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Semiconductors
Physics Project..
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Physicssemiconductorsproject
Aashirwad
jindal
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Physicssemiconductorsproject
Physicssemiconductorsproject
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itsacompleteprojectonsemiconductors...ujustnedtosaveitandhavefunitsperfectatits
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Introduction
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History..
VishalTrivedi,C.E.O.atNike
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Let's begin this journey into the world of semiconductors with a look at
the history books. In the early 1900s, not much was known of the world
at an atomic level, and even less so at the subatomic level. Physics, to a
large extent, still calmly followed classical rules. But new discoveries
HaritSharma like Rntgen's x rays, Thomson's electron and Rutherford's discovery
2monthsago of the atomic nucleus
made it clear that new rules were needed. Scientists
like Planck, Einstein, Bohr,Pauli and Heisenberg, to name a few, all
contributed to the development and understanding necessary for the
creation of the new paradigm of quantum physics. The development of
vermaakash1999quantum physics also laid the ground for 'Solid State Physics' which is a
3monthsago discipline explaining the internal atomic structure and the electronic
properties of the materials that we see in our everyday life such as
metals, plastics, glass, etc.
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Physicssemiconductorsproject
project.
Nonotesforslide
History..
[Type
sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement to
the main document. It is often aligned on the left or right of the
Physicssemiconductorsproject
page, or located at the top or bottom. Use the Text Box Tools tab
1. 1.SemiconductorsPhysicsProject..AashirwadjindaltoheemamamIfweknewwhatitwas
to change the formatting of the sidebar text box.]
weweredoing,itwouldnotbecalledresearch,wouldit?AlbertEinstein1|physicsproject.
2. 2.Welcometothisbasictourofsemiconductorphysics!Twoofourmostexcellentguides,Sally
ConandJerryManium,willtakeyouthrough.SallyandJerryexplainthingsindifferentways.
Sallytriestobecorrect,andlikestosticktothefacts.Jerryiseasygoing,andusesexamplesfrom
theeverydayworldaroundus.letSallyandJerryexplainafewthings!2|physicsproject.
3. 3.Introduction3|physicsproject.
4. 4.History..Let'sbeginthisjourneyintotheworldofsemiconductorswithalookatthehistory
books.Intheearly1900s,notmuchwasknownoftheworldatanatomiclevel,andevenlesssoat
thesubatomiclevel.Physics,toalargeextent,stillcalmlyfollowedclassicalrules.Butnew
discoverieslikeRntgen'sxrays,Thomson'selectronandRutherford'sdiscoveryoftheatomic
nucleusmadeitclearthatnewruleswereneeded.ScientistslikePlanck,Einstein,Bohr,Pauliand
Heisenberg,tonameafew,allcontributedtothedevelopmentandunderstandingnecessaryforthe
creationofthenewparadigmofquantumphysics.Thedevelopmentofquantumphysicsalsolaid
thegroundfor'SolidStatePhysics'whichisadisciplineexplainingtheinternalatomicstructure
andtheelectronicpropertiesofthematerialsthatweseeinoureverydaylifesuchasmetals,
plastics,glass,etc.4|physicsproject.
5. 5.History..[Typesidebarcontent.Asidebarisastandalonesupplementtothemaindocument.Itis
oftenalignedontheleftorrightofthepage,orlocatedatthetoporbottom.UsetheTextBox
Toolstabtochangetheformattingofthesidebartextbox.]5|physicsproject.
6. 6.ElectricityBeforewestart,itwouldbeagoodideatoclarifywhatelectricityis.Electricitycan
beseenasastreamofelectrons.Electronsaretinyparticleswithanegativecharge.So,roughly
explained,electricityisastreamofelectronsflowingfromonepointtoanother.Agoodwayto
explainanelectriccurrentpassingthroughacablewouldbetoimagineapipefilledwithmarbles
thatexactlyfitthepipe.Ifwepushamarbleintothepipeinoneend,themotionwouldbe
distributed,eachmarblepushingitsneighbor,sothatalmostinstantlyamarbleintheotherend
wouldbepushedoutofthepipe.6|physicsproject.
