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Exam C
Howard Mahler
Frequency Distributions
The slides are in the same order as the sections of my study guide.
A
B
C
D
E
F
Section #Pages
Section Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Introduction
5-15
Basic Concepts
16-41
Binomial Distribution
42-72
Poisson Distribution
73-94
Geometric Distribution
95-120
Negative Binomial Distribution
121-148
Normal Approximation
149-161
Skewness
162-175
Probability Generating Functions
176-188
Factorial Moments
189-210
(a, b, 0) Class of Distributions
211-222
Accident Profiles
223-242
Zero-Truncated Distributions
243-261
Zero-Modified Distributions
262-276
Compound Frequency Distributions
277-294
Moments of Compound Distributions
295-334
Mixed Frequency Distributions
335-345
Gamma Function
346-387
Gamma-Poisson Frequency Process
388-398
Tails of Frequency Distributions
399-406
Important Formulas and Ideas
Basic Concepts
A Frequency Distribution is discrete.
It has probability on the nonnegative integers.
The probabilities add to one.
Number
of Claims
Probability
Density
Function
Probability
times
# of Claims
Probability
times Square
of # of Claims
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Sum
0.1
0.2
0
0.1
0
0
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.3
0.1
1
0
0.2
0
0.3
0
0
0.6
0
0
0.9
3
1.1
6.1
0
0.2
0
0.9
0
0
3.6
0
0
8.1
30
12.1
54.9
Binomial Distribution:
Support: x = 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., m. Finite support.
Parameters: 1 > q > 0, m 1, integer.
f(x) =
m!
qx (1-q)m-x, 0 x m.
x! (m-x)!
Mean = mq
Variance = mq(1-q)
y = 0.59049
y = 0.32805
y = 0.07290
y = 0.00810
y = 0.00045
y = 0.00001
Poisson Distribution:
x e-
f(x) =
, x 0 (infinite support)
x!
4 e 2.54 e 2.5
If = 2.5, f(4) =
=
= 13.36%.
4!
4!
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
10
Mean =
Variance =
Mean = Variance.
A Poisson Distribution
a constant independent claim intensity.
The sum of two independent variables each
of which is Poisson with parameters 1 and 2
is also Poisson, with parameter 1 + 2.
1.43 e 1.4
3!
= 11.3%.
Geometric Distribution
x
, x = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
f(x) =
(1+) x+1
Mean = .
f(0) = 1 .
1+
f(n+1) = f(n) < f(n).
1+
10
15
20
1, 5/00, Q.36. A.
The densities are declining geometrically.
Therefore, this is a Geometric Distribution, with
= 1/5. = 1/4.
1+
Prob[more than one claim] = 1 - f(0) - f(1) =
1- 1
= 1 - 4/5 - 4/25 = 4%.
1 + (1 + )2
r
(r+1)
...
(r+x1)
f(x) =
x!
(1 + )r+x
x
r+x1
=
.
x (1 + )r+x
f(0) =
1 .
(1 + )r
f(1) =
r
.
(1 + )r+1
r
(r+1)
f(2) =
.
2 (1 + )r+ 2
3
r
(r+1)
(r+2)
f(3) =
6
(1 + )r+ 3
10
15
20
25
30
Geometric Exponential
r (1+) = 12.
1 + = 12/3 = 4. = 3. r = 1.
33 34 35
f(3) + f(4) + f(5) = 4 + 5 + 6 = 0.244.
4
4
4
Comment: We have fit via Method of Moments.
Since r = 1, this is a Geometric Distribution.
Normal Distribution
Standard Normal, with mean zero and standard
deviation one, which is in the table attached to the
exam: Distribution Function [x]
As shown at the very beginning of the Tables:
exp[-x2 / 2]
Density function [x] =
, - < x < .
2
F(x) = [ x - ]
f(x) = [ x - ] / =
Mean =
(x - )2
exp[]
2
2
2
Variance = 2
2.5%
- 1.96
2.5%
1.96
0.5000
0.5398
0.5793
0.6179
0.6554
0.6915
0.7257
0.7580
0.7881
0.8159
0.8413
0.8643
0.8849
0.9032
0.9192
0.9332
0.9452
0.9554
0.9641
0.9713
2
0.9772
0.9821
0.9861
0.9893
0.9918
0.9938
0.9953
0.9965
0.9974
0.9981
3
0.9987
0.9990
0.9993
0.9995
0.9997
0.9998
0.9998
0.9999
0.9999
1.0000
0.800
0.850
0.842
1.036
0.900
0.950
1.282
1.645
0.975
0.990
0.995
1.960
2.326
2.576
Page 125.
