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Commercial
Propane
Commercial
Butane
Vapour Pressure,Psig
70oF(21.1oC)
124
31
100oF(38oC)
192
59
130oF(54oC)
286
97
Specific Gravity
Of Liquid,60/60o
0.509
0.582
Intial Boiling
Point At 1 Bar
o
F(oC)
-51(-47.4)
15
Dew Point At 1
Bar oF(oC)
-46(-44.6)
24
Sp.ht.Liquid At 60oF,15.6oC
Btu/lb(oF)
0.588
0.549
Kj/(kg)(0C)
2.462
2.299
2.4
1.9
Lower Limits
9.6
8.6
185
165
Kj/(kg)
430.3
383.8
21,550
21,170
Btu/ft3 Of Gas
2,560
3,350
Kj/(kg) Of Liquid
50,125
49,241
Kj/m3 Of Gas
9,538
12,482
LPG Production
Methods of Extraction of LPG from NG
Compression and cooling.
Adsorption.
Absorption.
Cryogenic process:
Refrigeration by direct expansion based on Joul Thomson effect.
Cascade refrigeration using (C3) as refrigerant.
Turbo expander
Gasoline /Motor Spirit[19,20]
Production of Gasoline
Fig:1.15
Gasoline Specifications
Most important properties wide greatest effects on engine performance
are: Reid vapor pressure,Boiling range,and Antiknock characteristics.
The Reid vapor pressure is approximately the vapor pressure of the
gasoline at 100 F (38 C) in absolute units (ASTM designation D-323).
The Reid vapor pressure (RVP) and boiling range of gasoline governs ease
of starting,engine warm-up,rate of acceleration,loss by crankcase
dilution,mileage economy,and tendency toward vapor lock.
Engine warm-up time is affected by the percent distilled at 158 F
(70 C) and the 90% ASTM distillation temperature.
Warm-up is expressed in terms of the distance operated to deveop
full power without excessive use of the choke.A two-to four-mile (3
to 7 km) warm-up is considered satisfactory.
Altitude affects several properties of gasoline, the most important of
which are losses by evaporation and octane requirement.
Octane number:requirement is greatly affected by altitude and,
for a constant spark advance, is about three units lower for each
1000 ft(305 m) of elevation.In practice, however the spark is
advanced at higher elevations to improve engine performance and
the net effect is to reduce the PON of the gasoline marketed by
about two numbers for a 5000- ft (1524-m) increase in elevation.
Octane Number[19,20]
Isomerisation:
For Ocatane Improvement
Reforming:
For Ocatane Improvement
Use Of Oxygenates For Octane Improvement
Table:1.6
Unit
India
New
Zealand
China
Taiwan
South
Africa
RON
Min
91
91/95
90/93/95
92/95/98
95/97
Sulphur
PPM Min
150
150
100
130
350/150
800
42
42
30 or
35
48/42
40
23 or
20 or 25
18
35
88(W)
59/59/61
45-75
Aromatics Vol%Max
Olefins
RVP
KPA
45 KPA
min
80/120/180 1000/1500
Gasoline
Gasoline/Motor spirit/Petrol
EUROI(92)
EUROII(96)
EUROIII(00)
EUROIV(05)
RON
95
95
95
95
MON
85
85
85
85
S% Wt,Max
0.05
0.05
0.015$
0.005
Bz.,%Vol.,
Max
5.0
5.0
1.0+
1.0
Arom.,%Vol.,
Max
42
35
Olef.,%Vol.,
Max
18
Lead.,
gm/litre
0.013
0.013
0.005
0.005
Polymer gasoline :
Manufactured by polymerizing olefinic hydrocarbons to produce higher
molecular weight olefins in the gasoline boiling range.
Refinery technology favors alkylation processes rather than
polymerization for two reasons:[19,20]
1- Larger quantities of higher octane product can be made from the light
olefins available
2- The alkylation product is paraffinic rather than olefinic, and olefins are
highly photo reactive and contribute to visual air pollution and ozone
production.
Alkylate gasoline :
It is the product of the reaction of isobutane with propylene, butylene, or
pentylene to produce branched-chain hydrocarbons in the gasoline
boiling range.
Alkylation of a given quantity of olefins produces twice the volume of high
octane motor fuel as can be produced by polymerization.
In addition, the blending octane (PON) of alkylate is higher and the
Jet fuel is blended for use by both commercial aviation and military
aircraft.
Also known as turbine fuel and there are several commercial and
military jet fuel specifications.
For most refineries the primary source of jet fuel blending stocks is
the straight-run kerosine fraction from the atmospheric crude unit
because
Kerosene (kerosine):also called paraffin or paraffin oil, is a
flammable pale-yellow or colorless oily liquid with a characteristic
odor.
