbu et al, from ION GNSS+ 2015.
GREG TURETZKY is a principal engineer at Intel

www.gpsworld.com
31
RECEIVER DESIGN | High Precision
High-Precision Receiver Design: More than Accuracy

Anticipating New, Different Application and User Needs
Users in emerging applications may have different requirements from traditional high-precision users. New users increasingly
look to the technology not solely for position, but to navigate them through the environment, often autonomously or semiautonomously. Tracking all of the new multi-GNSS signals, and then using the large number of inputs in the positioning engine,
drives the amount of processing power and memory required onboard the receiver. These in turn drive the cost, size and power
consumption of the receiver in exactly the opposite direction from the expectations of customers.
Jason Hamilton
n considering the future of high-precision satellite

navigation, we need to consider what users of the
technology are trying to accomplish, and which growing
and emerging applications will drive adoption of GNSS
technology in the future. These applications will drive
growth in our industry if we can correctly anticipate their
future needs.
Traditional applications of high-precision GNSS are
well understood, but what these customers have demanded
from GNSS can be at odds with what users in emerging
applications require. Survey and mapping users were early
adopters of high-precision GNSS and remain large user
segments. Surveying with GNSS requires the very best
accuracy that GNSS can achieve. Every centimetre of
accuracy matters. Power and size are important product
attributes to survey manufacturers. Mapping customers
32
increasingly are asking for not just position, but orientation

of a camera or other sensors.
Once accuracy challenges were well in hand, the topic
of availability came into play. It was no longer good
enough to have an accurate position in open-sky situations.
Applications demanded continuous positions that were
accurate in more and more corner cases and challenging
environments.
In addition to using GNSS to measure location in an
environment, new applications are increasingly looking to
the technology to navigate them through the environment
often autonomously, or semi-autonomously. For these users,
whether operating on a farm, in a mine, on the ground, or
in the air, position accuracy is only part of the requirement.
Solution accuracy of course matters, but other receiver
attributes such as real-time quality control and solution
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RECEIVER DESIGN | High Precision
integrity monitoring, are equally or more important.

Multi-constellation, multi-frequency GNSS provides
tremendous opportunity and also presents significant
challenges for receiver manufacturers. Constellation and
frequency support has previously been a differentiator
among high-precision GNSS providers, and among product
generations. The relative stability of the satellite constellation
definition means that the signals broadcast from space will
be relatively predictable for some time into the future, and
as such, GNSS products are increasingly supporting all in
view, the ability to track everything that is broadcast.
The benefits of more satellites, more frequencies (and
resulting frequency combinations) and modern signal
structures have been well publicized. As new and modernized
GNSS constellations come on line, they will deliver more
robust positioning in increasingly challenging environments
such as urban centers, open-pit mines and under tree cover.
We will be able to account for atmospheric effects more
accurately, which will help during times of high ionospheric
activity and extend the length of RTK baselines. Users have
a great deal to look forward to from their next-generation
receivers.
All of these improvements necessitate pretty dramatic
changes in receiver design. Tracking four global
constellations and numerous regional SBAS systems
increases the complexity of tracking and positioning

firmware and algorithms. Tracking multiple frequencies
and signal types on each of these constellations drives
the receiver channel count up substantially. The days of
the 12-channel receiver are gone. Channels, typically
implemented within the manufacturers custom chips, drive
application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) complexity,
which drives cost, power consumption and physical size.
Some of this can be mitigated through the use of smaller
process geometries, embedded processors and peripherals,
and RF chip integration; however, there are down-stream
effects to all of these signals as well.
Challenges
Once your receiver has enough ASIC channels to track allin-view, you need to do something with all that data. The
receivers tracking sub-system generates code (pseudorange),
carrier-phase and Doppler measurements for every signal
on each satellite. With four global and multiple regional
constellations and up to four frequencies on each satellite,
that amounts to a great deal of data. These measurements
are what we turn into position, through a range of different
positioning algorithms from code positioning to realtime kinematic (RTK) to precise point positioning (PPP).
Tracking all of these signals, and then using the large number
of inputs in the positioning engine, drives the amount of
processing power and memory required onboard the receiver.
These in turn drive the cost, size and power consumption
of the receiver in exactly the opposite direction from the
expectations of customers.
Bandwidth. Communications bandwidth is also a future
challenge. Positioning methods, such as RTK, that transmit
base-station observations for each GNSS signal to field rover
receivers, will require much more bandwidth in the all-inview future. PPP, which provides a state-space correction of
the underlying GNSS error sources, is a promising alternative
to RTK that scales better with more satellites than RTK
and provides performance that is good enough for many
applications.
Utilizing the multiple frequencies available from modern
constellations also presents challenges to receiver designers.
RF designers are faced with the opposing challenges of
making GNSS receivers and antennas smaller, lighter and
lower cost, while also supporting more GNSS broadcast
frequencies and mitigating against increasing amounts of
interference in the L-band RF spectrum from non-GNSS
uses. Robust RF design makes the difference between a
system that works most of the time, and a system that works
reliably all of the time.
Expectations
If we now come back to the expectations of end users, the
challenges are clear. Most customers actually dont care about
all-in-view tracking, how many satellites are tracked, or about
what the receiver is up to behind the scenes. Users will judge
34
www.gpsworld.com
High Precision |
their GNSS receiver on whether or not they are receiving

a position that meets the requirements of their application.
Are they meeting their targets for accuracy, availability,
latency, data rate, and does the receiver fit from a size, power
consumption, regulatory and cost perspective? After a certain
level, more observations do not make the solution more
accurate or more robust. Manufacturers need to carefully
manage the tradeoffs in their systems on behalf of users to
produce the best quality position possible, while still meeting
the customer expectations on all the other receiver attributes.
Sensor Fusion. Demands of new applications drive GNSS
providers to consider more than just position. Most vehicle
control applications require orientation information as
well as highly accurate position. Multiple-antenna GNSS
heading systems are becoming smaller than ever. Inertial
measurement device technology is also evolving quickly.
Miniature micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
inertial sensors can now deliver performance that only a
few years ago was exclusive to large, heavy, bulky systems.
The integration of GNSS and inertial technologies has
been well adopted in highly demanding applications like
aerial and ground mapping. As the size, weight and cost of
the technology continues to shrink, sensor fusion in many
forms will become the standard for all machine control and
autonomous vehicle applications.
TRIA
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E
FR v
ASK
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YOUcom/ezs
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FO is.
effg
RECEIVER DESIGN
Safety. This is a key consideration for system designers

working on remotely or optionally piloted and autonomous
systems. Position and orientation accuracy is important,
but so, too, is assuring that the solution is right and can
be trusted. The accuracy of the solution needs to be
characterized in real time so that control systems can react
as necessary to protect users on and around the vehicle.
Often in these applications, accuracy can be traded off
against the robustness and reliability of the solution. This
presents new ways of thinking for firmware and algorithm
developers who have focused for so long on solution
accuracy.
Support. Lastly, lets not forget having reliable supply of
high-quality product, and expert customer service to back it
up. As high-precision GNSS attracts new users in a range of
new industries, they are less often geodesists or geomatics
engineers. The products absolutely need to be easy to use
correctly, backed up by complete and accurate product
documentation and supported by world-class application
engineers.
JASON HAMILTON is vice president of marketing at NovAtel Inc. Since
joining the company, he has held a number of research, development and
product management roles. Jason holds a Bachelor of Science degree in
geomatics engineering from the University of Calgary and an MBA from
Royal Roads University.
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35
MARKET RESEARCH | GNSS Industry
The Economic Benefits of GPS

This article is based on a presentation to the National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Advisory Board in June
2015. The study reported on at the meeting was requested by the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning,
Navigation and Timing. It demonstrates the widespread use and importance of GPS to the U.S., with estimated benefits in 2013
of about $56 billion, or 0.3% of GDP for a subset of applications. The study is the first part of an effort that is expected to refine
and extend this analysis.
Irv Leveson
ritical to many civilian

applications and innovations,
GPS brings great economic
benefits. These benefits have grown
rapidly with the integration of GPS with
other technologies and its wider and
deeper infusion into applications. New
GPS signals and other improvements
in the system will further expand
and enhance use. The unmistakable
conclusion: GPS is everywhere.
Benefits of GPS to the U.S. will
increase with the availability of other
GNSS systems, even though GPS will
constitute a smaller share of global
GNSS benefits. The U.S. will continue
to provide leadership, standards
and innovation in technology and
applications with positive domestic
feedback.
GPS and other GNSS and
enhancements raise productivity;
reduce and avoid costs; save time;
enable improved and new production
processes, products and markets;
increase health and well-being; reduce
injury and loss of life; improve the
environment; and increase security.
The National Executive Committee
for Space-Based Positioning,
Navigation and Timing (PNT), which
is responsible for maintaining U.S.
leadership in GNSS, commissioned
a study to assign a quantitative value
to the broad economic uses of GPS.
The purpose is to inform the public,
federal decision makers and critical
infrastructure owners/operators on the
importance of GPS and the need to
protect it from disruption. Assessing
the economic implications of actions
such as preventing or disallowing
interference, spectrum reallocation,
36
Application Category
A
A
A
A
C
Precision Agriculture grain*

Construction earthmoving with machine guidance*
Surveying
Air Transportation
Rail Transportation positive train control
Maritime Transportation private-sector use of nautical charts and related
C
marine information*
A Fleet vehicle connected telematics*
A Timing average of eLoran and GEOs estimates
Consumer and Other Non-Fleet Vehicle average of estimates based on
A, B
willingness-to-pay and value of time*
TOTAL
Range of Benefits Mid-range Benefits

($billions)
($billions)
10.017.7
13.7
2.27.7
5.0
9.813.4
11.6
.119.168
0.1
.010.100
0.1
.106.263
0.2
7.616.3
.025.050
11.9
0.1
7.318.9
13.1
37.174.5
55.8
A = confident, B = indicative, C = notional.