A Binomial Distribution with m = 10 and q = 0.3,
has mean: (10) (0.3) = 3,
and variance: (10) (0.3) (0.7) = 2.1.
A graph of this Binomial and the Normal
Distribution with the same mean and variance:
Prob.
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
2
10
1.5
2.5
15.5
16
|
15.5 -
Prob[More than 15 claims] 1 - [
].
15.5 -
] = 1 - [15.5 - 14 ] =
Page 127.
= mean of frequency distribution
= standard deviation of frequency distrib.
Prob[i # claims j]
[ (j + 0.5) - ] - [ (i - 0.5) - ].
11.5
12
|
11.5 -
Prob[Less than 12 claims] [
].
12
14
16
18
20
22
# Sue Knows
Skewness =
=
E[ (X - E[X])3 ]
STDDEV3
Third Central Moment
.
Variance1.5
m = 6, q = 0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
m = 6, q = 0.75
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
f(n) zn.
n=0
dz z=0
f(0) = P(0).
f(1) = P(0).
f(2) = P(0) / 2.
Factorial Moments
nth factorial moment = (n)
= E[X (X-1) ... (X + 1 - n)].
(2) = E[X(X-1)] = E[X2] - E[X].
Poisson: (n) = n.
n P(z)
d
.
(n) =
dz z=1
E[X] = P(1).
Variance
mq(1 - q)
Negative Binomial
r(1 + )
f(x+1) = a + b , x = 0, 1, 2, ...
f(x)
x+1
f(x+1) = {a + b } f(x), x = 0, 1, 2, ...
x+1
f(1) = (a + b) f(0).
a
b
-q / (1 - q) (m + 1) q / (1 - q)
0
Negative Binomial / (1 + )
(r - 1) / (1 + )
(C) 0.130
(D) 0.135
(E) 0.140
Accident Profiles:
For a member of the (a, b, 0) class:
f(x+1) = a + b
f(x)
x+1
(x+1) f(x+1) / f(x) = (x+1) a + b = a x + a + b.
It is a straight line with slope a, and intercept a + b.
Thus graphing (x+1) f(x+1) can be a useful
f(x)
method of determining whether one of these three
distributions fits the given data.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6,503
8,199
4,094
1,073
128
3
Differences
1.261
0.999
0.786
0.477
0.117
-0.262
-0.212
-0.309
-0.360
A graph of
(x+1) (number of policies with x+1 claims) :
(number of policies with x claims)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Zero-Truncated Distributions
If f is a distribution on 0, 1, 2, 3,..., then
f(k)
T
p =
is a distribution on 1, 2, 3, ...
k 1 - f(0)
Loss Models uses the notation pT for the densities
k
of a zero-truncated distribution.
The moments of a zero-truncated distribution are
given in terms of those of the corresponding
untruncated distribution, f, by:
n]
E
[X
.
ETruncated[Xn] = f
1 - f(0)
Page 230
The Logarithmic Distribution with parameter
has support equal to the positive integers:
x
1
f(x) =
(1 + )x x ln(1 + )
for x = 1, 2, 3,...
pM = f(x)
k
1 - pM
0 , x = 1, 2, 3,...
1 - f(0)
is a distribution on 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
Loss Models uses the notation pM for the
k
1 - pM
0 .
1 - f(0)
Lambda
1
2
Probability
40%
30%
Bad
20%
Ugly
10%
Type
Excellent
Good
Lambda
1
2
Probability
40%
30%
Bad
20%
Ugly
10%
Number of Prob.
Claims Excellent
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
SUM
Prob.
Good
0.3679 0.1353
0.3679 0.2707
0.1839 0.2707
0.0613 0.1804
0.0153 0.0902
0.0031 0.0361
0.0005 0.0120
0.0001 0.0034
0.0000 0.0009
0.0000 0.0002
0.0000 0.0000
1.0000 1.0000
Prob.