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7. 7.Conductivity..!![Typesidebarcontent.Asidebarisastandalonesupplementtothemain
document.Itisoftenalignedontheleftorrightofthepage,orlocatedatthetoporbottom.Use
theTextBoxToolstabtochangetheformattingofthesidebartextbox.]7|physicsproject.
8. 8.Whysemiconductors..???8|physicsproject.
9. 9.Semiconductingmaterials..!!Semiconductorscanbemadeofasinglematerialoracombination
ofseveraldifferentmaterials.Inearlysemiconductordevicesgermaniumwasoftenused.However
intoday'ssemiconductorindustry,siliconiscommonlyused.SiliconisveryeasytofindinNature.
Ordinarysand,likeonthebeachorinthedesertforexample,isnothingmorethanonesilicon
5|physics project.
atomcombinedwithtwooxygenatoms.However,ifyouwantsiliconinitspureformsuitablefor
theproductionof,forinstance,computerchipsithastobepurifiedinacarefullymonitored
process.Oneofthemainreasonsforthepopularityofsiliconisthatitisstableandcanbeheated
toaratherhighdegreewithoutloosingitsmaterialcharacteristics.Thismeansthatengineerscan
besureitwillperformaccordingtotheirplans,evenunderquiteextremeconditions.9|physics
project.
10. 10.Semiconductingmaterialscont.[Typesidebarcontent.Asidebarisastandalonesupplement
tothemaindocument.Itisoftenalignedontheleftorrightofthepage,orlocatedatthetopor
bottom.UsetheTextBoxToolstabtochangetheformattingofthesidebartextbox.]Justtomake
sureweavoidmisunderstandings,whenwetalkaboutsilicon,wedon'tmeansiliconespelledwith
an"e"attheend,'causethatisamaterialmostlyknownforitsuseinhumanimplants.To
understandtheprinciplesofsemiconductors,itisgoodtofirstunderstandthebasicsofatomsand
energylevelswithinatoms.Sothat'swherewe'regoingtostart.10|physicsproject.
11. 11.Siliconanditsmolecules..IfwelookatthesolidmaterialofSiliconwewillseethatitisbuilt
fromahugenumberofSiliconatomsthatarebroughttogether.Whentheatomsinteractwitheach
Before we start, it would be a good idea to clarify what
other,theatomicshellsofeachatominteractswiththeatomicshellsofneighboringatoms.Onan
electricity is. Electricity can be seen as a stream of
energyscale,theoverlappingenergyshellsofalltheseparateatomsformenergybandsthatare
electrons. Electrons are tiny particles with a negative
similartotheenergyshellsinthesingleatom.Betweenthebandsnoelectronsareallowed.Ina
charge. So, roughly explained, electricity is a stream of
simplifiedway,itisalmostasifthesolidmaterialisanenlargementofthesingleatom.11|phys
electrons flowing from one point to another.
icsproject.
12. 12.Bandsandtheirtheories...Tocontinueourjourney,youdon'tneedtofullyunderstandwhat
Sallyjustsaid.Butwhatyoudoneedtounderstandis,thatthehighestenergybandthatisoccupied
byelectronsinamaterialiscalledthevalenceband,justlikeinthesingleatomwherethehighest
shelloccupiedbyelectronsiscalledthevalenceshell.Thebandwithenergyonestephigherthan
thevalencebandistheconductionband.Theenergygapbetweenthesetwobands,whereno
electronsareallowed,iscalledthebandgap.Ifyouthinkoftheenergybandsasstepsinastaircase
thenthebandgapistheareabetweenthesteps.Youcanputyourfootonthefirststepofthestairs
andyoucanputitonthesecond,butyoucanneverputit12|physicsproject.
13. 13.Bandsandtheirtheories...contsomewherebetweenthefirstandsecond.13|physicspr
oject.