*Includes benefits from purchase input cost savings.
Note: Numbers may not add to totals due to rounding.
TABLE 1 Preliminary 2013 U.S. GPS economic benefit estimates.
developing supplementary or backup

systems and/or toughening receivers
can be informed by value estimates
and the data used to derive them.
In addition, economic values can
contribute to planning for GPS
modernization and analysis of
budgets. Baseline estimates facilitate
comparisons with future developments.
GPS benefit estimates will be
ballpark no matter how sophisticated
the methodology because of limits
to the availability of information, but
in many cases, knowing orders of
magnitude is essential in choosing
courses of action.
Widespread, Pervasive Impact. The
technological environment is one
of rapid changes in information and
materials technology and integration
of technologies at levels ranging
from systems on a chip to large-scale
systems. GPS is increasingly integrated
with other technologies and systems
that build on each other to achieve
greater outcomes.
The U.S. Department of Homeland
Security counts GPS as an enabling

technology because of its crucial
role in 14 of the 16 industries that
are classified as part of the nations
critical infrastructure. It is useful to
view GPS role as being especially
important in enabling the enablers,
industries that particularly support
the rest of the economy and are at the
forefront of economic growth. The
most notable of these are transportation,
communications, power and financial
services.
Economic Value versus Impact

Economic value is the addition to
the value of the economy from the
provision of a good or service, or the
introduction of a technology. Benefits
are measured relative to what would
have been expected if there were no
GPS. Direct economic value is the
increase in value in using sectors. Total
economic value includes increases in
value to suppliers and value induced in
the rest of the economy.
Direct economic impact, on the
www.gpsworld.com
GNSS Industry |
other hand, refers to measures of the

importance of sectors that are using
GPS. Total economic impact is the
importance of sectors affected by GPS,
whether they are using it or not. Total
economic impact of GPS is virtually the
size of the whole economy, so it is not
very meaningful.
Direct economic impact is measured
by value added of using sectors when
the purpose is to avoid duplication
among sectors that buy from and sell
to each other. It may be measured by
revenue for a single sector when adding
sectors is not involved, so there is no
need to avoid duplication.
The distinction between economic
value and economic impact is critical.
Even if economic impact is measured
by value added rather than revenue,
the value is not the net addition to the
economy from the use of the product
or technology. It is only the size of the
using sector. See FIGURE 1.
The GSA Study

The most comprehensive estimates of
global GNSS market size come from
the European GNSS Agency (GSA),
which has released four market reports
from 2010 through 2015. The data
are measures of economic impact
and not economic value. The reports
are of great interest because of their
comprehensive global look at the sizes
of markets and inclusion of forecasts. In
contrast, the emphasis in this part of the
present study is on current economic
value, with U.S. benefits assessed for
GPS.
One reason for interest in the GSA
reports is that market information
and projections often are proprietary
and there can be great inconsistency
across market research studies. GSA
makes use of many confidential
studies without revealing which
sources contributed to each estimate.
It apparently has been allowed to
incorporate proprietary information
from a number of market research firms
since the data is subsumed in GSAs
own estimates and/or presented in
graphs for which underlying numbers
www.gpsworld.com
MARKET RESEARCH
Size of GPS System

satellites and ground stations
user equipment, software and services
public and private augmentations
Direct Economic Impact
value added or revenue of
using sectors
Total Economic Impact

size of affected sectors
whether or not using
Direct Economic Value

benefits to using sectors
Total Economic Value

including indirect (to
suppliers) and induced in
rest of economy
FIGURE 1 Measuring GPS economic value and economic impact.
are not provided and from which it

is often difficult to even roughly extract
them.
The 2015 report stated the
methodology as: The underlying
forecasting model uses advanced
forecasting techniques applied to a wide
range of input data, assumptions and
scenariosWhere possible, historical
values are anchored to actual data.
Results were checked against opinions
of market segment experts and market
research reports. However, these
analyses are not provided in the reports
and have not been made available.
A distinction is made between the
core market which covers the value
of components that provide GNSS
functionality in devices and enabled
markets which represent the services
and devices enabled by GNSS. The
2015 report provides global data on
both core and enabled market and goes
into much more detail on core markets
for application sectors. In addition
to providing sector information that
did not appear previously, the 2015
report presents data on the extent
to which each combination of the
GNSS constellations was supported
by receivers or chipsets offered by
suppliers. Additional information on
enabled sectors is in earlier reports.
GSA found in its 2015 market report
that:
3.6 billion GNSS devices were in
use globally in 2014, of which 3.08
billion were smartphones and .26
billion were for road.
North America had about 450
million devices installed (about
80% U.S.).
North America had 1.4 devices per
capita in 2014.
North American shipments were
250300 million in 2013.

Global core revenue was estimated
at roughly 62 billion and enabled
revenue at 227 billion in 2014. As
noted, core revenue includes GNSS
device components, software and
services, while enabled revenue refers
to applications.
Location-based services (LBS)
was projected to account for 53.2% of
20132023 core revenue growth, and
road for 38%.
North American-based companies
had sizeable shares of the global GNSS
core market in 2012, particularly among
component manufacturers. (See TABLE
2). Their market share among system
integrators was highest in aviation.
North American-based companies
had a 44% market share of value-added
services revenue in 2012.
Markets and Applications

The pervasiveness of GPS-enabled
applications is illustrated by the
following statistics:
900 million mobile phones that
incorporated GPS were sold
globally in 2012.
The U.S. had 188 million
smartphone subscribers and 263
million Internet users in 2013.
20% of U.S. mobile phone users get
up-to-the-minute traffc or transit
information.
The new industry category in the
2012 North American Industrial
Classifcation System: Internet
publishing and broadcasting and
37
North America-Based Company Shares

of Global GNSS Core Market, 2012
Component
Sector
Manufacturers System Integrators
LBS
80%
31%
Road
25%
21%
Aviation
63%
65%
Rail
41%
17%
Maritime
13%
35%
Agriculture
63%
46%
Surveying
62%
48%
Source: GSA GNSS Market Report 2015.
TABLE 2 North America-based company

shares of Global GNSS core market, 2012.
38
web search portals had U.S.

revenue of $87 billion and 181,000
employees in 2012.
Google estimated that its search
and advertising tools provided $111
billion in economic activity in the
U.S. in 2013.
Deloitte estimated that Facebook
enabled $104 billion of economic
impact and 1.2 million jobs in North
America in 2014.
Google Play and the Apple App
Store each had more than 1.2
million apps in 2014.
How GPS Is Used. Uses of GPS include:
In agriculture for auto-steering
tractors, combines and sprayers
for precise operation, variable rate
technology for precise placement of
seed, fertilizer and pesticides, and
for yield monitoring.
Managing forest health and
ecological restoration, reducing fre
and other hazards, and harvesting
forest products.
In commercial fshing, navigation,
fnding fshing locations and
monitoring fsh catch by authorities.
In construction to direct the
movement of dozers, excavators,
pavers, scrapers, compactors and
other heavy equipment and the
placement of blades to give precise
results.
In open-pit mining to guide loaders,
dozers, drills and draglines.
In offshore energy exploration
and development, for drilling,
installations, pipe laying, diving
operations, pipe inspection, repair
and abandonment.
In surveying, to greatly reduce costs
and to improve quality of products

that rely on it.
In aviation, for navigation and
monitoring positions of aircraft and
for satellite-based augmentation
systems (WAAS in the U.S.).
GPS is the principal source for
navigation for aircraft equipped
with Area Navigation (RNAV) or
Required Navigation Performance
(RNP).
Railroad train pacing systems for
cruise control, positive train control
to keep track of train location and
movement authorities, track defect
location, and locating trucks with
rail workers.
In marine transportation, for
navigation, collision avoidance,
communications and situational
awareness and for monitoring by
offshore authorities.
In vehicles, with handheld and
embedded devices for navigation
and feet management.
For precise timing and time
synchronization and frequency
coordination (syntonization). It is
used most notably in broadcasting
and communications, including
both cell phones and traditional
telephone applications and the
Internet, so packets arrive at the
same time, for power generation
and distribution to locate problems,
and in fnancial services for timestamping transactions.
In frst responder services
for location, navigation and
communications and in emergency
warnings and evacuations.
In structural monitoring of dams
and bridges.
In environmental monitoring,
including vegetation growth and
sea-level change.
LBS and GIS

Rapid growth is taking place in
location-based services (LBS) and
geographic information services
(GIS), which include everything from
indoor location to many aspects of the
Internet of Things and the sharing
economy, and sophisticated systems

for information management, analysis
and display.
GPS is used for tracking and
inventorying assets ranging from heavy
machinery on farms and construction
and mining sites, to pipes and other
materials, containers in trucking sites
and ports, and the location of utilities
in the ground. In logistics it facilitates
planning of product flow and transport.
The growth of same-day delivery
which takes advantage of Internet, cell
phone, and location and navigation
technologies enabled by GPS is
a continuation of the growth in
just-in-time delivery that has been a
phenomenon in manufacturing for
several decades. Now it is having a
profound effect on wholesale trade,
retail trade and transportation.
The size of the LBS and GIS
sectors is not defined and measured
in a consistent way, and except for
vehicle use, there is little information
on productivity and saving in costs and
time. (See SIDEBAR BOX.)
International Trade
Official data show a $2.3 billion U.S.
deficit in trade in GPS equipment in
2013. This gives an incomplete and
misleading picture of the role of the
U.S. and the benefits that result. See
FIGURE 2.
The trade numbers for GPS
equipment do not include revenue
for licensing, international payments
received by social media and
e-commerce companies, or other
Internet-based revenue for which the
U.S. may have a substantial net trade
FIGURE 2 U.S. trade in GPS equipment,