Bad
Prob.
Ugly
Prob.
All
0.0498
0.1494
0.2240
0.2240
0.1680
0.1008
0.0504
0.0216
0.0081
0.0027
0.0002
0.0001
0.0000
0.0008
1.0000
0.0183
0.0733
0.1465
0.1954
0.1954
0.1563
0.1042
0.0595
0.0298
0.0132
0.0019
0.0006
0.0002
0.0001
0.0053
1.0000
0.1995
0.2656
0.2142
0.1430
0.0863
0.0478
0.0243
0.0113
0.0049
0.0019
0.0007
0.0002
0.0001
0.0000
1.0000
17.14. B. f(1) =
r
.
(1 + )r+1
f(0) =
f(0 | q) (q) dq =
0. 4
(1 - q)3 (2.5) dq
0
q = 0.4
= (-2.5/4) (1 - q)4
q=0
t-1 e-t dt
t-1 e-t/ dt .
( ; 0) = 0. ( ; ) = 1.
Gamma Distribution: F(x) = ( ; x / ).
Gamma Distribution
F(x) = (; x / ). Two parameters and .
-1 e -x /
x
f(x) =
, x > 0.
()
E[X] = .
E[X2] = ( + 1) 2.
Var[X] = 2.
For the important special case = 1,
we have an Exponential distribution:
f(x) = e-x/ / , x 0.
()
t-1 e-t/ dt = () .
n e-c t dt = n! / cn+1.
t
Gamma-Poisson
The number of claims a particular policyholder
makes in a year is Poisson with mean .
The values of the portfolio of policyholders
are Gamma distributed.
Lambda varies via a continuous distribution; this is
a very important example of a continuous mixture.
Prior Distribution
The values of the portfolio of policyholders are
Gamma distributed with = 3 and = 2/3:
f() = 1.6875 2 e1.5, > 0.
density
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
lambda
Mixed Distribution
The mixed distribution is a Negative Binomial
Distribution with r = and = .
Beta rhymes with theta.
In this case, r = = 3, and = = 2/3.
10
Overall Mean
Mean = E[] = mean of the Gamma = = (3) (2/3)
=2
= (3) (2/3) = r = mean of the Negative Binomial.
Exponential-Poisson
For the important special case = 1, we have an
Exponential distribution of : f() = e/ / , 0.
(See 3/11/01, Q.27.)
The mixed distribution is a Negative Binomial
Distribution with r = 1 and = ;
For the Exponential-Poisson,
the mixed distribution is a Geometric
Distribution with = .
We will revisit the Gamma-Poisson when we
discuss Conjugate Priors.
1
1
=
= 1/4.
(1 + )r (1 + 1)2
Density
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
10
87%
0.010
0.005
200
220
240
265.5
drivers
300
19.64. D.
The distribution of number of claims from a single
driver is Neg. Binomial with r = 2 and = 1.
For the sum of 1000 independent drivers:
Neg. Binomial with r = (1000) (2) = 2000 and = 1,
with mean r = 2000, variance r (1 + ) = 4000.
Prob[more than 2020 claims]
1 - [ 2020.5 - 2000 ] = 1 - [0.32] = 37.45%.
4000
Alternately, the mean of the sum of 1000
independent drivers is 1000 times the mean of
single driver: (1000) (2) = 2000.
The variance of the sum of 1000 independent
drivers is 1000 times the variance of single driver:
(1000) (2) (1) (1+1) = 4000.
Proceed as before.
37%
0.001
1800
1900
2020.5 2100
claims
2200
Additional Questions
r
(1 +
)r + 1
(2)(0.04)
(1 + 0.04
)3
= 7.11%.
r
(r+1)
f(2) =
2
(1 + )r + 2
0.122
(2) (3)
=
= 2.75%.
4
2
(1 + 0.12)
r
(r+1)
f(2) =
2
(1 + )r + 2
0.042
(6) (7)
=
= 2.46%.
8
2
(1 + 0.04)
5.83 = 2.41.
11.67 = 3.42.
14.28. B.
Since we have a member of the (a, b, 1) family:
p2 / p1 = a + b/2.
2a + b = (2)(0.1754) / 0.1637 = 2.1429.
p3 / p2 = a + b/3.