14. 14.Aelectronholepair..!!Averyimportantfeatureofthesemiconductormaterialistheelectron
A good way to explain an electric current passing through a
holepair.Togetasemiconductortoconductacurrent,wemustmakeanelectronjumpfroman
cable would be to imagine a pipe filled with marbles that
occupiedtoanunoccupiedenergylevel.Whenitdoesthisitleavesahole(anemptystate).This
exactly fit the pipe. If we push a marble into the pipe in one
holecanbefilledbyanotherelectron,whichitselfleavesanewhole.Therefore,wecouldsaythat
end, the motion would be distributed, each marble pushing
boththeholeandtheelectroncontributetotheconductivityastheymovearoundinthematerial.
its neighbor, so that almost instantly a marble in the other
Theholeislikeapositivecharge(lackofnegative),theelectronisnegative.It'salittlebitlikethis
end would be pushed out of the pipe.
simplepuzzlegamewhereyoumovepiecesaroundtoformanimage.Themovingpieces
correspondtotheelectrons,ofcourse.14|physicsproject.
15. 15.ConductionindifferenttypesofmaterialsAsmentionedearlier,thesemiconductorhasa
conductingcapacitysomewherebetweentheconductorandtheinsulator.Ifwelookcloseratthe
materialswecanseewhytheybehavelikethis.Beforewegoon,notethatcontrarytowhatits
namemaysuggest,theconductionbandisnottheonlybandwhereconductionofacurrentmay
Electricity
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occur.Conductionisequallypossibleinthevalenceband.Inagoodconductorlikeametal,the
highestenergybandwithelectrons(valenceband)isonlypartiallyfilled.Thismeansthatthe
electronscanaccelerate.Inotherwords,theygainenergysothattheycantransferto15|physic
6|physics project.
sproject.
16. 16.Conductionindifferenttypesofmaterialshigherenergylevelsthatareempty.Simplyput,in
aconductorthereisplentyofroomfortheelectronstojumpfromanoccupiedstatetoanempty
one.IfyoufeltthatSally'sexplanationoftheconductionpropertiesindifferentmaterialswas
crystalclear,youcanskipthefollowingpart.Butifyou'restillalittleunsureofhowitworks,I
willtrytoshowyouanotherwayoflookingatthisphenomenon.Tohelpmyexplanation,Iam
goingtousetheunrealisticcupwiththewaterfilledcompartmentsagain.Thecompartmentsequal
[Type sidebar content. A sidebar is a standalone supplement to
Conductivity..!!
theenergybandsofthematerialandthewater16|physicsproject.
the main document. It is often aligned on the left or right of the
17. 17.Conductionindifferenttypesofmaterialsequalstheelectrons.Thistimethecuponlyhas
page, or located at the top or bottom. Use the Text Box Tools tab
twocompartments,oneforthevalencebandandonefortheconductionband.Inaconductor,the
valencebandisonlypartiallyfilled.Thismeansthat,inourcup,wearegoingtohavethevalence
to change the formatting of the sidebar text box.]
compartmenthalffilledwithwater.Ifwetipthecupfromsidetoside,wewillseethatitiseasy
forthewatertomovebackandforth,justasitiseasyfortheelectronstomovewithinthe
conductor.Asemiconductoratlowtemperatureisaninsulatorbecausethereisnoplaceforthe
electronstogoto.Thevalencecompartmentisfilledandnomatterhowwetipthecupthereisno
roomforthewatertomoveinto.Atroomtemperature,theheat(energy)makestheatomsvibrate
slightly,enoughforafewoftheelectronstobreaktheirbondsandjumpintothe17|physicsp
roject.
18. 18.Conductionindifferenttypesofisastandalone[Typesidebarcontent.Asidebarmaterials
contsupplementtothemaindocument.Itisoftenalignedontheleftorrightofthepage,or
locatedatthetoporbottom.UsetheTextBoxToolstabtochangetheformattingofthesidebar
textbox.]conductionband.Ifwetakesomewater(electrons)fromthevalencebandandmoveitto
theconductionband,wewillhaveplaceforthewater(electrons)tomoveinbothbands.Ifwetip
ourcup,waterwillmovebothinthevalenceandconductionband.Thus,inasemiconductorat
roomtemperature,asmallcurrentwillflow.Inaninsulator,thevalencebandiscompletelyfilled,
andasaresultnoelectronscanmove.Inthecup,nowaterwillmovenomatterhowwetipit.The
bandgapbetweenthevalenceandtheconductionbandishuge.Tomovewater(electrons)from
ourvalencecompartmenttotheconductioncompartment,wewouldneedtoaddsuchanamountof
energythatourcup(material)wouldbeclosetobreakingbeforeanywater(electrons)wouldbegin
tomovebetweenthecompartments.18|physicsproject.