2013 (millions of dollars).
www.gpsworld.com
GNSS Industry |
surplus and which are an important source of revenue and

profits of U.S.-based companies.
Imports of GPS equipment software and services
enable the U.S. to gain more efficient production in many
applications at home and enable the U.S. to export more
goods and service that rely on GPS.
Exports of GPS equipment come back to the U.S. as
components that benefit U.S. businesses and consumers with
more capable products and lower prices. Exports of GPS
equipment enable other countries to build on the technologies
and contribute to innovation, while imports enable the U.S. to
share in foreign innovations. Exports of GPS equipment and
associated knowledge also raise incomes in other countries,
creating larger markets for U.S. goods and services.
MARKET RESEARCH
LBS and GIS Market Size Estimates

For LBS and GIS, definitions and measures can vary greatly
and often are not explicit.
Location-Based Services Market Size Estimates

Frost & Sullivan estimated the global LBS market at 22.8
billion in 2012 and forecast 32.0 billion in 2015.
Market and Markets estimated global LBS revenue at $8.1
billion in 2014.
Berg Insight estimated North American LBS revenue at
$835 million in 2012.
(The U.S. can be assumed to spend 2025% of the world
value and about 80% of the North American value.)
Geographic information Systems Market Size Estimates
Scope of Benefit Estimates

The U.S. beneft estimates reported here are the result of an
initial effort and are not meant to be comprehensive. More
work is expected to be done to fll in some of the gaps.
Sectors were chosen based on availability of information
to permit relatively robust estimates and importance to the
economy or policy issues. These considerations limited
the number of sectors for which estimates could be made.
Methods were determined based on the nature of available
www.gpsworld.com
BCG estimated revenue of the U.S. GIS industry at $73

billion in 2011.
The global GIS market will reach $10.6 billion in 2015,
according to a report of Global Industry Analysts in 2013.
The Canadian Geomatics study found private-sector
spending of $2.3 billion in 2013. If U.S private spending
was the same percentage of GDP, it would be $23.6
billion.
39
studies and varied among sectors. Only

economic benefits were included, with
health and safety and environmental
benefits left for later research.
Benefits include the value to users
above their costs (consumer surplus).
Benefits of GPS are compared with
alternatives without GPS or an
application using it (counterfactuals).
Estimates are gross. They are not
reduced by the costs of achieving
the benefits. Contributions of
augmentations are included, since a
quantitative basis for separating them is
not available.
Estimates were primarily benefits
through productivity and cost savings
Sectors with lower quality estimates

rail and maritime transportation
were included because of their
importance to the economy. Shares of
benefits attributable to GPS were rough
assumptions. More robust estimates
would require extensive data collection
and interviewing in studies greatly
exceeding available time and resources.
The primary focus was on
productivity improvements, cost
savings and cost avoidance, where
costs include users time. Productivity
increases and cost reductions allow
more to be produced with the same
amount of resources in the sectors
utilizing the technology or allow
The growth of same day delivery which takes advantage of

Internet, cell phone and location and navigation technologies
enabled by GPS is a continuation of the growth in just-intime delivery that has been a phenomenon in manufacturing
for several decades. Now it is having a profound effect on
wholesale trade, retail trade and transportation.
in operations, with savings in input
costs included where their magnitudes
were clear. Benefits to the rest of the
economy are not included. Illustrative
allowances were made for the
contributions of other technologies and
systems to the outcomes examined.
In the case of GPS timing, the
estimates were based on the costs
avoided by not having to develop
an alternative timing source on the
assumption that the type of alternative
source possible would have evolved
from the time GPS became available.
The measure does not represent the
value of GPS time and synchronization
to the nation and to users relative to the
absence of a precise time and frequency
source.
Government was included in the
estimates for construction, surveying,
and fleet and non-fleet vehicles. For
timing and non-fleet vehicle benefits,
two alternative measures are averaged.
40
resources to be freed up for other

purposes. In that sense, they are
equivalent.
When benefits are measured by
productivity gains or cost savings,
much of consumer surplus (the value to
users above what they pay) is implicitly
included. Some sources measure value
by willingness-to-pay. Willingness-topay includes consumer surplus. It also
encompasses costs of the purchase and
other costs incurred by the user.
Criteria for Selecting Sectors

The potential for making sector
estimates of economic benefits was
categorized in three basic levels:
confident: based on robust estimates.
indicative: based on one or more less
robust estimates.
notional: illustrative, if major
contributions of other technologies
are not separated and estimates must
be based on a plausible percentage of
a larger benefit, or if information is

not available and estimates must be
based on a percentage of market size.
Choices among categories for
estimation and estimation methods
depended not only on which of the
basic criteria are satisfied but also on
the following additional criteria:
The importance of the sector to the
economy, for example as an enabler
of other activities.
The potential use of beneft
estimates for the category as an
input into analyses of the effects of
signal disruption.
Several dozen studies were assessed
to determine categories for inclusion
and to select studies that can form the
basis of estimation. Studies for use in
estimation of benefits in a category
were chosen according to how well
they met the following criteria:
GPS. A test of introduction of GPS
or comparison with and without GPS
rather than benefits of a broader service.
Coverage. Estimates that cover a major
part of the category.
Robustness of estimates, including the
type of review the source is likely to
have had.
Consistency. If alternative better
estimates are not in such a wide range
that an average is less meaningful
except where explainable by expected
sources of variation.
Timeliness. Preference to a recent
period being covered by the estimates.
U.S. Economic Benefit Estimates

Preliminary estimates of economic
benefits for included U.S. sectors
totaled $55.8 billion in 2013. Averaging
the alternative estimates, the sum of the
benefits in the two vehicle categories
is $25 billion, by far the largest of the
sectors estimated. Next were agriculture
with $13.7 billion, and surveying with
$11.6 billion.
Economic benefits are
underestimated for several reasons.
Some sectors are not included because
of lack of information on productivity
and cost savings, namely LBS other
than vehicle, including asset tracking
www.gpsworld.com
GNSS Industry |
and locating people; GIS and mapping

other than nautical charts, forestry,
fisheries, mining, energy exploration
and development, land and coastal
management, weather, and scientific
applications and space.
Parts of others are not included: nongrain agriculture, construction other
than earthmoving, GPS in aviation
for some Area Navigation (RNAV)
Standard Instrument Departure Routes
(SIDs) and Standard Arrival Routes
STARS) and Required Navigation
Performance (RNP), and rail other than
positive train control.
Some estimates are conservative.
The value of saved time in non-fleet
vehicle transportation is based on the
recommendation of the Transportation
Research Board rather than the
much higher value used by the U.S.
Department of Transportation.
Some types of benefits are not
included specifically, benefits of
GPS timing applications above the cost

of alternatives, and avoided income
loss, property damage and medical
costs associated with reduced accidents
and improved emergency response.
Increases in benefits between 2003
and 2005 are not estimated.
And, as indicated, non-economic
benefits such as those to health, safety,
security, reduced loss of life and to the
environment are not yet addressed.
Benefits as measured thus far are
about 0.3% of GDP in one year. If all of
the excluded sources of benefits were
quantified, the benefits would be much
larger.
Estimating Benefits for Sectors

U.S. economic benefits of GPS for
grain farming were estimated for farms
with grain sales of $250 million or
more. The same method as was applied
for earthmoving in construction.
A composite range of percentages
MARKET RESEARCH
of productivity gains and cost savings

of 1825% was determined from
various studies. In the case of grain
farming, benefits also come from
yield increases due to improvements
in plant health. The productivity gains
used in the calculations incorporated
both sources of benefits. Productivity
was taken together with market size
and an estimate of 68% adoption of
technologies taking advantage of GPS
to compute initial estimates of benefits.
A notional adjustment was then made
to exclude the contributions of other
technologies and GNSSs. While having
the adjustment determined by a group
of experts would have been preferred,
that was not possible with the time and
resource constraints of the study.
Benefits of GPS machine guidance
with earthmoving in construction
were calculated based on an 812%
share of construction for earthmoving
operations, a benefit of 1822% and a
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2025% adoption rate, relying on a number of sources.

For surveying, an estimate of market size was constructed
based on U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics data on numbers
of surveyors, cartographers and photogrammetrists in the
engineering services industry vs. the rest of the economy,
together with revenue data for private surveying and mapping
from the Economic Census. This was combined with a
composite estimate of productivity gains over conventional
surveying of 4555% and an assumption of 100% adoption.
The benefit values for air transportation were estimated
for the study by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
based on effects of WAAS and performance-based navigation
(PBN). The rail estimates cover only positive train control,
which is in early stages of implementation. Information is
highly uncertain, but impacts as of 2013 are small. Maritime
benefits were based on updating an earlier estimate of benefits
of the private-sector value of nautical charts. The estimates
for fleet vehicle-connected telematics were based on savings
found in an extensive survey of fleet customers over a fiveyear period.
Timing benefits were based on the avoided costs from not
having to develop an alternative source of timing. Alternatives
considered were eLoran and a system of three geostationary
satellites. Since there would have been strong pressures to
develop an authoritative timing source in the absence of GPS
timing, it was assumed that one of the alternatives would have
been developed rather than assuming as in other cases that
technologies in use when GPS became available would have
continued in use.
Two estimates also were made for consumer and other nonfleet vehicle use. One was based on extrapolating results of a
study of consumer willingness to pay for navigation services,
and the other on time saved by navigation services.
Part of the benefits of LBS other than those that are
vehicle-related and for GIS are implicitly included in
estimates for sectors that use them.
Data and Research Needs

Additional work would be desirable to extend and refine the
GPS economic benefit estimates, quantify safety-of-life and
environmental benefits, examine international benefits, assess
potential future benefits and consider loss from denial of
GPS. Benefits of many new and rapidly growing services are
yet to be quantified.
Systematic research is needed to fill in gaps in adoption,
productivity and cost savings with comparative before-andafter studies as well as with case studies. Robust studies
require major and often multi-year efforts involving targeted
data collection, which are rarely done by government
or academics for GNSS. Information needs to be much
more granular, taking into account specific functions in
which GNSS is used (such as plowing, seeding, fertilizing,
harvesting), specific GNSS and non-GNSS technologies
employed in each function at each site, and extent of their use.
42
Also, results for GPS might be improved or at least be

more acceptable if the contribution of other technologies and
GNSSs to measured benefits were assessed by a group of
knowledgeable individuals rather than by a single researcher.
Information on market size, penetration and growth
from market research firms, which tends to capture recent
developments, is based on greatly varying sources and
methods, resulting in major gaps and great divergence in
estimates, especially in new or rapidly growing areas like
LBS and GIS. The North American Industrial Classification
System (NAICS) and its application in federal data
collection such as in the Economic Census lags far behind in
recognizing new categories and providing sufficient detail.
Lags in data collection and research lead to understatement of
the use and benefits of GPS.
Mobile is now a behavior, not a device.