3a + b = (3)(0.1503) / 0.1754 = 2.5707.
a = 0.4278. b = 1.2873.
p4 = (a + b/4) p3
= (0.4278 + 1.2873/4) (0.1503) = 0.1127.
p5 = (a + b/45) p4
= (0.4278 + 1.2873/5) (0.1127) = 0.0772.
Comment: Based on a zero-modified Negative
Binomial, with r = 4, = 0.75, and pM
0 = 20%.
Variance = mq(1-q)
Variance =
f(x) =
x
.
(1 + ) x + 1
Mean =
Variance = (1+)
1
.
1- (z-1)
n
For a Geometric Distribution, for n > 0, the chance of at least n claims is:
.
1+
For a series of independent identical Bernoulli trials, the chance of the first success following x failures is
given by a Geometric Distribution with mean
= (chance of a failure) / (chance of a success).
Negative Binomial Distribution (Section 6)
f(x) =
x
r(r + 1)...(r + x - 1)
.
(1+ )x + r
x!
Mean = r
Variance = r(1+)
Normal Distribution
F(x) = [(x-)/]
(x - )2
]
2 2 , - < x < .
2
exp[f(x) = [(x-)/] / =
(x) =
exp[-x2 / 2]
2
, - < x < .
Mean =
Variance = 2
Kurtosis = 3
Skewness (Section 8)
Skewness = third central moment /STDDEV3 = E[(X - E[X])3 ]/STDDEV3
= {E[X3 ] - 3 X E[X2 ] + 2 X 3 } / Variance3/2.
A symmetric distribution has zero skewness.
Binomial Distribution with q < 1/2 positive skewness skewed to the right.
Binomial Distribution q = 1/2 symmetric zero skewness.
Binomial Distribution q > 1/2 negative skewness skewed to the left.
Poisson and Negative Binomial have positive skewness.
Probability Generating Function (Section 9)
Probability Generating Function, p.g.f.:
zn
E[zn ] =
f(n) zn .
n=0
The Probability Generating Function of the sum of independent frequencies is the product of the individual
Probability Generating Functions.
The distribution determines the probability generating function and vice versa.
f(n) =
dn P(z)
/ n!.
dzn z = 0
f(0) = P(0).
P(1) = Mean.
If a distribution is infinitely divisible, then if one takes the probability generating function to any positive
power, one gets the probability generating function of another member of the same family of
distributions. Examples of infinitely divisible distributions include: Poisson, Negative Binomial,
Compound Poisson, Compound Negative Binomial, Normal, Gamma.
Factorial Moments (Section 10)
nth factorial moment = (n) = E[X(X-1) .. (X+1-n)].
(n) =
dn P(z)
.
dzn z = 1
P(1) = E[X].
P(1) = E[X(X-1)].
a
-q/(1-q)
Poisson
Negative Binomial
Distribution
Binomial
b
(m+1)q/(1-q)
/(1+)
(r-1)/(1+)
Variance
mq(1-q)
Poisson
Negative Binomial
r(1+)
Thinning by factor of t
(1-q)m
e
Mean
mq
Distribution
f(0)
1/(1+)r
Binomial
q tq
m nm
Poisson
Negative Binomial
r nr
Y
Binomial(q, m2 )
X+Y
Binomial(q, m1 + m2 )
Poisson( 1)
Poisson( 2)
Poisson( 1 + 2)
Negative Binomial(, r1 )
Negative Bin.(, r2 )
Negative Bin.(, r1 + r2 )
Poisson
Negative Binomial
f(k)
is a distribution on 1, 2, 3, ....
1 - f(0)
x = 1, 2, 3,...
x = 1, 2, 3,...
The moments of a zero-truncated distribution are given in terms of those of the corresponding untruncated
distribution, f, by: ETruncated[Xn ] =
Ef[Xn ]
.
1 - f(0)
1+
The Logarithmic Distribution has support on the positive integers: f(x) =
.
x ln(1+)
M
pM
0 , pk
= f(k)
1 - pM
0
1 - f(0)
t - 1 e - t
dt
t - 1e - t /
dt , for 0 , 0.
() = (-1)(-1)
() = ( -1)!
t - 1 e - t / dt
= () .
t - 1 e- t
dt / ().