It is obtained from petroleum and used for burning in lamps and
domestic heaters or furnaces, as a fuel or fuel component for jet
engines,and as a solvent for greases and insecticides.
Kerosene is intermediate in volatility between gasoline and gas
diesel oil. It is a medium oil distilling between 150 oC and 300
o
C(300 oF to 570 oF).(HC: C10-C14).
Kerosene has a flash point of about 25 oC (77 oF) and is suitable for
use as an illuminant when burned in a wide lamp.
Fuel oil :any liquid or liquid petroleum product that produces heat
when burned in a suitable container or that produces power when
burned in an engine.
Kerosine Composition
Jet A
JP-5
DERD
2494
JP-8
Aromatics,Vol%,Max
20
25
22.0
22.0
Combustion Prop
Smoke
Point,mm,min,or
25
19
25
Smoke
Point,mm,min,and
18v
19
20
Napthalenes,vol%,ma
x
3.0
3.0
3.0
10% Recovered
o
F(oC),max
400(205
)
400(205
)
401(205
)
401(205
)
50% Recovered
o
F(oC),max
report
report
report
report
FBP oF(oC),max
572(300
554(290
572(300
572(300
Distillation,D-86,oF(oC)
Flash point,oF(oC),min
100(38)
140(60)
100(38)
100(38)
Freeze
point,oF(oC),max
-40(-40)
-51(-46)
-52.6(47)
-52.6(47)
Sulfur,wt%,max
0.30
0.4
0.3
0.3
High speed engines above 1500 rpm, need high C.N 45-50.
No.2 diesel fuel is very similar to No. 2 fuel oil, and has a wider
boiling range than No.1.
It usually contains cracked stocks and may be blended from
naphtha, kerosine, and light cracked oils from the coker and the
fluid catalytic cracking unit.
Limiting specifications are flash point [125 F (52 C)], sulfur
content (0.05% max.), distillation range, cetane number or cetane
index (40 min.),percent aromatics, and cloud point.
PRODUCTION OF DIESEL
Fig:1.16
DISTILLATE BLENDING
Fig:1.17
Fuel Quality control
The main restrictions on diesel fuels limit sulfur and total aromatics
contents and gasoline restrictions.
Include not only sulfur and total aromatics contents but also specific
compound limits (e.g., benzene).
Limits on certain types of compounds (e.g., olefins), maximum Reid
vapor pressures.
Europe
S.N Attribute
O
s
New
Austral
Zeala
ia
nd
India (BIS)
Dir.98/70/
EEC
Jan04
Jan-02
Bhar
at II
Bhar
Bhar
at
at IV
III
Japa
n
Cetane
Number
51
49
48
51
51
Cetane
Index
47
46
46
46
46
Density @
15 oC
845
820860
820860
820860
820845
820845
860
KV @ 40
o
C
1.54.5
2.0-4.5
2.05.0
2.04.5
2.04.5
2.7
T 90 deg C
T 95 deg C
360
370
370
370
Total
Sulfur
50 & 10
3000*
500#
45
360
360
360
350
50
50/1
0
500
8
Flash Point
61
61.5
35/66
35
35
Polyaroma
tics
11
11
10
Water
Content
0.02
0.05
200
200
11
Lubricity
460
460
460#
460
460
11
Table:1.10
Diesel Specification
NO.1
NO.2
NO.4
Minimum Cetane 40
40
30
Sulphur
Current,wt%
0.5
2.0
Low
Diesel
0.5
Sulphur
500
ppm
Ultra
Low
Sulphur Diesel
15
ppm
540
550
640
NO.1
Mostly
From
Virgin
Stock."SuperDiesel"
Used For Auto & High
Speed Engines
NO.2
NO.4
Traditionally
Largest
Volume Produced.Used
For
Marine,Railroads,&
Other Low To Medium
Speed Power Plant
Ignition Delay
The time interval between injection and the onset of the pressure
rise.
Ditillate fuels having high cetane number will show a short ignition
delay period while those fuels with poor cetane number will give
long ignition delay period.
Self ignition temperature: low for paraffins (higher MW paraffins
have lower ignition temperature (desired).Aromatics have high self
ignition temperatures (undesired).
Rapid pressure rise results from the accumulation of fuel in the
combustion chamber during ignition delay period. And large number
of ignition points occurring throughout the fuel/air mixture
With long ignition delay time, rapid rapid pressure rise causes
uncontrollable inefficient engine smoking.
Rapid pressure rise results undesirable knocks, high stresses and
severe engine vibration (Diesel knocking).
Cetane number
Cetane Number
49
49
51
54
S% Wt.,Max
0.20
0.05
0.035
0.005
T95,Deg.c.Max
370
370
360
360
PAHs.,%Wt.,Max
11
11
Indirect
Influence
On
The
HEATING OILS
The principal distillate fuel oils: No. 1 and No. 2 fuel oils.