Omid Kordestani, Google Chief Business Officer
Looking to the Future
Future benefits are expected to be even greater because of
evolution of technologies, expansion of GNSS systems,
creation of new products and markets, and growth and
penetration of markets. The possibilities are suggested by
the numerous nascent applications that have been emerging.
Many will be enabled by expanding GNSS systems, signals
and capabilities in conjunction with geographic expansion
and increased capabilities in wireless systems.
The progression of platforms is long and growing:
mainframes, PCs, mobile phones and other handheld
devices, tablets, game controllers, wearables, TVs, home
appliances, air and space including planes, UAVs,
satellites, planets, moons, rovers, rockets and spaceships.
The widespread availability of platforms and the
growing ability to utilize them promises a long way to go in
developing applications and deriving benefits.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks the PNT Advisory Board and Gov. Jim
Geringer, liaison from the board to the study; Jason Kim
of the Department of Commerce who oversaw the project;
Jim Miller of NASA; and the members of the interagency
Economic Study Team that advised the effort. Numerous
additional people in and out of government provided
information and assistance. Responsibility for the content
and findings rests with the author.
IRV LEVESON, who has a Ph.D. in economics from Columbia University,
is an economic and strategy consultant and founder of Leveson
Consulting. He has done extensive work on GNSS markets and issues for
more than 10 years. He is a member of the Institute of Navigation, the
American Economic Association and the National Association for Business
Economics.
www.gpsworld.com
Diverse Community, Strong Purchasing Power
he first thing to note about the GNSS industry, as evidenced in the comprehensive 2015 State of the Industry Survey
conducted by GPS World, is how international it has become. Of those taking the survey, only slightly more than half
(56 percent) work in an organization whose principal facility is located in the United States. Europe hosts headquarters
for 18 percent, with Asia, the Pacific region and Latin America all taking an equal share of the rest. Nearly a third work in
organizations of 1 to 10 employees, while another third work in companies larger than 500; the rest are spread more or less
uniformly among company sizes in between.
We have added two new categories of users to this years survey: those in the UAV sector are now separately called out (last
year they were included under Machine Control), as are those in the Mapping, Data Acquisition and Processing, and GIS Application sector. Each of the sectors identified in the pie chart below gets more detailed analysis in the following pages.
Reader buying power has increased since we assessed it in 2014. Last year, 28 percent of respondents stated that they purchased, recommended or specified chipsets, boards, or modules; this year, the number rose to 31 percent. Those purchasing,
recommending or specifying intellectual property licensing climbed from 12 to 16 percent. Other product categories stayed
level, with responsibility for integrated systems leading the pack at a solid 52 percent.
GPS World staff
Survey and High Precision
100%
Other, please
specify
Machine Control,
Precision
Agriculture, or
Transportation
Unmanned
Autonomous Vehicles
(UAVs): Air, Land,
or Water
80%
60%
40%
20%
Wireless and
Consumer
Mapping, Data
Acquisition or
Processing, GIS
Application
0%
Chipsets,
boards,
modules
Satellites,
Signals, and
Simulation
Defense, Security, *RYHUQPHQW
WHICH TERM best describes your primary business sector or principal

product?
www.gpsworld.com
IntegrateG
6\VWHPV
IntellectXDO
property
licensing
Antennas
NonGNSS
(but
related
hardwa...
None
Other,
please
specify
WHAT PRODUCTS do you purchase, recommend or specify?

43
BUSINESS OUTLOOK | 2015 State of the Industry
Trending Toward All PNT Plus GIS

Economic Growth
Across Sectors
50%
40%
he outlook for sales, revenues

and profits is steadily
improving across the GNSS
industry, continuing the measured
growth evidenced in survey
responses from 2012, 2013 and 2014.
The future appears to be
broadening in technological scope,
as well as rising in economic
opportunity. In a new question
for this year, we asked about
organizational focus in the next 5 to
10 years, fully expecting that a wider
GNSS would dominate GPS-only as
an industry trend. And it did, by 30
percent to 22 percent. But another 16
percent expect to be working with
multiple sensors and technologies,
in a broad positioning, navigation
and timing (PNT) effort, and the
largest group of all, 32 percent,
expect to be integrating multiple
PNT technologies with geospatial
software.
Sales forecasts and short-term
economic outlook remain virtually
level with the most recent survey.
Sales are up over last year for 43
percent of respondents, and 68
percent characterize the market as
either very strong or having moderate
growth.
Not for at
least another
510 years
30%
20%
10%
0%
Primarily on GPS
Multiple GNSS
Broadly on PNT,
other sensors
All the above

plus geospatial
software
WHERE DO YOU SEE YOUR EFFORTS and those of your organization focusing primarily over the
next 5 to 10 years?
Sales are down
considerably.
Business is
worsening.
Sales are up. Recovery from

the recession is in full swing.
Sales are still

down from where
they were before
the recession...
Sales are
increasing but
customers are
taking more time...
Sales are on par
with last year.
Were holding
ground, not gain...
HOW ARE YOUR CUSTOMERS and new prospects responding to your products and services this
year?
Down significantly
Slightly down
Now!
Very healthy;
strong growth
Flat
In one
more
year
Relatively healthy;
moderate growth
In the next
24 years
44
WHEN DO YOU SEE the business level in your

sector reaching its full potential?
DESCRIBE THE MARKET for GNSS products/services in your industry sector as of today.
www.gpsworld.com
2015 State of the Industry |
BUSINESS OUTLOOK
Survey and High-Precision

More Accuracy
Required
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Less
than a
centimeteU
1 to 5
6 to 20
21 to 50
51
rs to 1
meter
1 meter
to 3
meters
More
than 3
meters
HOW ACCURATE is good enough for the majority of this sector?

30%
20%
10%
0%
It's
happening
now.
By the
end of
next year
(2016).
In three
years'
time (by
end of...
In five
years'
time (by
end of...
More
than five
years
from
now.
It's
never
going to
happen.
Don't
know.
HOW SOON will a survey be performed entirely from a computer, using high-resolution
satellite and/or UAV-collected data, without any instrumented field work?
ccuracy, as always, drives

this sector, and the degree
of required accuracy has
risen steadily over the four years that
we have conducted the survey. No
surprises here.
In 2013, those who said that the
majority of this market sector needed
accuracy of better than a centimeter
amounted to only 8 percent of total
respondents. In 2014, this group rose
dramatically to 35 percent, while close
to a majority, or 47 percent, held that a
range of 1 to 5 centimeters was good
enough.
This year, the majority has shifted
clearly to the side of 1 centimeter or
better as the new standard of required
precision; 51.25 percent held this
view. From 8 percent to more than
half in just two years thats some
change!
Fewer people believe that a survey
done completely on a computer and
driven by remote-sensor data will
occur in less than five years. Counter
to last years expectations, most now
think it will take longer than five years
to come about.
60%
Credit: Trimble
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
This is the
leading concern
of our research
and developme...
This is an
important
concern of our
R&D, but not ...
This is one
among many
factors we
consider; no...
We are not
focusing on
jamming/spoofing
mitigation at...
HOW MUCH EFFORT are you devoting to mitigation of GNSS jamming or spoofing?
www.gpsworld.com
45
Machine Control, Precision

Agriculture, Transportation
Half Want Under 5 Cm
40%
esponses from this industry

sector have been skewed
somewhat by our removal
of unmanned autonomous vehicles
(UAVs) from this category into a
class of their own (see page 48).
The accuracy requirement increased
significantly over last year, but it is
difficult to tell how much of that is
due to the departure of UAVs. We can
definitely conclude that the accuracy
needs of machine control, precision
agriculture and transportation are
greater, in absolute terms, than those
expressed by UAV respondents.
Here, 16 percent want better than
a centimeters accuracy, and 26
percent want 1 to 5 centimeters. That
is close to half the category needing
better than 5-centimeter accuracy.
In contrast, for UAVs, nearly half
fell into the 5- to 20-centimeter
preference range.
This sector strongly feels the need
for back-up positioning technology
to counter jamming, spoofing and
obstructed environments. Nearly
three quarters of those surveyed said
a GPS/GNSS back-up was either
critically or very important. The
strongest candidate for back-up here
is deemed to be Wi-Fi, by a wide
margin.
Jamming mitigation is the leading
R&D concern for 26 percent.
30%
20%
10%
0%
Less
than a
centimeteU
1 to 5
6 to 20
21 to 50
51
rs to 1
meter
1 meter
to 3
meters
More
than 3
meters
HOW ACCURATE is good enough for the majority of your sector?
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Of
critical
importance.
Very
important
but not
critical.
Of some
value, but
not all
that...
Not
important
or of value
at all.
Don't know.
Other
(please
specify)
HOW IMPORTANT IS A BACK-UP technology for GPS/GNSS to your product or service in coping
with obstructed environments, jamming or spoofing?
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
eLoran
46
Cell-to
wer
triangu
lati...
Wi-Fi
Terrest
rial
ranging
syst...
Proximi
ty
beacons
(for...
Sensorbased
dead
reck...
Radio
frequen
cy
patt...
Any
two of
the
above
Don't
know
WHAT IS YOUR FIRST CHOICE for a GPS/GNSS back-up?