19. 19.DopingDoping..cont..Nowwearegoingtotalkaboutdoping.Maybethewordmakesyou
thinkofathletestakingillegaldrugstoperformbetter.Althoughdopinginsportsisoutrageous,the
parallelbetweenthatanddopingofsemiconductorsisnottoofarfetched.Inbothcasesyouhave
somethingpure,likeanathleteorasemiconductingmaterial,andaddsomethingforeigntoitto
changeitsperformance.So,intheprocessofdopingyouaddatinyamountofatomsfromanother
materialtothepuresemiconductor.Bydoingso,youcandrasticallyincreaseitsabilitytoconduct
acurrent.Therearetwoformsofdoping,pandn.pstandsforpositiveandnfornegative.Finally,
twowordsthataregoodtoknow:apurenondopedsemiconductoriscalledintrinsic,whilea
dopedsemiconductormaterialiscalledextrinsic.19|physicsproject.
20. 20.Puresemiconductors..Beforewelookatexamplesofdopedsemiconductors,let'slookathow
thesiliconatomsinpuresiliconinteracttoformthecrystalstructureofthematerial.Inpure
silicon,eachatomhasfourvalenceelectronsandthesearesharedwithfourneighboringsilicon
atomstomakefourdoublebonds.Noweachatomwillhaveacompletelyfilledvalenceshellof
eightelectrons.Atlowtemperaturethisbondisverystable,completelyfillingthevalenceband
andthusmakingconductionimpossible.Hereisamodelofthestructureofpuresilicon:Inapure
7|physics project.
semiconductoratlowtemperature,thevalencelayeriscompletelyfilledwithelectronsandthe
conductionbandisempty.Thatwouldbeequaltoonefilledandoneemptycompartmentinmy
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cup.Thewater(electrons)can'tmovebecausethereisnoemptyspace.20|physicsproject
.
21. 21.Pdopingpdopingiswhenyouaddatomswithlessvalenceelectronstothesemiconductorso
thatthematerialgetsashortageofelectronsinthecrystalbonds.Thiswaypositiveholesthatcan
Why semiconductors..???
transportcurrentareformed.Thematerialsthataddholesarecalledacceptorsbecausetheyaccept
electronsfromthesurroundingatoms.Inaptypesemiconductorthemajorcarrierofcurrentare
theholes,nottheelectrons.Thepinpdopingstandsforpositive.Thisisbecausecomparedtothe
atomsinthesemiconductormaterialtheaddedatomshavefewernegativevalenceelectrons.Inthe
pdopedsemiconductorthehigherconductionbandisempty,buttherewillbeholesinthevalence
band.Inthecup,thismeansthatweremovesomewaterfromthevalencecompartment.Inother
words,weformairbubbles(positiveholes)inthewater.Nowifwetipthecup,thereisroomfor
thewater(electrons)tomoveinonedirectionandforthecreatedholes(lackofelectrons)tomove
intheoppositedirection(justlikebubbleswoulddoinwater).21|physicsproject.
22. 22.NdopingIntheprocessofndopingyouaddatomswithoneextravalenceelectrontothe
puresemiconductingmaterial.Thiscreatesasituationwherethereareextraelectronsthatarejust
looselyboundinthecrystal.Theamountofenergyneededtogettheseelectronstojumptothe
conductionbandsothatacurrentmaypassisverysmall.Thematerialsthataddelectronsare
calleddonors.Thisissimplybecausetheydonateelectronstothesemiconductor.Inthentype
semiconductorthemajorcarrierofcurrentisthenegativeelectrons.Theninndopingstandsfor
negative.Thisisbecausecomparedtotheatomsinthesemiconductormaterialtheaddedatoms
havemorenegativevalenceelectrons.Inthendopedsemiconductor,thevalencebandisfullso
thereisnoroomfortheelectronstomovethere.Instead,theextraelectronsmoveintothe
conductionband.Inourcup,wecanseethatnowaterwillmoveinthefullvalencecompartment.