No. 1 fuel oil :very similar to kerosine, but generally has a higher
pour point and end point. Limiting specifications are distillation,
pour point, flash point, and sulfur content.
No. 2 fuel oil:very similar to No. 2 diesel fuel, contains cracked
stock, and is blended from naphtha, kerosine, diesel, and cracked
gas oils.Limiting specifications are sulfur content, pour point,
distillation, and flash point.
Table:1.12
NO.2
FlashPoint.oF(oC),min
100(38)
100(38)
PourPoint.oF(oC),max
9(-18)
28(-6)
NO.4
NO.6
130(55) 140(60)
28(-6)
Distillation TempoF(oC)
10% Recovered,
Max.
419(215)
90% Recovered,
Min.
540(282)
550(288) 640(388)
Max
Viscosity,mm2/s at 104oF(40oC)
Min
1.3
1.9
>5.5
Max
2.1
3.4
24.0
at 212oF(100oC)
Min
15.0
Max
50.0
Density,kg/m3 60oF(15oC)
Max (oAPI min)
850(35)
876(30)
RamsbottomCarbon
Residue On 10%
btms,wt%,max
0.15
0.35
Ash,wt%,max
0.10
Sulphur,wt%,max
0.50
0.50
0.05
0.05
0.50
2.00
Lube oils
Bitumen:
Residual fuel oil :composed of the heaviest parts of the crude and
is generally the fractionating tower bottoms from vacuum
distillation.
Critical specifications:viscosity and sulfur content. Sulfur content
specifications are generally set by the locality in which it is
burned.Only low sulfur fuel oils can be burned in some areas and
this trend will continue to expand.
Heavy fuel oils: with very low sulfur contents are much in demand
and sell at prices near those of the crude oils from which they are
derived.
Asphalt
Fig:1.18
Table:1.13
Biomass Feedstocks , Especially Cellulosic, are Cost
competitive with oil & gas
Energy Carrier
Cost/Difficulty of
Subsequent
Conversion
Price
Common $/GJ
Petroleum
Gasoline
$50/bbl
$8.80
$ 1.67/gala $13.80
Low
-
Natural gas
$7.5/ scf
$7.90
Low
Coal
$20/ton
$0.94
Moderate to high
Higher w/CO2 capture
Electricity
$0.04/kWh $11.10
Biomass
Soya oil
$0.23/lb
$13.80
Very low
Corn kernels
$2.25/ bu
$6.50
Low
Cellulosic crops
$50/Ton
$2.50
High now;
Cellulosic residues
< crops b
Wholesale
Fig:1.19
Table:1.14
Biomass Classification
Oxegenates
Generation
Process
Methanol
2nd
Thermal
Ethanol
1stand2nd
Biological or
Thermal
Buthanol
1stand2nd
Biological or
Thermal
Mixed
Alcohols
2nd
Thermal
DME
2nd
Thermal
Biodeisel
1st
Phys/Chemical
Synthetic
Diesel
2nd
Thermal(Long
Term Bio
Synthetic
Gasoline
2nd
Thermal
Hydrogen
1stand2nd
Thermal or
Biological
Hydrocarbons
References
1. http://www.astm.org/ABOUT/aboutASTM.html
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octane_rating
3. http://www.fueleconomy.gov/
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avgas
5. http://www.biodiesel.org/
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas
7. http://www.epa.gov/
8. http://www.efee.com/
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_oil
10.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel
11.
http://www.fueltesters.com/gasoline_octane_and_ethanol_E10.html
12.
http://www.opieoils.co.uk/p-1029-red-line-lead-substituteadditive.aspx
13.
http://enterprise.astm.org/filtrexx40.cgi?+REDLINE_PAGES/D
4814.htm
14.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFPA_704
15.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinery
16.
http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weo2010.pdf.
17.
http://www.iea.org/newsroomandevents/pressreleases/2005/
18.
http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/
19.
Rao, B.K.B.(1990). Modern Petroleum Refining Processes (2nd
Edition Ed.) Oxford & IBH Publishers. ISBN 81-204-0481-5.
20.
James H. Gary and Glenn E. Handwerk (2001). Petroleum
Refining: Technology and Economics (4th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 08247-0482-7.
21.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraffin
22.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir
23.
http://enterprise2.astm.org/DOWNLOAD/UOP375.10442341.pdf
24.
http://www.simtronics.com/catalog/spm/spm2700.htm
25.
http://www.alfalaval.com/industries/Oil-refinery/crudedistillation-unit/Pages/crude-distillation-unit.aspx
26.
James. G. Speight (2006). The Chemistry and Technology of
Petroleum (4th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-9067-2.
27.
Reza Sadeghbeigi (2000). Fluid Catalytic Cracking Handbook
(2nd ed.). Gulf Publishing. ISBN 0-88415-289-8.