www.gpsworld.com
BUSINESS OUTLOOK
Wireless and Consumer

Wi-Fi May Win Indoor Nav Battle
imilar to the Machine Control category on the facing page, Wi-Fi

is a preferred technology naturally for this sector. But, in this
case, it may take on a role equal to, or quite possibly surpassing, GPS/
GNSS as a solution to the perennial problem of indoor positioning. Since
the crtical level of accuracy is in the lower ranges, meaning between 1 and 3
meters in this case, Wi-Fi seems well suited. And coverage of this positioning
technology in the magazine will correspondingly increase!
50%
40%
40%
30%
30%
20%
20%
10%
10%
0%
0%
Less
than a
centimeteU
1 to 5
6 to 20
21 to 50
51
rs to 1
meter
Assist Celled
t
GNSS ower
triang
ula...
More
than 3
meters
1 meter
to 3
meters
Proxim
ity
beacon
s (...
Radio
freque
ncy
pat...
Sensor
based
dead
rec...
Terres Witrial
Fi
rangin
g...
Assist
ed
GNSS
plu...
Assist
ed
GNSS
plu...
Two
or
more
of ...
Don't
Know
Other
(pleas
e
spe...
WHAT TECHNOLOGY WILL win the indoor navigation battle?
Satellites, Signals and Simulation
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
No concern.
Some concern.
Alarm.
I support
revisions to
the radio
spectrum t...
Don't know.
early half the respondents in this category felt that

Efforts are underway [to protect radionavigation
spectrum], but so far they are neither sufficient nor
effective. 44.5 percent opted for that answer. Two thirds
expressed concern about threats to the spectrum from
broadband wireless, while more than a tenth registered
alarm. All these numbers are up significantly over last
year, by more than 10 percent in the case of protection
efforts and more than 20 percent in the case of concern
over broadband.
WHAT IS THE LEVEL of your concern about revisions to the radio

spectrum to support broadband wireless applications?
We are not
focusing on
jamming/spoofing
mitigation at al...
This is the
leading concern of
our research and
development effort.
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
This is one among

many factors we
consider; no
particular...
This is an
important concern
of our R&D, but not
the dominant one.
JAMMING OR SPOOFING: How much effort are you devoting to their

mitigation?
www.gpsworld.com
0%
Yes
No efforts are
underway.
Efforts are
underway, but so
far they are
neither...
Don't know
ARE EFFECTIVE EFFORTS underway to protect GPS/GNSS spectrum?
47
UAVs
Defense
60%
40%
50%
30%
40%
30%
20%
20%
10%
10%
0%
0%
Less
than a
centimeter
1 to 5
6 to 20
21 to 50
51
centimeters centimeters centimeters centimeters
to 1 meter
1 meter
to 3
meters
Less
than a
centimeter
More
than 3
meters
1 to 5
6 to 20
21 to 50
51
to 1 meter
More
than 3
meters
1 meter
to 3
meters

40%
A GNSS back-up
would be nice to
have but not
necessary.
30%
20%
A back-up to GNSS
at all times is an
absolute
requirement for...
10%
0%
We are
developing or
have fielded
a UAV...
A GNSS back-up
technology is only
needed at some
times or in some...
We are
actively
working with
a UAV...
We are
interested in
UAVs, but
have not...
UAVs have no
relevance or
interest for
us.
Don't know.
WHAT IS THE LEVEL OF UAV-RELATED activity in your organization?
HOW IMPORTANT IS A BACKUP technology or technologies to GPS/GNSS

for successful operation of UAVs, whether indoors, in obstructed
environments, or for operations everywhere?
This is the
leading concern of
our research and
development effort.
We are not
focusing on
jamming/spoofing
mitigation at al...
60%
50%
40%
This is an
important concern
of our R&D, but not
the dominant one.
30%
20%
This is one among

many factors we
consider; no
particular...
10%
0%
This is the
leading concern
of our research
and developme...
This is an
important
concern of our
R&D, but not ...
This is one
among many
factors we
consider; no...
We are not
focusing on
jamming/spoofing
mitigation at...
HOW MUCH EFFORT are you devoting to mitigation of GNSS jamming

or spoofing?
he sweet spot for UAV accuracy appears to lie in the 5

to 20 centimeter range, by a clear margin. This sector
expressed the strongest desire of any for back-up
technology or technologies to cope with GPS/GNSS gaps and
vulnerabilities.
48
HOW MUCH EFFORT are you devoting to mitigation of GNSS jamming

or spoofing?
ne-to-5 centimeters jumped into a commanding

lead as the required accuracy level for defense and
government, rising from a third-place finish last year
to capture nearly a third of the market share, and dominate its
nearest rival and last years winner, 1 to 5 meters. We call that
a sea change.
This sector has a strong interest in UAVs, but for the most
part, organizations do not have their own initiative underway;
perhaps this reflects a reliance on contractors.
www.gpsworld.com
BUSINESS OUTLOOK
Mapping, Data, GIS Other

Marine
30%
Mining
20%
Aviation
10%
Timing
0%
Less
than a
centimeter
1 to 5
6 to 20
21 to 50
51
to 1 meter
1 meter
to 3
meters
More
than 3
meters
Other (please
specify)
Other Positioning
Sensors; Sensor
Fusion
Mobile Advertising
or other
Location-Based
A back-up to GNSS
at all times is an
absolute
requirement for ...
We have no need
for GNSS back-up in
our application.
WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING CATEGORIES best characterizes your other

market sector?
A
A GNSS back-up
would be nice to
have but not
necessary.
A GNSS back-up
technology is only
needed at some
times or in some...
HOW IMPORTANT IS A BACKUP technology or technologies to GPS/

GNSS for successful operation of of mapping, data collection and
processing, or GIS application, whether indoors, in obstructed
environments, or for operations everywhere?
50%
40%
mong the Other, please specify answers received

in the Other sector, the following answers appeared
most frequently:
Engineering services
Consulting engineer
Facility management
Wildlife and archaeology
Civil engineering
Oil and gas industry
Legal
Security
Water supply
Public works
Pipeline inspection
Information technology
30%
20%
10%
0%
We are
developing or
have fielded
a UAV...
We are
actively
working with
a UAV...
We are
interested in
UAVs, but
have not...
UAVs have no
relevance or
interest for
us.
Don't know.
This sector, which has strong representation from subsectors marine, mining and others appearing in the figure
above, also expressed a strong interest in UAVs, although
relatively few have active programs underway.
50%

40%
apping, data collection and GIS do not have as

stringent an accuracy requirement as some other
sectors, but it is surprisingly strong, and actually
exceeds that of defense and government users. More than
half (57 percent) registered a need for accuracy better than
20 centimeters.
Although expressing a vibrant interest in UAVs, this
sector for the most part is not yet actively working towards
a fieldable solution in this area.
www.gpsworld.com
30%
20%
10%
0%
We are
developing or
have fielded
a UAV...
We are
actively
working with
a UAV...
We are
interested in
UAVs, but
have not...
UAVs have no
relevance or
interest for
us.
Don't know.

49
Issues for All, Questions Up Next

Yes, they will pay 10
percent higher, or more,
for multi-GNSS...
40%
I don't know.
30%
20%
10%
0%
Less than 1
percent
From 13
percent
From 46
percent
From 69
percent
They will buy

higher-priced
multi-GNSS
receivers only if
the price
difference is less
than 10 percent.
No, they will stick

with GPS-only
unless and until
multi-GNSS
receivers are
priced the same.
10 percent
or more
WHAT PERCENT OF REVENUE does your company devote to research

and development?
Results displayed on these two pages came from all survey

respondents, irrespective of industry sector.
WILL END-USERS PAY MORE FOR MULTI-GNSS receivers that incorporate

Galileo, GLONASS and/or BeiDou, as compared to GPS-only
receivers?
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Intentio
nal
jamming
Spoofing
Unintent
ional
jamming
Constell
ation
health
Questions for Next Year?
New
signal
capabili
ties/...
50
urvey respondents thought these questions would be

worthy of inclusion in next years State of the GNSS
Industry Survey:
What is the impact of hybrid proximity beacons?
Will there come a time when industry will trust the
results from a UAV survey?
Will survey-grade GPS become redundant, as
consumer versions achieve greater accuracy, thus
removing the need for specialist consultants?
Are the lack of industry standards for multi-GNSS
receivers (such as RTCA MOPS) an impediment to
development for receivers in your organization?
How viable is a military GNSS receiver consisting of
GPS PPS and Galileo PRS?
Unmanned
autonomo
us
vehic...
Reemerg
ence of
LightSqu
ared...
Other
(please
specify)
WHAT IS THE INDUSTRY Issue of the Year?
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
GPS
+GLONASS
GPS+Galileo
GPS+BeiDou
GPS
+GLONAS
S+Galileo
GPS
+GLONAS
S+Galileo
GPS
+Galileo
+BeiDou
IN CREATING MULTI-GNSS RECEIVERS, what is the sweet spot in adding

(an)other GNSS(s) to GPS?
www.gpsworld.com
ION GNSS+ 2015

GNSS + Other Sensors in Todays Marketplace
The 28th International Technical Meeting of the
Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation
September 14 18, 2015

Tutorials: Sept. 14 15
Tampa Convention Center / Tampa, Florida
SYSTEMS AND APPLICATION TRACKS
Mass-Market Applications
High Performance & Safety-Critical Applications
System Updates, Plans and Policies
PEER-REVIEWED TRACKS
Multisensor Navigation and Applications
Algorithms and Methods
Advanced GNSS Technologies
And, featuring the popular Indoor Location Panel and Demonstrations
The worlds largest technical meeting and showcase

of GNSS technology, products and services.
INNOVATION | Algorithms & Methods
Getting There by Tuning In