Instead,theextrawater(electrons)addedwillmovewithintheconductioncompartment.22|phy
sicsproject.
23. 23.SemiconductorsthefutureInaworldwherecomputersbecomefasterandfastereachyear,
semiconductorcomponents,likechipsandtransistors,mustbemadesmallerandsmaller.This
meansthatwewilleventuallyreachalimitonhowmuchfasterandmoreeffectivetheSilicon
basedtechniquecanbemade(infact,devicesoperatingwithjustasingleelectronhavealready
beendemonstrated)."Whathappensthen?"youmightaskyourself.Wellwedon'tknowforsure,
buttoday'sscientistsareworkinghardtofindnewmaterialsortoimproveoldones.Inthefuture,
largemoleculesmightdotheworkthattransistorsdotoday.ThisfieldiscalledMolecular
Electronics.Sohopefully(ifyoulikeinformationtechnology,thatis)computerscancontinueto
evolveforalongtimetocome.23|physicsproject.
24. 24.CircuitdiagramCharacteristicsoftransistor..Transistorasamplifier.Transistorasswitch24
|physicsproject.
25. 25.Circuitdiagrams..Fullwaverectifier.halfwaverectifier.25|physicsproject.
26. 26.CircuitdiagramlogicgatesIntegratedcircuit26|physicsproject.
27. 27.27|physicsproject.
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GurpawanMand
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If we look at the solid material
18,190
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that
brought
When
interact
withare
each
other, together.
the atomic
shellsthe
ofatoms
each atom
interacts with the atomic shells of neighboring atoms.
On an energy scale, the overlapping energy shells of
all the separate atoms form energy bands that are
Physicsinvestigatoryproject
similar to the energy shells in the single atom.
mihika13
Between the bands no electrons are allowed. In a
43,059
simplified way, it is almost as if the solid material is
an enlargement of the single atom.
Semiconductorphysics
speakingtechnology
10,118
Opticalfibersphysicsproject
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10,105
11 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
Physicsproject
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13 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
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A electronhole pair..!!
Publicclipboardsfeaturingthisslide
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It's a little bit like this simple puzzle game where you
move pieces around to form an image. The moving pieces
correspond to the electrons, of course.
14 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
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In a good conductor like a metal, the highest energy band with electrons
(valence band) is only partially filled. This means that the electrons can
accelerate. In other words, they gain energy so that they can transfer to
15 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
higher energy levels that are empty. Simply put, in a conductor there is
plenty of room for the electrons to jump from an occupied state to an
empty one.
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equals the electrons. This time the cup only has two
compartments, one for the valence band and one for the
conduction band.
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Conduction
[Type
sidebar
in content.
differentAtypes
sidebar
of materials
is a standalone
cont supplement to
the main document. It is often aligned on the left or right of the
page, or located at the top or bottom. Use the Text Box Tools tab
to change the formatting of the sidebar text box.]
conduction band. If we take some water (electrons)
from the valence band and move it to the conduction
band, we will have place for the water (electrons) to
move in both bands. If we tip our cup, water will
move both in the valence and conduction band. Thus,
in a semiconductor at room temperature, a small
current will flow.
18 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
Doping
Doping..cont..
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19 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
Pure semiconductors..
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P doping
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called
acceptors
because
electronsthe
from
the
surrounding
atoms.
In a p-they
type accept
semiconductor
major
carrier of current are the holes, not the electrons.
Ndoping
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22 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
Semiconductorsthe future
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23 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
Circuit diagram
Characteristics of transistor..
Transistor as amplifier.
Transistor as switch
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24 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
Circuit diagrams..
Full wave rectifier.
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25 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
Circuit diagram
logic gates
Integrated circuit
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26 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
27 | p h y s i c s p r o j e c t .
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