Using HD Radio Signals for Navigation
Ananta Vidyarthi, H. Howard Fan and Stewart DeVilbiss
THE YEAR WAS 1906. On Christmas Eve of that year, Canadian
inventor Reginald Fessenden carried out the first
amplitude modulation (AM) radio broadcast of voice
and music. He used a high-speed alternator capable
of rotating at up to 20,000 revolutions per minute
(rpm). Connected to an antenna circuit, it generated
INNOVATION INSIGHTS
a continuous wave with a radio frequency equal to
with Richard Langley
the product of the rotation speed and the number of
magnetic rotor poles it had. With 360 poles, radio waves of up to about 100 kHz could be
generated. However, Fessenden typically used a speed of 10,000 rpm to produce 60 kHz
signals. By inserting a water-cooled microphone in the high-power antenna circuit, he
amplitude-modulated the transmitted signal. On that Christmas Eve, he played phonograph
records, spoke and played the violin with radio operators being amazed at what they heard.
Fessenden had earlier worked with spark-gap transmitters, as these were standard at
the time for the transmission of Morse code, or telegraphy, the wireless communication
method already in use. But they couldnt generate a continuous wave and couldnt produce
satisfactory AM signals. But as telegraphy was the chief means of communication, they
remained in use for many years along with high-powered alternators and the Poulsen arc
transmitter, which could also generate continuous waves.
Although other experimental AM broadcasts were carried out using alternators or arc
transmitters, voice transmissions and in particular sound broadcasting didnt take
off until the invention of amplifying vacuum tubes. Just before World War I, it was found
that they could be used in an oscillator circuit to produce continuous waves, which could
be easily modulated to make an AM transmitter. Such transmitters could be used for
point-to-point communications but also for broadcasting, and a number of experimental
broadcasting stations were established in Europe and North America during and just after
the war. Tubes were also instrumental for improvements in receiver technology. Where
there was one licensed station in America in 1920, there were nearly 600 stations just five
years later, and the number of radio receivers went from thousands of crystal sets to millions
of vacuum-tube circuits. from The Science of Radio by Paul J. Nahin, one of my favorite
writers on electronics and mathematics.
AM radio broadcasting used frequencies in the long-wave, medium-wave and shortwave frequency bands, and still does. But AM signals often have low audio quality due
to bandwidth limitations imposed by regulators and interference from other stations,
atmospheric disturbances and electrical noise. So, over the past decade or so, many
broadcasters have abandoned long-wave and medium-wave frequencies and moved to the
frequency modulation or FM broadcast band with its superior signal capability.
However, this migration pattern might be slowed or stopped if digital broadcasting were
to be fully embraced on the AM broadcast bands. A digital technique developed by the
iBiquity Digital Corporation is gradually being adopted by broadcasters in the United States
and elsewhere. The technique provides FM-quality sound in the medium-wave band by
supplementing existing AM signals or replacing them altogether. It can also supply data
about the transmitting station and its broadcast. Some 240 AM radio stations in the U.S.
already use the technology. (It can also be used in the FM band to provide CD-like quality.)
But these digital signals in the AM broadcast band might serve an additional purpose
beyond improving the listening experience. In this months column, our authors tell us
about some extensive simulation work they have carried out to demonstrate the feasibility
of using digital radio signals for navigation. In the future, you may be able to turn on your
radio and tune in to get to where youre going.
Innovation is a regular feature that discusses advances in GPS technology and its applications as well as the fundamentals of GPS
positioning. The column is coordinated by Richard Langley of the Department of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, University of
New Brunswick. He welcomes comments and topic ideas. To contact him, see the Contributing Editors section on page 6.
52
t is well known that the GPS

signals are weak and are therefore
subject to interference and
blockage due to obstruction. Signals
of opportunity (SOO), on the other
hand, which are designed for other
purposes such as communication,
may also be used for navigation
and have relatively greater signal
power than GPS. They are plentiful
and relatively more resistant to
blockage and jamming compared to
GPS. Many authors have presented
methods and algorithms utilizing
SOO such as AM and FM broadcast
signals, TV broadcast signals and
3G/4G wireless communication
signals (see Further Reading for
examples). These signals are robust
and have very good received power
levels compared with GPS, and
are capable of penetrating through
buildings. In addition, these signals
are readily available and there is no
need for any additional installation of
transmitting devices or infrastructure.
In this article, we present the
results of a study using AM HD
Radio, digital radio in the 5401700
kHz band of the frequency spectrum,
with known transmitter locations, to
locate and track receiver locations
that are otherwise unknown. HD
Radio, originally meaning hybriddigital radio, is a trademarked term
for iBiquity Digital Corporations
digital radio technology. Unlike
analog AM radio signals, digital radio
signals are well structured and more
immune to co-channel interference,
and hence could be better adapted
for navigation. In addition, with the
proliferation of software-defned
radios (SDRs), digital AM radio may
eventually replace analog AM radio.
The challenges of navigation using
digital radio signals include narrow
signal bandwidths, long symbol
www.gpsworld.com
Algorithms & Methods |
Signal Format of Digital AM Radio

Digital AM signals have a well-defned structure called
in-band-on-channel (IBOC) that can be exploited for
localization purpose. It employs sophisticated digital radio
waveforms, which can deliver compact-disc-like sound
quality, free of interference and noise, to radio listeners. It
uses the existing AM and FM analog broadcasting bands
and channel schemes to transmit digital signals. The IBOC
digital radio transmitter system encodes analog audio into
binary form for transmission.
The design provided by IBOC AM radio has two service
modes with two new waveform types: hybrid (denoted
by MA1) and all-digital (denoted by MA3). The hybrid
waveform retains the analog AM signal, while the alldigital waveform completely replaces the analog AM
signal. In the hybrid service mode, the bandwidth of the
analog audio signal waveform can be 5 kHz or 8 kHz. The
digital signal is transmitted on both sides of the analog
host signal in the primary and secondary sidebands. It is
also transmitted on the tertiary sidebands, which are 20
dB beneath the analog signal as shown in FIGURE 1. For
the 8-kHz confguration, the secondary sidebands are
also beneath the analog host signal. The greatest system
enhancements are realized with the all-digital system,
as shown in FIGURE 2. In this system, the analog signal is
replaced with the all-digital primary sidebands whose
power is increased relative to the hybrid system levels.
Secondary and tertiary sideband powers are also increased
to the level of the hybrid waveform. Reference subcarriers
are also provided to convey system control information.
The end result is a higher power digital signal with an
overall bandwidth reduction.
Digital radio offers distinct advantages over analog,
including mitigation of transmission artifacts and
improved audio quality. These changes provide a more
robust digital signal that is less susceptible to adjacent
channel interference, thereby reducing the noise in the
system. An overview of the AM digital system for both the
service modes, MA1 and MA3, is given in the following
paragraphs. However, in the simulation study we carried
out, we used the all-digital AM (MA3) mode. The alldigital AM system has a smaller bandwidth than the hybrid
signal. If reasonable localization results can be obtained
with it, then we can predict that better localization results
may be obtained with the hybrid signal.
IBOC uses an orthogonal frequency-division
www.gpsworld.com
Analog
audio signal
(mono)
Lower digital
sidebands
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Upper digital
sidebands
Tertiary
Secondary
PIDS
P1
P3
P3
-14716.6
-9629.4
-4905.5
Subcarrier index
-81
-53
-27
Primary
PIDS
Frequency (Hz)
P3
-181.7
181.7
-1
P1
4905.5
9629.4
14716.6
27
53
81
FIGURE 1 Logical channels and sidebands on the frequency

spectrum; hybrid mode with 5-kHz analog signal bandwidth. (After
iBiquity.)
Lower digital
Upper digital
sidebands
sidebands
Primary
Tertiary
Primary
Secondary
PIDS
PIDS
P3
Frequency (Hz)
-9447.7
Subcarrier index
-52
P1
-4905.5
-27
P1
-181.7
-181.7
-1
P3
4905.5
9447.7
52
27
FIGURE 2 Logical channels and sidebands on the frequency

spectrum; all-digital mode. (After iBiquity.)
2678
Correlation amplitude
durations and lack of synchronization among transmitters.

Therefore, digital radio signals are not an ideal choice for
accurate position estimation, similar to many other SOO
that arent designed for navigation. Nevertheless, in this
work, we have designed algorithms to overcome such
diffculties to obtain a good level of location accuracy,
making it a feasible alternative for SOO navigation.
INNOVATION
Correlation values left

Correlation values right
Actual time of arrival
2676
2674
2672
1.18
1.20
1.22
1.24
Time (seconds)
1.26
1.28
1.30 x 10-4
FIGURE 3 Asymmetric correlation peak denoting different slopes on

either side.
multiplexing (OFDM) waveform for signal modulation.

Each OFDM subcarrier channel has a spacing of 181.7 Hz.
The hybrid MA1 service mode comprises 163 subchannels
indexed from -81 to 81 over a total bandwidth of 29.4
kHz as shown in Figure 1. The all-digital MA3 service
mode has only 105 subchannels indexed from -52 to 52
over a total bandwidth of 18.9 kHz as shown in Figure 2.
Therefore, when compared to the all-digital mode, hybrid
mode contains more training symbols per OFDM symbol
duration. The training symbols are important since these
symbols are known and will be used to perform correlation
to estimate the signal time of arrival. We predict that since
the hybrid mode contains more training symbols than the
all-digital mode, detection accuracy will be higher for
the hybrid mode. Hence, choosing the all-digital MA3
53
2680
2676
2672
1.220
1.225
1.230
1.235
1.240
Time (seconds)
2677.22
1.250 x 10-4
Correlation values left

Correlation values right
Actual time of arrival
Polynomial left
Polynomial right
2677.18
2677.14
1.245
1.2340
1.2342
1.2344
1.2346
Time (seconds)
1.2348
1.2350 x 10-4
FIGURE 4 Enlarged views of Figure 3 near the peak.
service mode for the localization will be more challenging,

and this is another reason for our decision to use MA3.
Demonstrating the capability of the all-digital MA3
service mode for localization would imply that the hybrid
mode could be used for the same, with at least the same or
better performance.
Interleaving in time and frequency is used to mitigate
the effects of burst errors. The interleaver output is
according to a structured matrix (not shown here). Each
interleaver matrix consists of information associated with
a specifc portion of the transmitted spectrum, and consists

of eight interleaver blocks, with each block of size of 32
25. Hence, each block has 800 symbols to be flled,
out of which 50 are known training symbols. Since this
work entirely relies on training symbols, understanding
interleaving is important so we know exactly where the
training symbols are in a signal data stream. From the
interleaving matrix, the positions of all training symbols
are given, which have a periodic appearance of every 16
rows.
The OFDM subcarrier mapping transforms interleaver
output into scaled 16 quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM) and 64 QAM and binary phase-shift keying
(BPSK) symbols and then maps them to specifc OFDM
subcarriers. The inputs to OFDM subcarrier mapping are
according to the interleaver matrices, which map respective
symbols to the primary, secondary, tertiary, Primary IBOC
Data Service (PIDS) and reference subcarriers. One row
of each active interleaver matrix and one bit of the system
control vector are mapped into each OFDM symbol (every
Ts seconds) to produce one output vector X, where Ts =
5.805 10-3 seconds.
OFDM signal generation takes the complex frequency
domain OFDM symbol X as generated above and outputs
a time-domain representation of the digital signal. Let
Xn be the vector X for the nth OFDM symbol, and Xn[k]
be the kth element of Xn, which is the complex scaled
constellation points for the subcarrier mapping for the nth
symbol, where k = 0, 1,, L-1 is the subcarrier index in
the frequency-domain input to the signal generation for
transmission. The input vector X is transformed into a
shaped time-domain baseband pulse yn(t) defning the nth
OFDM symbol as
where n = 0, 1, , ,
. Note that n
indexes consecutive OFDM symbols, L = 105 is the
maximum number of OFDM subcarriers, Ts and f are
the OFDM symbol period and OFDM subcarrier spacing,
respectively, and W(t) is the time-domain pulse shaping
function.
Time of Arrival Acquisition

Since the training symbols are known, a local copy can
be generated at a receiver to correlate with the received
digital AM signal to measure signal time of arrival (TOA).
Measuring TOA accurately from a correlation peak is
crucial, since any error in TOA measurement directly
affects localization accuracy. The relatively narrow
bandwidths and hence long symbol durations of the digital
AM radio signals pose a challenge as they give rise to
potentially large timing errors, thereby greater localization
54
www.gpsworld.com
10.700
INNOVATION
Estimated points
dbc
dac
dbd
dad
North-south coordinate (kilometers)
Actual location
Average of the tracked points
10.695
10.690
10.685
10.680
FIGURE 5 Principle of differential time-difference of arrival (dTDOA).
errors. To improve the location accuracy, strong digital

AM signal levels are used to our advantage so methods
such as curve ftting and time averaging can be performed.
Moreover, unlike the structures of the civil GPS signals,
which are all known, only the training symbols and their
positions in the digital AM signals are known. Other data
in the digital AM signals are random and cannot be used
for correlation. Therefore, using long correlation vectors
will help in detecting peaks as there will be more training
symbols.
Sampling. Correlation is performed, of course, after
sampling. So we frst discuss how to choose an appropriate
sampling frequency. After correlation, if we detect the
peak and record it as TOA only at the corresponding
sampling instant, a maximum distance error of c/2fs can
occur between two adjacent samples, where c is the speed
of light and fs is the sampling frequency. At the Nyquist
sampling frequency, say 40 kHz, this error could be as
large as 3,750 meters. Sampling at a frequency much
higher than the Nyquist can help to improve accuracy, but
this improvement diminishes as the sampling frequency
increases beyond a certain value, because the narrow
signal bandwidth makes the peak of its correlation
function rounded, so detection of the actual peak becomes
less accurate. In our simulations, we found that this point
of diminishing returns is at about fs = 10 MHz, at which
the error between two adjacent samples is 15 meters,
much better than that at the Nyquist sampling rate. This
high sampling rate is easily doable with todays digital
technologies. However, this 15-meter error is the ranging
error between one transmitter and one receiver. Five or
more transmitters have to be considered for the location
algorithm presented in a later section. Then, the ranging
error of 15 meters may magnify to the order of a few
kilometers as location errors. Clearly, there is a need to
detect TOA of a correlation peak between two adjacent
samples; that is, we need interpolation to achieve a smaller
TOA error.
Interpolation. To calculate the TOA between two adjacent
samples, we interpolate by curve ftting the correlation data
www.gpsworld.com
47.84
47.83
47.82
47.81
East-west coordinate (kilometers)
47.80
FIGURE 6 Image depicting time averaging of a stationary receivers

location.
and estimate the TOA by solving polynomial functions.

It was observed that the correlation peak is asymmetric,
so the correlation curve is shaped differently to the left
and right of the peak value. This is illustrated in FIGURE
3. Therefore, we need to ft two different curves on each
side of the correlation peak. By a trial-and-error process,
we determined that a quadratic polynomial is suffcient to
ft the correlation values close to the peak. Therefore two
simple quadratic functions are ftted for the correlation
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55
North-south distance (kilometers)
5-transmitter zone
40
Route 1
5-transmitter
zone
7-transmitter
Route 2 zone
20
Route 2
Route 2
Route 2
6-transmitter
zone
20
Transmitter
Moving receiver 1
Moving receiver 2
Stationary receiver
100
Route 1
6-transmitter zone
50
0
East-west distance (kilometers)
50
FIGURE 7 Transmitter locations and two different routes considered

for simulation with two receivers. (Map courtesy of Google.)
data points to the left and right of the peak.

FIGURE 4 shows curve ftting for the correlation of a
received signal and a local signal sampled at 10 MHz.
The maximum time error due to sampling is Tsamp/2,
which equals 5 10-8 seconds. This translates into a
distance error of 15 meters and localization error of a few
kilometers as mentioned before. From Figure 4, it is seen
that the intersection point, which is taken as the measured
TOA, is much closer to the actual TOA resulting in a much
smaller distance error.
Based on the HD Radio documentation, a normal signalto-noise ratio (SNR) is calculated to be 52 dB. However,
in case of adverse channel conditions, lower SNR levels
of 30 dB and 10 dB have also been considered. Our
simulations show that, with additive white Gaussian noise,
the TOA estimation errors are affected by SNR very little
above 10 dB, and are improved by an order of magnitude
compared with no curve ftting. To make sure the TOA
estimation error for the 10 dB SNR case can be used for
the purpose of localization, we carried out a Monte Carlo
simulation. Twenty-one different random signals were
simulated, and the TOA measurement errors after curve
ftting were recorded at different delays. The ensemble
average of these TOA estimation errors was within 2 10-9
seconds. These results confrm that a 10 dB SNR signal
can be very well used for localization. Thus, we used an
SNR of 10 dB for all the simulations discussed later in
this article.
Differential Time-Difference of Arrival

Once all the TOAs from different transmitters are
obtained, they are sent to a processing station, which could
be one of the receivers. Due to lack of synchronization
in digital AM radio transmitters as well as unknown
clock offsets in digital AM radio receivers, the obtained
TOAs are not aligned, so they cannot be directly used for
location determination. A technique called differential
time-difference of arrival (dTDOA), which is similar to
GPS double differencing and was published by the authors
elsewhere (see Further Reading), is employed here to
overcome this problem.
Consider the case where there are two transmitters, A
and B, and two receivers, C and D, as shown in FIGURE 5.
When transmitter A is transmitting, its signal is received
at different time instances by receivers C and D due to
different propagation delays. The internal clock of each
receiver records the correlation peak with respect to its
local time at the corresponding receivers. TOAs of the
signal from transmitter A at both receivers C and D are
recorded as
and , which also contain the unknown
transmitter A clock time offset. Differencing these two
TOAs
, the unknown transmitter A clock time
offset is cancelled. But this TDOA is unsynchronized, so
it cannot be used for location determination. Then we fnd
the similar unsynchronized TDOA from transmitter B,
. To eliminate the unknown receiver clock offsets
we difference the two TDOAs, resulting in a dTDOA:
Thus, by using a minimum of two transmitters and

two receivers, a dTDOA cancels receiver clock offsets
and transmitter clock offsets, thus avoiding the need of
56
www.gpsworld.com
Total distance of Route 1

Receiver velocity
Sampling frequency
Update rate
Time-averaging Window
Maximum error
RMS error
TABLE 1 Simulation parameters and results of Route 1 (fivetransmitter zone).
Total distance of Route 2

Receiver velocity
Sampling frequency
Update rate
Time-averaging window
Maximum error (due to handover)
RMS error
24.41 kilometers
112.65 kilometers per hour
10 MHz
Approx. 5.8 10-3 seconds
1 second
10.231 meters
1.942 meters
45.56 kilometers
0-96.56 kilometers per hour
10 MHz
Approx. 5.8 10-3 seconds
1 second
12.943 meters
1.044 meters
TABLE 2 Simulation parameters and results of Route 2 (sixtransmitter zone).
precise clock synchronization. The number of independent

dTDOA equations required to solve for the locations
of n receivers is given by (m-1)(n-1) where m is the
number of transmitters, and n is the number of receivers.
For two receivers, there are four unknowns in a twodimensional positioning plane, so we need a minimum of
fve transmitters to obtain four independent equations to
solve for four unknown location parameters. If one of the
receivers is permanently stationary with a known location
such as in differential GPS, then we only need three
transmitters to solve for two unknown horizontal location
parameters, or four transmitters for three unknown
location parameters in 3-D .
The above dTDOA equations, when expressed in
terms of receiver locations, are non-linear. The nonlinear over-determined or exact system of equations can
be solved using iterative procedures, such as non-linear
least squares or the Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) technique.
In the simulations we ran, we found that the LM method
was more robust than the Gauss-Newton method because
it was capable of converging to the solution in the global
minimum even if the initial guess was relatively far away.
But a reasonable initial estimate of the solution can help
with faster convergence. If the initial estimate is too far
away, the solution often converges to a local minimum
instead of the global minimum.
Therefore, a good initial estimate of the solution is
crucial. An approximate initial estimate can be calculated
in several ways. For example we can solve linearized
equations based on the non-linear dTDOA equations. Or
we can use a simple table lookup if we have some a priori
knowledge of roughly where the receivers are located.
Once the initial locations are found, the next step is to
www.gpsworld.com
INNOVATION
track the locations of the receivers when they are moving.

A Kalman flter should be used for tracking. A Kalman
flter can also incorporate the non-linear dTDOA equations
with TOA measurement as input for close coupling
between localization and tracking. Or, for simplicity, short
of using a Kalman flter, the previous locations can be fed
into the LM method to fnd the next locations. The LM
method for this kind of tracking has faster convergence
than for repeated initialization, so the next locations can
be calculated quickly.
Time Averaging. Due to error in tracking, the computed
locations are not exact but are usually around the actual
location. Time averaging is then used to further improve
tracking performance. Time averaging can also be used to
smooth the TOA measurements or the locations computed
from dTDOA equations as input to a Kalman flter.
Repeated use of the LM method, as shown in FIGURE
6, for estimating a stationary receivers coordinates
always forms an error ellipsoid because of the noise and
computation error. The estimated points are depicted
by black points in Figure 6. The small yellow circle
in the middle corresponds to the actual location. By
simulation, it was found that averaging all the possible
estimated locations produced a location much closer to
57
larger the resulting time delay in the averaged location.

This time delay is also affected by how frequently we
update the tracked locations. Receiver velocity and the
Doppler effect also affect the choice of the time-averaging
window.
Actual location
Final tracked location
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
FIGURE 8 Worst-case result for five-transmitter tracking. (Photo map

courtesy of Google.)
the actual location, as depicted by the red cross in Figure

6. Obviously the more points to average that is, the
larger the time-averaging window the more accurate
the averaged location will be. In general, such time
averaging can improve location and tracking performance
by an order of magnitude.
For a moving receiver, there is a trade off in choosing
the time-averaging window. The larger the time-averaging
window, the better the averaged location accuracy, but the
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58
Simulation Results
We performed a comprehensive computer simulation
study. The primary aim of this simulation study was
to prove that the accuracy of digital AM signals for
navigation can be improved using the methods introduced
in the previous sections, despite the narrow bandwidth
of the signals, thereby making digital AM a viable
choice for navigation. A number of factors will affect
the performance of navigation using digital AM signals
including the sampling frequency, SNR, time-averaging
window and location update frequency. In this simulation
study, these factors have been taken into consideration.
To simulate a realistic environment, we chose the city
of Chicago, where there are many digital AM transmitters
providing good coverage to the city. We chose the six best
transmitters in Chicago based on the power of the signal
and location. The working range of the receivers is large
enough to perform a detailed study of all the navigation
techniques. The locations of the radio station transmitters
are shown in FIGURE 7. All fgure axes are in kilometers.
Colored dots are transmitter locations; colored circles
are their ranges. Green tracks are the chosen routes for a
fast-moving receiver. Short brown tracks are those of the
other receiver, somewhere in the same zone and traveling
slowly.
We simulated two receivers moving along the chosen
green and brown routes, but we will only show the
navigation results of the faster moving receiver along
the green routes. A minimum of fve transmitters is
needed. The entire simulation was done in Matlab. The
time-domain digital AM received signals were modeled
according to the specifcations described previously.
Delays corresponding to transmitter and receiver
locations were calculated and simulated into the signals
received at the two receivers. An SNR of 10 dB was used
for all received signals. Along Route 1 (upper left corner
of Figure 7), fve transmitter signals can be received,
whereas along Route 2 (center right in Figure 7), six
transmitter signals are received. Simulation conditions
and results for these two routes are given in TABLES 1 and 2.
In addition, the tracking results for the fast-moving
receiver are laid on top of photo maps of the routes, and are
shown in FIGURES 8 and 9. The worst-case situation happens
when, for example, transition of zones or handover of
transmitters happen, for which no specifc additional
measures were taken in the simulations as shown in Figure
8. However, the typical tracking result in Figure 9 happens
most of the time. Clearly, the more transmitters that can
www.gpsworld.com
Actual location
Final tracked location
be used, the better the accuracy results. Use of more

than two receivers or use of a stationary receiver with a
known location can reduce this demand on the number of
transmitters.
The fast sampling frequency, the curve ftting and the
time-averaging window are the most important factors
affecting the accuracy of this work, and are easily
adjustable. In our simulations we used a time-averaging
window of 1 second. We expect that the accuracy would
further improve as the time-averaging window is increased,
but this would result in increased latency. The velocity of
the receiver is one limiting factor in choosing the timeaveraging window. For a receiver traveling at a maximum
speed of 145 kilometers per hour, a time-averaging window
of 1 second corresponds to 20.14 meters of tracking lag.
Any greater tracking lag may become intolerable. In
general, our simulations show that curve ftting alone and
time averaging alone each improved localization accuracy
by an order of magnitude. When curve ftting and time
averaging were combined, the localization accuracy was
improved by two orders of magnitude. If a Kalman flter
were used for tracking, we would expect further accuracy
improvement.
Other challenges that deserve further study to make
this concept a mature technology include multipath
propagation and its mitigation, incorporation of estimating
digital AM carrier phase, and incorporation of a Kalman
flter for tracking. Further increased location accuracy is
expected by incorporation of these techniques.
INNOVATION
7.80
7.75
7.70
30.45
30.40
30.35
30.30
30.25
30.20
FIGURE 9 Typical six-transmitter tracking result. (Photo map courtesy

of Google.)
STEWART DEVILBISS graduated from Ohio State University with a

Ph.D. in electrical engineering in 1994. Since 2007 he has served as the
technical advisor for the Navigation and Communication Branch at the
Sensors Directorate of the Air Force Research Laboratory, headquartered
at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. His primary research interest is in
technologies to improve navigation robustness and accuracy.
MORE ONLINE
Further Reading
For references related to this article, go to gpsworld.com and click on Innovation
in the navigation bar.
Acknowledgment
This article is based, in part, on the paper A Navigation
Solution Using HD Radio Signals presented at the
2015 International Technical Meeting of The Institute of
Navigation, Dana Point, Calif., Jan. 2628, 2015.
ANANTA VIDYARTHI graduated from Anna University, India, in 2009 with
a B. Tech. degree in electronics and communication engineering. She
came to the University of Cincinnati in the fall of 2009 and earned her M.S.
degree in 2012 in electrical engineering. Currently, she is working with
Cummins Inc. in Columbus, Ind.
H. HOWARD FAN graduated from the University of Illinois in UrbanaChampaign with a Ph.D. in electrical engineering in 1985. He has been
on the faculty of the University of Cincinnati since then, where he is a
professor of electrical engineering and computing systems. His research
interests are in digital signal processing, system identification, signal
processing for communications, interference mitigation, direction finding,
and navigation and location.
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GPS World - September 2015

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GPS World - September 2015

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Oh No,

>> Mobile and tablet reading

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For publishers: learn more about digital publishing with Mozaic

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Receiver Design for the Future 16

High-Precision Receiver Design:

The Economic Benefits of GPS 36

The State of the GNSS Industry 43

Addiction on the Rise

Locata to Underpin NASA UA Research Center; OxTS Creates Locata +

September 2015 | GPS World

FILM A VIDEO SELFIE AT ION

Check out our playlists of recently uploaded videos:

Type GPS WORLD in YouTube Search box.

GPS World | September 2015

This series of columns discuss

Hottest Pages @ GPSWorld.com

GPS IIF-10 Launches from Cape Canaveral

Live from the 2015 Esri User Conference

New LightSquared, Same Agenda, Billions at Stake

To L2C or Not to L2C? That Is the Operational

Possible Piece of Galileo Rocket Found on Florida

Inexpensive Hack Spoofs GPS in Smartphones,

Accuracy in the Palm of Your Hand

China Launches Two More BeiDou Satellites

Nokias HERE Maps sold to BMW, Daimler and

Addiction on the Rise

preferences and their behaviors will

sub-centimeter capability has been

Editor-in-Chief and Group Publisher Alan Cameron | editor@gpsworld.com

Manager, Production Services

GPS World | September 2015

jamming, spoofing, hacking, budget

Ready for IRNSS

Contact IFEN for GPS/GNSS Test Equipment

BeiDou Adds Two,

satellite link realizes communication

projects key to global operation.

First BeiDou Phase 3 Signals Acquired

FIGURE 1 BOC(1,1) cross-correlation.

samples at 60 megasamples per second

FIGURE 2 BOC(14,2) cross-correlation.

Department of Defense Spacetrack

FIGURE 1, the peak

lobe suggesting that the satellite is

More News Online

September 2015 | GPS World

Industry news and developments | GPS | Galileo | GLONASS

UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEMS

Locata to Underpin NASA UA Research Center

ASA plans to install a Locata network (LocataNet)

NASAS IKHANA UAV is being used in the tests. (Credit: NASA)

LocataNets, will also be installed.

OxTS Creates Locata + Inertial System

GPS World | September 2015

GPS by addressing the issues and shortfalls of GNSS. Inertial+

Visit us at Booth 108

DESIGN & TEST

New Book Covers RF

Rohde & Schwarz Offers Fast

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